Binoculars

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A typical Porro prism binocular design

Binoculars, field glasses or binocular telescopes are a pair of
identical or mirror-symmetrical telescopes mounted side-by-side and
aligned to point accurately in the same direction, allowing the viewer to
use both eyes with binocular vision when viewing distant objects. Most
are sized to be held using both hands, although there are much larger
types. Small, low-power binoculars for use at performance events are
known as opera glasses (see below). Many different abbreviations are
used for binoculars, including glasses and bins
Unlike a monocular telescope, binoculars give users a three-dimensional
image: the two views, presented from slightly different viewpoints to
each of the viewer's eyes, produce a merged view with depth
perception. There is no need to close or obstruct one eye to avoid
confusion, as is usual with monocular telescopes. The use of both eyes
also significantly increases the perceived visual acuity, even at distances
where depth perception is not apparent (such as when looking at
astronomical objects).
Contents
[hide]
 1 Optical design
o 1.1 Galilean binoculars
o 1.2 Prism binoculars
 1.2.1 Porro prism binoculars
 1.2.2 Roof prism binoculars
 1.2.3 Relative advantages of porro prism and roof prism binoculars
 2 Optical parameters
 3 Optical coatings
o 3.1 Anti-reflective coatings
o 3.2 Roof prism phase correction coating
o 3.3 Roof prism metallic mirror coating
 o 3.4 Roof prism dielectric mirror coating
o 3.5 Marketing terms used to denote coatings
 4 Mechanical design
o 4.1 Focusing and adjustment
o 4.2 Image stabilization
o 4.3 Alignment
 5 Applications
o 5.1 General use
o 5.2 Range Finding
o 5.3 Military
o 5.4 Astronomical
 6 Manufacturers
 7 See also
 8 Notes
 9 References

 10 External links

[edit] Optical design

Galilean binoculars

[edit] Galilean binoculars

Almost from the invention of the telescope in the 17th century the
advantages of mounting two of them side by side for binocular vision
seems to have been explored.[1] Most early binoculars used Galilean
optics; that is they used a convex objective and a concave eyepiece
lens. The Galilean design has the advantage of presenting an erect
image but has a narrow field of view and is not capable of very high
magnification. This type of construction is still used in very cheap
models and in opera glasses or theater glasses.

[edit] Prism binoculars

Porro-prism binoculars.
An improved image and higher magnification can be achieved in a
construction binoculars employing Keplerian optics, where the image
formed by the objective lens is viewed through a positive eyepiece lens
(ocular). This configuration has the disadvantage that the image is
inverted. There are different ways of correcting these disadvantages.

[edit] Porro prism binoculars

Double Porro prism design

Named after Italian optician Ignazio Porro who patented this image
erecting system in 1854 and later refined by makers like Carl Zeiss in
the 1890s,[1] binoculars of this type use a Porro prism in a double prism
Z-shaped configuration to erect the image. This feature results in
binoculars that are wide, with objective lenses that are well separated
but offset from the eyepieces. Porro prism designs have the added
benefit of folding the optical path so that the physical length of the
binoculars is less than the focal length of the objective and wider
spacing of the objectives gives better sensation of depth.

Abbe-Koenig "roof prism" design

[edit] Roof prism binoculars

Binoculars using roof prisms may have appeared as early as the 1870s
in a design by Achille Victor Emile Daubresse. [2][3] Most roof prism
binoculars use either the Abbe-Koenig prism (named after Ernst Karl
Abbe and Albert Koenig and patented by Carl Zeiss in 1905) or Schmidt-
Pechan prism (invented in 1899) designs to erect the image and fold the
optical path. They have objective lenses that are approximately in line
with the eyepieces.

[edit] Relative advantages of porro prism and roof prism

binoculars

Roof-prism binoculars.
Roof-prisms designs create an instrument that is narrower and more
compact than Porro prisms. There is also a difference in image
brightness. Porro-prism binoculars will inherently produce a brighter
image than roof-prism binoculars of the same magnification, objective
size, and optical quality, because the roof-prism design employs silvered
surfaces that reduce light transmission by 12% to 15%. Roof-prisms
designs also require tighter tolerances as far as alignment of their
optical elements (collimation). This adds to their expense since the
design requires them to use fixed elements that need to be set at a high
degree of collimation at the factory. Porro prisms binoculars occasionally
need their prism sets to be re-aligned to bring them into collimation. The
fixed alignment in roof-prism designs means the binoculars normally
won't need re-collimation.[4]

