OOPS USing Java

Here are concise, exam-focused notes covering key programming paradigms, Object-Oriented
Programming (OOP), and Java fundamentals:

Programming Paradigms Overview

1. Imperative Programming

• Definition: Focuses on how to perform tasks using statements that change a program's
state.

• Examples: C, Java.

2. Procedural Programming

• Definition: A subtype of imperative programming that structures code into procedures or

functions.

• Examples: C, Pascal.

3. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

• Definition: Organizes software design around data, or objects, rather than functions and
logic.

• Examples: Java, C++, Python.

4. Functional Programming

• Definition: Emphasizes the evaluation of functions and avoids changing states and
mutable data.

• Examples: Haskell, Scala.

5. Declarative Programming

• Definition: Expresses the logic of computation without describing its control flow.

• Examples: SQL, Prolog.

Basics of Object-Oriented Programming (OOP)

Key Concepts:

• Class: Blueprint for creating objects.

• Object: Instance of a class containing data and behavior.

• Encapsulation: Bundling data with methods that operate on that data.

• Abstraction: Hiding complex implementation details and showing only essential features.
• Inheritance: Mechanism where a new class derives properties from an existing class.

• Polymorphism: Ability of different classes to be treated as instances of the same class

through a common interface.

Features of OOP

• Modularity: Code is organized into distinct modules.

• Reusability: Existing code can be reused in new applications.

• Scalability: Systems can grow and manage complexity effectively.

• Maintainability: Easier to update and manage codebases.

Merits of OOP

• Promotes code reuse through inheritance.

• Enhances code organization and readability.

• Facilitates easier debugging and testing.

• Supports real-world modeling.

Demerits of OOP

• Can lead to larger program sizes.

• May have slower performance due to abstraction layers.

• Requires a steep learning curve for beginners.

• Not always suitable for all types of problems.

Applications of OOP

• Graphical User Interface (GUI) applications.

• Real-time systems.

• Simulation and modeling.

• Web and mobile application development.

• Game development.

Brief History of Java

• 1991: Initiated as the Green Project by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems.

• 1995: Officially released as Java.

• 2010: Acquired by Oracle Corporation.

• Motto: "Write Once, Run Anywhere" (WORA).

 Features of Java

• Platform-Independent: Runs on any device with the Java Virtual Machine (JVM).

• Object-Oriented: Emphasizes OOP principles.

• Robust: Strong memory management and exception handling.

• Secure: Provides a secure execution environment.

• Multithreaded: Supports concurrent execution of two or more threads.

• High Performance: Just-In-Time (JIT) compilers enhance performance.

Types of Java

• Java SE (Standard Edition): Core functionalities for general-purpose applications.

• Java EE (Enterprise Edition): APIs for enterprise applications.

• Java ME (Micro Edition): For mobile and embedded systems.

• JavaFX: For rich internet applications.

Java Development Tools

1. Java Development Kit (JDK)

• Definition: A software development environment used for developing Java applications.

• Components: JRE, compiler (javac), debugger, and other tools.

2. Java Virtual Machine (JVM)

• Definition: An engine that provides a runtime environment to execute Java bytecode.

• Function: Converts bytecode into machine-specific code.

3. Java Runtime Environment (JRE)

• Definition: Provides libraries, Java Virtual Machine (JVM), and other components to run
applications written in Java.

• Note: Does not contain development tools like a compiler or debugger.

4. Application Programming Interface (API)

• Definition: A set of pre-written packages, classes, and interfaces for building Java
applications.

• Examples: java.lang, java.util, java.io.

Here are detailed, exam-oriented notes on Java Tokens, Program Structure, Data Types,
Type Casting, Variables, and Operators with definitions, features, examples, advantages, and
disadvantages for each topic:
 Java Tokens

Definition:
Tokens are the smallest individual units in a Java program.

1. Keywords

• Definition: Reserved words that have a predefined meaning in Java.

• Examples: class, public, static, void, if, while

• Features:

o Cannot be used as variable names.

o All are lowercase.

• Advantage: Ensures consistency in language.

• Disadvantage: Limited flexibility in naming variables.

2. Character Set

• Definition: Set of valid characters Java supports.

• Includes:

o Letters: A–Z, a–z

o Digits: 0–9

o Special symbols: + - * / = @ # $ % ^ & etc.

o Unicode support

3. Identifiers

• Definition: Names given to variables, methods, classes.

• Rules:

o Cannot start with a digit.

o Cannot use keywords.

o Case-sensitive.

• Example: MyClass, sum, Total1

• Advantage: Enables meaningful names.

• Disadvantage: Poor naming reduces readability.

4. Literals

• Definition: Constant values directly used in code.

• Types:

o Integer: 10

o Float: 12.5f
 o Character: 'A'

o String: "Hello"

o Boolean: true, false

5. Separators

• Definition: Symbols that separate code components.

• Examples:

o ; – Statement terminator

o { } – Block delimiters

o , – Separator for arguments

o () – Used in method calls

6. Comments

• Definition: Non-executable statements used to describe code.

• Types:

o Single-line: // comment

o Multi-line: /* comment */

o Documentation: /** JavaDoc */

Java Program Structure

public class HelloWorld {

public static void main(String[] args) {

System.out.println("Hello, World!");

Structure Includes:

1. Class Definition

2. Main Method

3. Statements

4. Curly Braces for blocks

Command-Line Arguments

• Definition: Arguments passed to main(String[] args) during execution.

• Usage Example:

• java Hello 5 10
 • Benefits:

o Enables dynamic input.

o Useful for batch processing.

• Limitations:

o All inputs are strings; need to convert.

Compiling and Executing a Simple Java Program

1. Write code: Hello.java

2. Compile: javac Hello.java

3. Run: java Hello

Data Types in Java

1. Primitive Data Types

• Integer: byte, short, int, long

• Floating Point: float, double

• Character: char

• Boolean: true, false

2. Non-Primitive (Reference) Types

• Examples: Arrays, Classes, Interfaces

Type Promotion and Type Casting

Type Promotion

• Definition: Automatic conversion of smaller data type to larger type.

• Example: int + float → result is float

Type Casting

• Definition: Explicit conversion between types.

• Syntax: (targetType) value

Example:

double d = 5.5;

int i = (int) d; // i = 5

Type Promotion Rank

byte short
Type Promotion Rank

short int

int long

long float

float double

Variables and Their Scope

Types of Variables:

1. Local: Declared inside methods.

2. Instance: Declared in class but outside methods.

3. Static: Declared with static keyword.

Scope:

• Local Scope: Valid only within a block.

• Global Scope: Valid throughout the class.

Operators and Expressions

Types of Operators

Operator Type Examples

Arithmetic +, -, *, /, %

Relational ==, !=, <, >, <=, >=

Logical &&, `

Assignment =, +=, -=

Unary ++, --, +, -

Ternary condition ? true : false

Bitwise &, `

Expressions

• Definition: Combination of variables, constants, and operators.

• Example: a + b * c

Here are detailed, exam-oriented notes on Classes, Objects, Access Modifiers, Methods,
Constructors, this, static, final, and Wrapper Classes with definitions, features, examples,
advantages, and disadvantages:
 Concept of Class and Object

Class

• Definition: A blueprint for creating objects. It defines variables and methods common to
all objects of a certain type.

• Syntax:

• class Car {

• String color;

• void drive() {

• System.out.println("Driving...");

• }

• }

• Features:

o Groups data and functions.

o Supports reusability.

• Advantage: Enhances modularity and abstraction.

• Disadvantage: Overhead in simple programs.

Object

• Definition: An instance of a class containing real values.

• Syntax:

• Car myCar = new Car();

• Features:

o Represents a real-world entity.

o Allows access to class members.

Access Modifiers

Modifier Accessible Within Class Same Package Subclass Everywhere

private

(default)

protected

public

• Advantages:
 o Encapsulation and control over data access.

• Disadvantages:

o Misuse may lead to data hiding issues.

Java Methods

Method

• Definition: A block of code that performs a specific task.

• Syntax:

• int add(int a, int b) {

• return a + b;

• }

Method Overloading

• Definition: Defining multiple methods with the same name but different parameters.

• Example:

• int add(int a, int b)

• float add(float a, float b)

• Advantages:

o Improves readability and reusability.

• Disadvantages:

o Can confuse beginners.

Java Constructors and Its Types

Constructor

• Definition: Special method invoked at the time of object creation.

• Types:

1. Default Constructor:

2. Car() { }

3. Parameterized Constructor:

4. Car(String color) {

5. this.color = color;

6. }

7. Copy Constructor (Not built-in):

8. Car(Car c) {
 9. this.color = c.color;

10. }

• Features:

o Same name as the class.

o No return type.

• Advantages:

o Auto-initialization of objects.