[edit] Optical parameters

This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve
the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (April 2009)
Parameters listed on the prism cover plate describing a 7 power magnification binocular
with a 50 mm Objective diameter and a 372-foot Field of view at 1000 yards.
Binoculars are usually designed for the specific application for which
they are intended. Those different designs create certain optical
parameters (some of which may be listed on the prism cover plate of the
binocular). Those parameters are:
Magnification — The ratio of the focal length of the eyepiece divided
into the focal length of the objective gives the linear magnifying power
of binoculars (sometimes expressed as "diameters"). A magnification of
factor 7, for example, produces an image as if one were 7 times closer to
the object. The amount of magnification depends upon the application
the binoculars are designed for. Hand-held binoculars have lower
magnifications so they will be less susceptible to shaking. A larger
magnification leads to a smaller field of view.
Objective diameter – The diameter of the objective lens determines
how much light can be gathered to form an image. It is usually
expressed in millimeters.
It is customary to categorize binoculars by the magnification × the
objective diameter; e.g. 7×50.
Field of view — The field of view of a binocular is determined by its
optical design. It is usually notated in a linear value, such as how many
feet (meters) in width will be seen at 1,000 yards (or 1,000 m), or in an
angular value of how many degrees can be viewed.
Exit pupil — Binoculars concentrate the light gathered by the objective
into a beam, the exit pupil, whose diameter is the objective diameter
divided by the magnifying power. For maximum effective light-gathering
and brightest image, the exit pupil should equal the diameter of the fully
dilated iris of the human eye— about 7 mm, reducing with age. If the
cone of light streaming out of the binocular is larger than the pupil it is
going into, any light larger than the pupil is wasted in terms of providing
information to the eye. In daytime use the human pupil is typically
dilated about 3 mm, which is about the exit pupil of a 7x21 binocular. A
much larger 7x50 binocular will produce a cone of light bigger than the
pupil it is entering, and this light will, in the day, be wasted. It is
therefore seemingly pointless to carry around a larger instrument.
However, a larger exit pupil makes it easier to put the eye where it can
receive the light: anywhere in the large exit pupil cone of light will do.
This ease of placement helps avoid vignetting, which is a darkened or
obscured view that occurs when the light path is partially blocked. And,
it means that the image can be quickly found which is important when
looking at birds or game animals that move rapidly. A narrow exit pupil
binocular may also be fatiguing because the instrument must be held
exactly in place in front of the eyes to provide a useful image. Finally,
many people use their binoculars at dusk, in overcast conditions, and at
night, when their pupils are larger. Thus the daytime exit pupil is not a
universally desirable standard. For comfort, ease of use, and flexibility in
applications, larger binoculars with larger exit pupils are satisfying
choices even if their capability is not fully used by day.
Eye relief — Eye relief is the distance from the rear eyepiece lens to the
exit pupil or eye point[5]. It is the distance the observer must position his
or her eye behind the eyepiece in order to see an unvignetted image.
The longer the focal length of the eyepiece, the greater the eye relief.
Binoculars may have eye relief ranging from few millimeters to 2.5
centimeters or more. Eye relief can be particularly important for
eyeglass wearers. The eye of an eyeglass wearer is typically further from
the eye piece which necessitates a longer eye relief in order to still see
the entire field of view. Binoculars with short eye relief can also be hard
to use in instances where it is difficult to hold them steady.

[edit] Optical coatings

[edit] Anti-reflective coatings

Main article: Anti-reflective coating

U.S. Navy binocular

Since a binocular can have 16 air-to-glass surfaces, with light lost at
every surface, optical coatings can significantly affect image quality.
When light strikes an interface between two materials of different
refractive index (e.g., at an air-glass interface), some of the light is
transmitted, some reflected. In any sort of image-forming optical
instrument (telescope, camera, microscope, etc.), ideally no light should
be reflected; instead of forming an image, light which reaches the
viewer after being reflected is distributed in the field of view, and
reduces the contrast between the true image and the background.
Reflection can be reduced, but not eliminated, by applying optical
coatings to interfaces. Each time light enters or leaves a piece of glass;
about 5% is reflected back. This "lost" light bounces around inside the
binocular, making the image hazy and hard to see. Lens coatings
effectively lower reflection losses, which finally results in a brighter and
sharper image. For example, 8x40 binoculars with good optical coatings
will yield a brighter image than uncoated 8x50 binoculars. Light can also
be reflected from the interior of the instrument, but it is simple to
minimize this to negligible proportions. Contrast is also improved by
good coating due to the partial elimination of internal reflections.
A classic lens-coating material is magnesium fluoride; it reduces
reflections from 5% to 1%. Modern lens coatings consist of complex
multi-layers and reflect only 0.25% or less to yield an image with
maximum brightness and natural colors.