• Disadvantages:

o Cannot be inherited.

this Keyword

• Definition: Refers to the current object.

• Usage:

o Distinguish between class variables and parameters.

• this.name = name;

• Advantages:

o Avoids ambiguity.

• Disadvantages:

o Misuse may cause logical errors.

static Keyword

Static Variable

• Shared among all instances of a class.

static int count;

Static Method

• Belongs to the class, not to objects.

static void show() { }

Static Block

• Runs once when the class is loaded.

static {

System.out.println("Static Block");

• Advantages:
 o Saves memory (used once).

• Disadvantages:

o Cannot access non-static members directly.

final Keyword

• Used For:

o Variable: Value cannot change.

o Method: Cannot be overridden.

o Class: Cannot be inherited.

final int x = 10;

• Advantages:

o Enhances security and reliability.

• Disadvantages:

o Limits flexibility.

Wrapper Classes

• Definition: Convert primitive types into objects.

• Classes: Integer, Float, Double, Boolean, etc.

int a = 10;

Integer obj = Integer.valueOf(a);

Autoboxing and Unboxing

• Autoboxing: Primitive to wrapper conversion.

• Unboxing: Wrapper to primitive conversion.

• Advantages:

o Useful in collections (ArrayList, etc.).

• Disadvantages:

o Slower than primitive types.

Here are detailed, exam-oriented notes on:

• 1D & 2D Arrays

• Arrays Class

• Dynamic Arrays

• String Handling in Java

Each topic includes definitions, examples, features, advantages, and disadvantages for your
understanding and revision:

1D and 2D Arrays in Java

1D Array (One-Dimensional Array)

• Definition: A collection of similar data types stored in a single row.

• Syntax:

• int[] arr = new int[5];

• Example:

• int[] nums = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

2D Array (Two-Dimensional Array)

• Definition: A matrix-like structure where data is stored in rows and columns.

• Syntax:

• int[][] matrix = new int[3][3];

• Example:

• int[][] table = {

• {1, 2, 3},

• {4, 5, 6}

• };

Features:

• Indexed-based data access.

• Homogeneous data storage.

Advantages:

• Easy to manipulate large data sets.

• Optimized memory structure.

Disadvantages:

• Fixed size (not dynamic).

• Not suitable for varied size data.

Arrays Class in Java

• Definition: Part of the java.util package that provides utility methods for arrays.

Common Methods:
Method Description

Arrays.sort(arr) Sorts the array

Arrays.equals(arr1, arr2) Compares arrays

Arrays.fill(arr, val) Fills array with a value

Arrays.copyOf(arr, len) Copies part of an array

Arrays.toString(arr) Returns string representation

Features:

• Simplifies array operations.

• Static utility methods.

Advantages:

• Reduces boilerplate code.

• Improves readability.

Disadvantages:

• Only works for arrays, not collections.

Dynamic Arrays in Java

• Definition: Arrays whose size can grow dynamically using ArrayList from java.util.

Example using ArrayList:

ArrayList<Integer> list = new ArrayList<>();

list.add(10);

list.add(20);

Features:

• Dynamic memory allocation.

• Type-safe using generics.

Advantages:

• No need to define size in advance.

• Built-in methods (add, remove, get).

Disadvantages:

• Slightly slower than primitive arrays.

• More memory overhead.

String Class in Java

 • Definition: Represents immutable character sequences.

Declaration:

String s = "Hello";

String s2 = new String("World");

Common Methods:

Method Description

length() Returns length

charAt(index) Returns character at position

concat(str) Concatenates strings

equals(), equalsIgnoreCase() Compares strings

substring() Extracts substring

toUpperCase() Converts to upper case

Features:

• Immutable (cannot be changed).

• Stored in String Constant Pool.

Advantages:

• Thread-safe.

• Secure and memory efficient.

Disadvantages:

• Creating many strings creates memory overhead.

StringBuffer Class

• Definition: Mutable string class (thread-safe).

• Syntax:

• StringBuffer sb = new StringBuffer("Hello");

• sb.append(" World");

Features:

• Supports append, insert, reverse.

• Synchronized (thread-safe).

Advantages:

• Efficient for frequent string modifications.

• Safe in multithreaded environments.

Disadvantages:

• Slower than StringBuilder due to synchronization.

StringBuilder Class

• Definition: Mutable string class (not thread-safe but faster).

• Syntax:

• StringBuilder sb = new StringBuilder("Java");

• sb.append(" Rocks");

Features:

• Same methods as StringBuffer.

• Not synchronized.

Advantages:

• Faster than StringBuffer.

• Ideal for single-threaded environments.

Disadvantages:

• Not thread-safe.

StringTokenizer Class

• Definition: Breaks a string into tokens based on delimiters.

• Syntax:

• StringTokenizer st = new StringTokenizer("Hello,Java,World", ",");

• while (st.hasMoreTokens()) {

• System.out.println(st.nextToken());

• }

Features:

• Parses strings into smaller parts.

• Default delimiter: space.

Advantages:

• Useful in parsing CSV/text data.

• Lightweight and fast.

Disadvantages:

• Legacy class (prefer split() method in modern code).

 • Limited flexibility compared to Pattern.split().

Comparison Table

Feature String StringBuffer StringBuilder StringTokenizer

Mutability Immutable Mutable Mutable NA

Thread-Safe Yes Yes No No

Speed Fast (read) Slow (write) Fast (write) Fast

Use Case Constant data Multi-threading Single-threading Token parsing

Memory More Less Less Less

Here are detailed and exam-ready notes on:

• Method Overloading, Method Overriding, Operator Overloading, Constructor Overloading

• Inheritance (types and keywords like super and final)

Each topic includes definition, examples, features, advantages, and disadvantages (5 points
each):

Method Overloading

Definition:

Method overloading allows defining multiple methods with the same name but different parameter
lists in the same class.

Example:

class Calculator {

int add(int a, int b) { return a + b; }

float add(float a, float b) { return a + b; }

Features:

1. Same method name, different parameters.

2. Happens at compile time.

3. Improves code readability.

4. Reduces method naming complexity.

5. Supported in all OOP languages.

Advantages:

1. Increases program flexibility.

 2. Supports polymorphism.

3. Promotes reusability.

4. Avoids redundant code.

5. Easy to maintain.

Disadvantages:

1. Slightly increases complexity for beginners.

2. Overuse can make code hard to read.

3. Can be confused with overriding.

4. Not useful in all situations.

5. May lead to ambiguity if improperly used.

Method Overriding

Definition:

A subclass provides a specific implementation of a method already defined in its superclass.

Example:

class Animal {

void sound() { System.out.println("Animal Sound"); }

class Dog extends Animal {

void sound() { System.out.println("Bark"); }

Features:

1. Same method name, return type, and parameters.

2. Happens at runtime.

3. Uses @Override annotation.

4. Enables dynamic method dispatch.

5. Supports polymorphism.

Advantages:

1. Implements runtime polymorphism.

2. Increases program flexibility.

3. Customizes parent class behavior.

4. Encourages extensibility.

5. Improves modular design.

 Disadvantages:

1. Increases code dependency.

2. Difficult to trace overridden logic.

3. May break Liskov Substitution Principle if misused.

4. Reduces reusability of superclass.

5. Performance overhead due to runtime binding.

Operator Overloading

Not supported in Java (like C++). Java avoids ambiguity and maintains simplicity by not
allowing user-defined operator overloading.

Java Only Overloads:

1. + is overloaded for string concatenation.

Constructor Overloading

Definition:

Multiple constructors in the same class with different parameter lists.

Example:

class Box {

Box() { }

Box(int length) { }

Features:

1. Allows different ways to initialize an object.

2. Uses this() for constructor chaining.

3. Compile-time polymorphism.

4. Enhances flexibility.

5. Follows the same naming as the class.

Advantages:

1. Reduces object initialization complexity.

2. Enables default and custom constructors.

3. Supports constructor chaining.

4. Cleaner code.

5. Easily accommodates different parameters.

Disadvantages:
 1. Increases memory usage if not optimized.

2. More code to manage.

3. May create confusion with similar parameter types.

4. Difficult to debug with many overloads.

5. Can lead to ambiguous calls.

Concept of Inheritance

Definition:

Inheritance allows a class (subclass) to acquire properties and behavior from another class
(superclass).

Example:

class Parent {

void display() { }

class Child extends Parent {

void show() { }

Features:

1. Promotes code reuse.

2. Enables hierarchical classifications.

3. Supports method overriding.

4. Enhances extensibility.

5. Allows for polymorphic behavior.

Advantages:

1. Reduces redundancy.

2. Improves maintainability.

3. Supports abstraction and reuse.

4. Facilitates modularity.

5. Increases scalability.

Disadvantages:

1. Tight coupling between classes.

2. Increases code complexity.

3. Hard to understand large hierarchies.

4. A change in superclass may affect subclasses.

 5. Not suitable for all design problems.

Sub and Super Class

Subclass:

A class that inherits from another class.