[edit] Roof prism phase correction coating

In binoculars with roof prisms multiple internal reflections in a roof prism

cause a polarization-dependent phase-lag of the transmitted light, in a
manner similar to a Fresnel rhomb.
The light path through the roof prism is split in two paths that reflect on
either side of the roof ridge. One half of the light reflects from roof
surface 1 to roof surface 2. The other half of the light reflects from roof
surface 2 to roof surface 1. During any reflection, including total internal
reflection inside a prism, unpolarized light becomes partially polarized.
During subsequent reflections the direction of this polarization vector is
changed but it is changed differently for each path in a manner similar
to a Foucault pendulum. When the light following the two paths are
recombined the polarization vectors of each path do not coincide. The
angle between the two polarization vector called the phase shift, or the
geometric phase, or the Berry phase.
In a roof prism without a phase correcting coating interference between
the two paths with different geometric phase results in a varying
intensity distribution in the image reducing apparent contrast and
resolution compared to a porro prism erecting system. This effect can be
seen in the elongation of the Airy disk[6] in the same direction as the
crest of the roof.
The unwanted interference effects are suppressed by vapour depositing
a special dielectric coating known as a phase-correction coating or P-
coating on the roof surfaces of the roof prism. This coating corrects for
the difference in geometric phase between the two paths so both have
effectively the same phase shift and no interference degrades the
image.
Binoculars using either a Schmidt-Pechan roof prism or a Abbe-Koenig
roof prism benefit from phase coatings. Porro prism binoculars do not
recombine beams after following two paths with different phase and so
do not benefit from a phase coating.

[edit] Roof prism metallic mirror coating

Main article: Mirror

In binoculars that use a Schmidt-Pechan roof prism some surfaces of the
roof prism must be mirror coated for efficient reflection since the light is
incident at one of the glass-air boundaries at an angle less than the
critical angle so total internal reflection does not occur. Without a mirror
coating most of that light would be lost. Typically an aluminum mirror
coating (reflectivity of 87% to 93%) or silver mirror coating (reflectivity
of 95% to 98%) is used.
In older binocular designs silver mirror coatings were used but these
coatings oxidized and lost reflectivity over time in unsealed binoculars.
Aluminum mirror coatings were used in later unsealed designs because
it did not tarnish even though it has a lower reflectivity than silver.
Modern binocular designs use either aluminum or silver. Silver is used in
modern high-quality designs as modern binoculars are sealed and
nitrogen or argon filled so the silver mirror coating doesn't tarnish in an
inert atmosphere.[7]
Porro prism binoculars and roof prism binoculars using the Abbe-Koenig
roof prism do not use mirror coatings because these prisms reflect with
100% reflectivity using total internal reflection in the prism.

[edit] Roof prism dielectric mirror coating

Main article: Dielectric mirror

A dielectric coating on a Schmidt-Pechan roof prism causes the prism
surfaces to act as a dielectric mirror. The non-metallic dielectric
reflective coating is formed from several multilayers of alternating high
and low refractive index materials deposited on the roof prism's
reflective surfaces. Each single multilayer reflects a narrow band of light
frequencies so several multilayers, each tuned to a different color, are
required to reflect white light. This multi-multilayer coating increases
reflectivity from the prism surfaces by acting as a distributed Bragg
reflector. A well-designed dielectric coating can provide a reflectivity of
more than 99% across the visible light spectrum. This reflectivity is
much improved compared to either an aluminum mirror coating (87% to
93%) or silver mirror coating (95% to 98%).
Porro prism binoculars and roof prism binoculars using the Abbe-Koenig
roof prism do not use dielectric coatings because these prisms reflect
with very high reflectivity using total internal reflection in the prism
rather than requiring a mirror coating.