Superclass:

The class being inherited from.

class Vehicle { } // Superclass

class Car extends Vehicle { } // Subclass

Types of Inheritance

1. Single-Level Inheritance

• One subclass inherits one superclass.

class A { }

class B extends A { }

2. Multi-Level Inheritance

• A subclass inherits from another subclass.

class A { }

class B extends A { }

class C extends B { }

3. Hierarchical Inheritance

• Multiple classes inherit from a single superclass.

class A { }

class B extends A { }

class C extends A { }

4. Multiple Inheritance Using Interfaces

• A class inherits from multiple interfaces.

interface A { }

interface B { }

class C implements A, B { }

5. Hybrid Inheritance

• Combination of two or more types of inheritance using interfaces.

 super Keyword

Used to:

1. Access parent class variables.

2. Call parent class constructor.

3. Invoke parent class methods.

super.display();

final Keyword in Inheritance

1. Final Variable

• Value cannot be changed.

final int x = 10;

2. Final Method

• Cannot be overridden.

final void show() { }

3. Final Class

• Cannot be inherited.

final class A { }

Here are well-structured, exam-oriented notes on:

• Encapsulation & Data Hiding

• Abstract Classes & Methods

• Interfaces & Multiple Inheritance

• Packages in Java

Each topic includes definition, examples, features, advantages, disadvantages (5 points

each) — great for last-minute revision or in-depth understanding.

Encapsulation and Data Hiding

Definition:

• Encapsulation is the process of binding data (variables) and code (methods) into a single
unit (class).

• Data Hiding ensures that internal object details are hidden from the outside world by
declaring variables as private.

Example:

class Student {
 private int marks;

public void setMarks(int m) {

if (m >= 0) marks = m;

public int getMarks() {

return marks;

Features:

1. Variables declared private, accessed via get/set methods.

2. Prevents unauthorized access.

3. Increases modularity.

4. Enables control over data.

5. Strong basis for OOP design.

Advantages:

1. Improves code security.

2. Easier maintenance and testing.

3. Prevents accidental misuse of data.

4. Supports abstraction.

5. Allows logic control within setters/getters.

Disadvantages:

1. Adds extra code (getters/setters).

2. May reduce direct access efficiency.

3. Not useful for simple data containers.

4. Misuse can make code bulky.

5. Increased complexity for beginners.

Abstract Class and Methods

Definition:

• Abstract Class: A class declared with the keyword abstract that cannot be instantiated.

• Abstract Method: A method without a body, meant to be overridden by subclasses.

 Example:

abstract class Shape {

abstract void draw();

class Circle extends Shape {

void draw() { System.out.println("Drawing Circle"); }

Features:

1. Can have both abstract and concrete methods.

2. Used for partial abstraction.

3. Cannot be instantiated.

4. Can have constructors and static methods.

5. Supports method overriding.

Advantages:

1. Helps in achieving polymorphism.

2. Promotes code reusability.

3. Useful for base class templates.

4. Enforces method implementation in child classes.

5. Supports code standardization.

Disadvantages:

1. Can’t be instantiated directly.

2. Limited to single inheritance.

3. Partial abstraction only.

4. May confuse beginners with mixed methods.

5. More rigid than interfaces for flexibility.

Interface in Java

Definition:

An interface is a reference type in Java that contains only abstract methods (until Java 7),
default, static (Java 8+), and private methods (Java 9+), with no implementation.

Example:

interface Drawable {

void draw();

}
class Circle implements Drawable {

public void draw() { System.out.println("Circle"); }

Features:

1. All methods are implicitly public and abstract.

2. Supports multiple inheritance.

3. Cannot contain constructors.

4. All variables are public, static, and final.

5. Achieves full abstraction.

Advantages:

1. Supports multiple inheritance.

2. Great for loose coupling.

3. Ensures contract-based programming.

4. Ideal for APIs and plugins.

5. Improves scalability.

Disadvantages:

1. Cannot have constructors.

2. More complex than abstract classes.

3. Can't declare instance fields.

4. Excessive interfaces can reduce clarity.

5. Slower development if misused.

Implementing & Extending Interfaces

Single Interface:

interface A { void show(); }

class Test implements A {

public void show() { System.out.println("Hello"); }

Multiple Interfaces:

interface A { void show(); }

interface B { void display(); }

class Test implements A, B {

public void show() { }

 public void display() { }

Extending Interfaces:

interface A { void show(); }

interface B extends A { void display(); }

Difference: Abstract Class vs Interface

Feature Abstract Class Interface

Inheritance Single only Multiple via implements

Methods Can have concrete methods Only abstract (Java 7), default/static (Java 8+)

Variables Any access modifier Always public static final

Constructors Allowed Not allowed

Use Case Base class with some logic Blueprint for complete abstraction

Packages in Java

Definition:

A package is a namespace that organizes a set of related classes and interfaces.

Syntax:

package mypackage;

import java.util.Scanner;

Features:

1. Prevents naming conflicts.

2. Access protection with public, protected.

3. Logical groupings.

4. Supports modular structure.

5. Java API is organized into packages (java.util, java.io).

Types of Packages

1. Built-in Packages

• Provided by Java SDK.

• Example: java.util, java.io

2. User-defined Packages
 • Created by developers.

• Example:

• package myapp;

• public class Test { }

Importing and Creating Packages

Creating:

package myutils;

public class MathTool {

public static int square(int x) { return x * x; }

Importing:

import myutils.MathTool;

Advantages of Packages:

1. Avoids class name conflicts.

2. Improves modularity.

3. Easy to maintain.

4. Reusable code.

5. Organized file system.

Disadvantages:

1. Needs directory structure matching package name.

2. Slightly increases complexity.

3. Requires package declaration in every file.

4. Need to manage import statements.

5. Can be confusing for small projects.

Here are detailed and well-structured notes on Multithreading Fundamentals, including:

• Thread Class

• Runnable Interface

• Thread Lifecycle

• Creation of Single and Multiple Threads

Each topic includes definition, examples, features, advantages, and disadvantages for
exam preparation.

Multithreading Fundamentals

Definition:

Multithreading is a programming technique that allows the execution of two or more threads
concurrently, enabling more efficient use of CPU resources.

Features:

1. Concurrency: Multiple threads execute simultaneously, improving performance.

2. Resource Sharing: Threads share resources such as memory, CPU time, etc.

3. Responsiveness: Keeps the program responsive by running time-consuming tasks in the

background.

4. Efficiency: Utilizes CPU more effectively, especially for multi-core processors.

5. Independent Execution: Threads can run independently but share the same memory
space.

Advantages:

1. Improved performance: Multiple tasks are executed simultaneously.

2. Better resource utilization: Multithreading improves CPU utilization.

3. Enhanced application responsiveness: UI remains responsive even during heavy

computations.

4. Simpler code structure: Allows efficient handling of tasks like I/O operations without
blocking other processes.

5. Real-time processing: Useful in applications like games, real-time systems, and server-
side programming.

Disadvantages:

1. Complexity: Writing multithreaded code can be complex and difficult to debug.

2. Concurrency issues: Issues like race conditions, deadlocks, and thread synchronization
can occur.

3. Context switching overhead: Frequent switching between threads may decrease

performance.

4. Memory consumption: Each thread has its own stack, leading to higher memory usage.

5. Harder to test: Testing multithreaded applications is challenging because of unpredictable

timing.

Thread Class

Definition:

The Thread class in Java provides methods to create and control threads. A thread is an instance
of the Thread class or a class that implements the Runnable interface.
 Example:

class MyThread extends Thread {

public void run() {

System.out.println("Thread running...");

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyThread t = new MyThread();

t.start(); // Starts the thread

Features:

1. Thread creation: Extends the Thread class and overrides run() method.

2. start() method: Invokes the run() method in a new thread.

3. Thread state management: Can be in states like new, runnable, blocked, etc.

4. Predefined methods: Methods like sleep(), join(), and isAlive() for thread management.

5. Thread priority: Control thread priority using setPriority() method.

Advantages:

1. Simplifies thread management: Easy-to-use interface for thread creation.

2. Control over execution: Methods like start(), sleep(), and join() offer better control.

3. Thread synchronization: Supports synchronization to handle thread conflicts.

4. Thread termination: Can be stopped or interrupted with stop() or interrupt() methods.

5. Thread pooling: Easily integrates with thread pooling mechanisms for performance
enhancement.

Disadvantages:

1. Cannot inherit from another class: Since Java supports single inheritance, you can't
extend Thread and another class simultaneously.