[edit] Marketing terms used to denote coatings

The presence of any coatings is typically denoted on binoculars by the

following terms:
 coated optics: one or more surfaces are anti-reflective coated with a single-layer
coating.
 fully coated: all air-to-glass surfaces are anti-reflective coated with a single-layer
coating. Plastic lenses, however, if used, may not be coated[citation needed].
 multi-coated: one or more surfaces have anti-reflective multi-layer coatings.
 fully multi-coated: all air-to-glass surfaces are anti-reflective multi-layer coated.
 phase-coated or P-coating: the roof prism has a phase-correcting coating
 aluminum-coated: the roof prism mirrors are coated with an aluminum coating. The
default if a mirror coating isn't mentioned.
 silver-coated: the roof prism mirrors are coated with a silver coating
 dielectric-coated: the roof prism mirrors are coated with a dielectric coating

[edit] Mechanical design

[edit] Focusing and adjustment

Binoculars to be used to view objects that are not at a fixed distance

must have a focusing arrangement. Traditionally, two different
arrangements have been used to provide focus. Binoculars with
"independent focus" require the two telescopes to be focused
independently by adjusting each eyepiece, thereby changing the
distance between ocular and objective lenses. Binoculars designed for
heavy field use, such as military applications, traditionally have used
independent focusing. Because general users find it more convenient to
focus both tubes with one adjustment action, a second type of binocular
incorporates "central focusing", which involves rotation of a central
focusing wheel. In addition, one of the two eyepieces can be further
adjusted to compensate for differences between the viewer's eyes
(usually by rotating the eyepiece in its mount). Because the focal change
effected by the adjustable eyepiece can be measured in the customary
unit of refractive power, the diopter, the adjustable eyepiece itself is
often called a "diopter." Once this adjustment has been made for a given
viewer, the binoculars can be refocused on an object at a different
distance by using the focusing wheel to move both tubes together
without eyepiece readjustment.
Binocular with internal elements visible
There are also "focus-free" or "fixed-focus" binoculars. They have a
depth of field from a relatively large closest distance to infinity, and
perform exactly the same as a focusing model of the same optical
quality (or lack of it) focused on the middle distance.
Zoom binoculars, while in principle a good idea, are generally considered
not to perform very well. The problem is that it is very difficult to
coordinate the magnification for both eyes precisely. When the
magnification is not perfectly matched, the user's eyes and brain will try
to compensate. After sustained viewing, this can cause eye strain and
fatigue. The sharper the optics are, the more precise matching is
needed, so successful zoom binoculars tend to be of lower optical
quality.
Most modern binoculars have hinged-telescope construction that
enables the distance between eyepieces to be adjusted to accommodate
viewers with different eye separation. This adjustment feature is lacking
on many older binoculars.

[edit] Image stabilization

Shake can be much reduced, and higher magnifications used, with

binoculars using image-stabilization technology. Parts of the instrument
which change the position of the image may be held steady by powered
gyroscopes or by powered mechanisms driven by gyroscopic or inertial
detectors, or may be mounted in such a way as to oppose and damp the
effect of shaking movements. Stabilization may be enabled or disabled
by the user as required. These techniques allow binoculars up to 20× to
be hand-held, and much improve the image stability of lower-power
instruments. There are some disadvantages: the image may not be quite
as good as the best unstabilized binoculars when tripod-mounted,
stabilized binoculars also tend to be more expensive and heavier than
similarly specified non-stabilised binoculars.

[edit] Alignment

Well-collimated binoculars, when viewed through human eyes and

processed by a human brain, should produce a single circular,
apparently three-dimensional image, with no visible indication that one
is actually viewing two distinct images from slightly different viewpoints.
Departure from the ideal will cause, at best, vague discomfort and visual
fatigue, but the perceived field of view will be close to circular anyway.
The cinematic convention used to represent a view through binoculars
as two circles partially overlapping in a figure-of-eight shape is not true
to life.
Misalignment is remedied by small movements to the prisms, often by
turning screws accessible without opening the binoculars, or by
adjusting the position of the objective via eccentric rings built into the
objective cell. Alignment is usually done by a professional although
instructions for checking binoculars for collimation errors and for
collimating them can be found on the Internet.

[edit] Applications
This section may contain original research or unverified claims. Please improve
the article by adding references. See the talk page for details. (April 2009)

[edit] General use

People in Orchid, Florida use binoculars for birdwatching.

Hand-held binoculars range from small 3 x 10 Galilean opera glasses,
used in theaters, to glasses with 7 to 12 diameters magnification and 30
to 50 mm objectives for typical outdoor use. Porro prism models
predominate although bird watchers and hunters tend to prefer, and are
prepared to pay for, the lighter but more expensive roof-prism models.
Many tourist attractions have installed pedestal-mounted, coin-operated
binoculars to allow visitors to obtain a closer view of the attraction. In
the United Kingdom, 20 pence often gives a couple of minutes of
operation, and in the United States, one or two quarters gives between
one-and-a-half to two-and-a-half minutes.
Coin-operated binocular
As many parents have discovered the importance of getting children
involved at an early age in outdoor activities such as bird or general
nature watching, more and more people are faced with selecting
binoculars appropriate for use by children. However conventional
binocular designs are not suitable for use by children due to
incompatible physical size, especially in regard to the interpupilary
distance measurement.[8] Particular attention should be paid to making
such a selection as a poorly suitable binocular can be off-putting to a
child's budding interest in the activity being encouraged.