2. Less flexible: Thread class is less flexible compared to the Runnable interface.

3. Handling concurrency: Requires proper synchronization to avoid concurrency issues.

4. Complex error handling: Multithreaded code can be difficult to debug and maintain.

5. Resource heavy: Each thread consumes a considerable amount of system resources.

 Runnable Interface

Definition:

The Runnable interface represents a task that can be executed concurrently by a thread. A class
that implements Runnable must override the run() method.

Example:

class MyRunnable implements Runnable {

public void run() {

System.out.println("Thread running using Runnable.");

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyRunnable task = new MyRunnable();

Thread t = new Thread(task);

t.start(); // Starts the thread

Features:

1. Implementable by any class: Unlike Thread, any class can implement Runnable.

2. Reusable: A single Runnable can be passed to multiple threads.

3. Separation of concerns: Separates thread logic from the task logic.

4. Supports task sharing: Useful when multiple threads execute the same task.

5. Better flexibility: Provides a more flexible model than extending Thread.

Advantages:

1. Improved design: Allows a clean design where a class can implement multiple interfaces.

2. Resource sharing: Multiple threads can execute the same Runnable task.

3. Reusability: Runnable objects can be reused across different threads.

4. Avoids multiple inheritance issues: Since a class can implement multiple interfaces.

5. Cleaner code: Encourages better separation of thread and task logic.

Disadvantages:

1. More boilerplate: You must create a Thread object to run a Runnable, adding extra
steps.

2. No direct thread management: You don't have direct control over the thread (e.g.,
setting priorities).
 3. Increased complexity: Slightly more complex to use than extending Thread.

4. Cannot directly manage thread state: Can't manage thread-specific states directly.

5. No thread state control: Unlike Thread, you cannot control the thread lifecycle or state
directly.

Life Cycle of a Thread

Definition:

A thread's lifecycle defines the various states it goes through during its execution, from creation to
termination.

States:

1. New: A thread is created but not started yet.

2. Runnable: The thread is ready to run but the OS is waiting for CPU time.

3. Blocked: The thread is waiting for resources or a lock.

4. Waiting: The thread is waiting for another thread to perform a particular action.

5. Terminated: The thread has completed its execution or was killed.

Features:

1. Thread states are managed by the Java runtime.

2. State transitions occur based on thread actions (e.g., calling start(), sleep(), etc.).

3. Thread interruption allows moving between states.

4. Synchronization impacts the thread lifecycle.

5. Can terminate naturally or can be forcibly stopped.

Advantages:

1. Clear state management: Makes thread management more predictable.

2. Improved thread handling: Helps manage threads at various stages of execution.

3. Efficient resource allocation: Allows the system to allocate CPU time dynamically.

4. Better concurrency control: Helps in implementing synchronization for thread safety.

5. Supports termination: Ensures threads are gracefully terminated once execution is

complete.

Disadvantages:

1. Complex state transitions: Managing transitions between states can be confusing.

2. Blocked/waiting issues: Threads may remain in blocked/waiting states indefinitely.

3. Requires careful synchronization: Improper synchronization can cause deadlocks or

race conditions.

4. Overhead: Monitoring and managing thread states adds complexity.

 5. Resource contention: Multiple threads contending for resources can slow down the
program.

Creation of Single and Multiple Threads

Single Thread Creation:

• Create a single thread by either extending Thread or implementing Runnable.

Example (Single Thread):

class MyThread extends Thread {

public void run() {

System.out.println("Single thread running...");

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

MyThread t = new MyThread();

t.start(); // Start the thread

Multiple Thread Creation:

• Multiple threads can be created by instantiating multiple Thread or Runnable objects.

Example (Multiple Threads):

class MyThread implements Runnable {

public void run() {

System.out.println(Thread.currentThread().getId() + " is running");

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {

for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {

Thread t = new Thread(new MyThread());

t.start();

}
 }

Features:

1. Single thread: Simple execution of tasks.

2. Multiple threads: Concurrency is improved by dividing tasks among several threads.

3. Thread management: Manage individual threads for separate tasks.

4. Parallel execution: Achieved by using multiple threads.

5. Simplified concurrency: Multiple threads can run simultaneously with proper

synchronization.