[edit] Range Finding

Many binoculars have range finding reticle (scale) superimposed upon

the view. This scale allows the distance to the object to be estimate if
the objects height is known (or estimatable). The common mariner 7 x
50 binocular have these scales with the angle between marks equal to 5
mil[9]. One mil is equivalent to the angle between the top and bottom of
an object one meter in height at a distance of 1000 meters.
Therefore to estimate the distance to an object that is a known height
the formula is:

where:
 D is the Distance to the object in meters.
 OH is the known Object Height.
 Mil is the height of the object in number of Mil.
With the typical binocular 5 mil scale (each mark is 5 mil), a lighthouse
that is 3 marks high that is known to be 120 meters tall is 8000 meters
distance.

[edit] Military

Binoculars have a long history of military use. Galilean designs were

widely used up to the end of the 19th century when they gave way to
porro prism types. Binoculars constructed for general military use tend
to be more heavily ruggedized than their civilian counterparts. They
generally avoid more fragile center focus arrangements in favor of
independent focus, which also makes for easier, more effective
weatherproofing. Prism sets in military binoculars may have redundant
aluminized coatings on their prism sets to guarantee they don’t lose
their reflective qualities if they get wet. Military binoculars of the Cold
War era were sometimes fitted with passive sensors that detected active
IR emissions, while modern ones usually are fitted with filters blocking
laser beams used as weapons. Further, binoculars designed for military
usage may include a stadiametric reticle in one ocular in order to
facilitate range estimation.

Naval ship binocular

There are binoculars designed specifically for civilian and military use at
sea. Hand held models will be 5× to 7× but with very large prism sets
combined with eyepieces designed to give generous eye relief. This
optical combination prevents the image vignetting or going dark when
the binocular is pitching and vibrating relative to the viewer's eye. Large,
high-magnification models with large objectives are also used in fixed
mountings.
Very large binocular naval rangefinders (up to 15 meters separation of
the two objective lenses, weight 10 tons, for ranging World War II naval
gun targets 25 km away) have been used, although late-20th century
technology made this application redundant.

[edit] Astronomical
Binoculars are widely used by amateur astronomers; their wide field of
view making them useful for comet and supernova seeking (giant
binoculars) and general observation (portable binoculars). Some
binoculars in the 70 mm and larger range remain useful for terrestrial
viewing; true astronomical binocular designs (often 90 mm and larger)
typically dispense with prisms for correct image terrestrial viewing in
order to maximize light transmission. Such binoculars also have
removable eyepieces to vary magnification and are typically not
designed to be waterproof or withstand rough field use.
Ceres, Neptune, Pallas, Titan, and the Galilean moons of Jupiter are
invisible to the naked eye but can readily be seen with binoculars.
Although visible unaided in pollution-free skies, Uranus and Vesta
require binoculars for easy detection. 10×50 binoculars are limited to an
magnitude of +10 to +11 depending on sky conditions and observer
experience. Asteroids like Interamnia, Davida, Europa and, unless under
exceptional conditions Hygiea, are too faint to be seen with commonly
sold binoculars. Likewise too faint to be seen with most binoculars are
the planetary moons except the Galileans and Titan, and the dwarf
planets Pluto and Eris. Among deep sky objects, open clusters can be
magnificent, such as the bright double cluster (NGC 869 and NGC 884)
in the constellation Perseus, and globular clusters, such as M13 in
Hercules, are easy to spot. Among nebulae, M17 in Sagittarius and the
North American nebula (NGC 7000) in Cygnus are also readily viewed.

15x70 binocular.
Of particular relevance for low-light and astronomical viewing is the ratio
between magnifying power and objective lens diameter. A lower
magnification facilitates a larger field of view which is useful in viewing
large deep sky objects such as the Milky Way, nebula, and galaxies,
though the large exit pupil means some of the gathered light is wasted.
The large exit pupil will also image the night sky background, effectively
decreasing contrast, making the detection of faint objects more difficult
except perhaps in remote locations with negligible light pollution.
Binoculars geared towards astronomical uses provide the most satisfying
views with larger aperture objectives (in the 70 mm or 80 mm range).
Astronomy binoculars typically have magnifications of 12.5 and greater.
However, many of the objects in the Messier Catalog and other objects
of eighth magnitude and brighter are readily viewed in hand-held
binoculars in the 35 to 40 mm range, such as are found in many
households for birding, hunting, and viewing sports events. But larger
binocular objectives are preferred for astronomy because the diameter
of the objective lens regulates the total amount of light captured, and
therefore determines the faintest star that can be observed. Due to their
high magnification and heavy weight, these binoculars usually require
some sort of mount to stabilize the image. A magnification of ten (10x) is
usually considered the most that can be held comfortably steady without
a tripod or other mount.
Much larger binoculars have been made by amateur telescope makers,
essentially using two refracting or reflecting astronomical telescopes,
with mixed results. A very large professional instrument, although not
one that would normally be called binoculars, is the Large Binocular
Telescope in Arizona, USA, which produced its "First Light" image on
October 26, 2005. The LBT comprises two 8-meter reflector telescopes.
While not intended to be held to the eyes of a viewer, it uses two
telescopes to view the same object, giving higher resolving power than a
single instrument of the same light-gathering power, and allowing
interferometric use.

[edit] Manufacturers
Some notable binocular manufacturers as of 2008. Sorted in alphabetical
order:
 Bausch & Lomb (USA) – has not made binoculars since 1976, when they licensed
their name to Bushnell, Inc., who made binoculars under the Bausch & Lomb name
until the license expired, and was not renewed, in 2005.
 Brunton, Inc. (USA)
 Bushnell Corporation (USA)
 Canon Inc. (Japan) – I.S. series: porro variants?
 Celestron
 Fujinon (Japan) – FMTSX, FMTSX-2, MTSX series: porro.
 Leica Camera (Germany) – Ultravid, Duovid, Geovid: all are roof prism.
 Leupold & Stevens, Inc. (USA)
 Meade Instruments (USA)– Glacier (roof prism), TravelView (porro), CaptureView
(folding roof prism), and Astro Series (roof prism). Also sells under the name
Bresser, Simmons, Weaver, Redfield, and Coronado[10].
 Minox
 Nikon Corporation (Japan) – EDG Series, High Grade series, Monarch series, RAII,
Spotter series: roof prism; Prostar series, Superior E series, E series, Action EX
series: porro.
 Pentax Corporation (Japan) – DCFED/SP/XP series: roof prism; UCF series:
inverted porro; PCFV/WP/XCF series: porro.
 Swarovski Optik[11]
 Vixen (telescopes) (Japan) – Apex/Apex Pro: roof prism; Ultima: porro.
 Vortex Optics (USA)
  Zeiss (Germany) – FL, Victory, Conquest: roof prism; 7×50 BGAT/T porro, 15×60
BGA/T porro, discontinued.

[edit] See also

 Anti-fogging treatment of optical surfaces
 Binoviewer

[edit] Notes
1. ^ a b Europa.com — The Early History of the Binocular
2. ^ groups.google.co.ke
3. ^ photodigital.net — rec.photo.equipment.misc Discussion: Achille Victor Emile
Daubresse, forgotten prism inventor
4. ^ Astronomy Hacks By Robert Bruce Thompson, Barbara Fritchman Thompson, chapter
1, page 34
5. ^ "Introduction to Optics 2nd ed.", pp.141-142, Pedrotti & Pedrotti, Prentice-Hall 1993
6. ^ http://www.zbirding.info/zbirders/blogs/sing/archive/2006/08/09/189.aspx
7. ^ http://www.zbirding.info/Truth/prisms/prisms.htm
8. ^ thebinocularsite.com - A Parent’s Guide to Choosing Binoculars for Children
9. ^ Binoculars.com — Marine 7 x 50 Binoculars. Bushnell
10. ^ [http://books.google.com/books?
id=VBV5wZBCttsC&pg=PA167&dq=Bresser+binoculars Intellectual property, by Gordon
V. Smith, Russell L. Parr, page 167
11. ^ www.regionhall.at - The Swarovski story

[edit] References
 Nightskyinfo.com, A Guide to Binoculars, Emil Neata
 The history of the telescope & the binocular, The First 300 Years of Binocular
Telescopes, Peter Abrahams, May 2002

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Binoculars

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binoculars"

Categories: Optical devices
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