Advantages:

1. Increased performance with multiple threads for I/O or CPU-bound tasks.

2. Improved responsiveness in GUI applications.

3. Better resource utilization in multi-core systems.

4. Easy to implement in single-threaded tasks with minimal changes.

5. Concurrency benefits such as reduced waiting times and quicker completion of tasks.

Disadvantages:

1. Complex synchronization: Ensuring thread safety can be challenging.

2. Difficult debugging: Hard to trace issues like deadlocks or race conditions.

3. Context-switching overhead: Multiple threads may cause performance degradation.

4. Potential deadlocks: Improper locking mechanisms can lead to threads waiting forever.

5. High memory usage: Each thread consumes system resources (stack memory, CPU
cycles).

Here are detailed notes on:

• Java InputStream and OutputStream Classes

• Java Reader and Writer Classes

• Introduction to File I/O in Java

• Java Exceptions, Exception Types, and Handling Mechanisms

Each topic includes definition, examples, features, advantages, and disadvantages, making
it exam-friendly.

Java InputStream and OutputStream Classes

Definition:
 • InputStream: An abstract class for reading byte data.

• OutputStream: An abstract class for writing byte data.

Example (InputStream):

import java.io.*;

public class InputStreamExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {

InputStream is = new FileInputStream("input.txt");

int byteRead;

while ((byteRead = is.read()) != -1) {

System.out.print((char) byteRead);

is.close();

Example (OutputStream):

import java.io.*;

public class OutputStreamExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {

OutputStream os = new FileOutputStream("output.txt");

String message = "Hello, world!";

os.write(message.getBytes());

os.close();

Features:

1. Byte-based: Designed for byte data input/output.

2. Abstract: Both are abstract classes, so concrete implementations are used (e.g.,
FileInputStream, FileOutputStream).

3. Basic I/O: Suitable for working with raw binary data.

4. Streaming: Processes data sequentially.

5. Exceptions Handling: I/O operations throw exceptions that must be handled.

Advantages:
 1. Efficient for Binary Data: Perfect for file operations involving binary data (images,
audio).

2. Fast Data Processing: Reads and writes byte data efficiently.

3. Flexible for Large Files: Works well with large data streams since it reads/writes
sequentially.

4. Cross-Platform Compatibility: Works on all platforms that support Java.

5. Easy to Use: Simple classes like FileInputStream and FileOutputStream make it easy to
implement.

Disadvantages:

1. Not Suitable for Character Data: Not ideal for text files; use Reader/Writer classes for
better handling of characters.

2. Manual Error Handling: Requires careful handling of exceptions.

3. Buffering Overhead: For large data, manual buffering may be required to improve
performance.

4. No Encoding Support: Doesn’t handle character encoding issues.

5. Sequential Access: No random access to data; can only be read/written sequentially.

Java Reader and Writer Classes

Definition:

• Reader: An abstract class for reading character data.

• Writer: An abstract class for writing character data.

Example (Reader):

import java.io.*;

public class ReaderExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {

Reader reader = new FileReader("input.txt");

int charRead;

while ((charRead = reader.read()) != -1) {

System.out.print((char) charRead);

reader.close();

Example (Writer):
import java.io.*;

public class WriterExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {

Writer writer = new FileWriter("output.txt");

String message = "Hello, world!";

writer.write(message);

writer.close();

Features:

1. Character-based: Designed for handling character data (e.g., text files).

2. Unicode Support: Handles characters in Unicode format.

3. Abstract: Like InputStream/OutputStream, Reader/Writer are abstract classes.

4. Efficient for Text Data: Optimized for reading/writing text files.

5. Buffered Versions: Classes like BufferedReader and BufferedWriter enhance

performance.

Advantages:

1. Handles Character Encoding: Works well with different character encodings (e.g., UTF-
8, ASCII).

2. Efficient for Text Files: Ideal for operations on text files.

3. Readable Code: Easier to use for text-based operations compared to byte streams.

4. Buffered Classes: BufferedReader/BufferedWriter improves performance with larger files.

5. Platform-independent: Handles text files across different platforms.

Disadvantages:

1. Limited to Characters: Not suitable for binary data.

2. Encoding Overhead: Encoding issues may arise if not handled properly.

3. Inefficient for Binary Files: Slower for binary files compared to byte streams.

4. Manual Error Handling: Similar to byte streams, requires explicit error handling.

5. Sequential Processing: Data is processed sequentially, not suitable for random access.

Introduction to File I/O in Java

Definition:

File I/O in Java allows reading from and writing to files, either as byte or character streams,
providing input/output capabilities for persistent storage.
 Example:

import java.io.*;

public class FileIOExample {

public static void main(String[] args) throws IOException {

File file = new File("example.txt");

// Writing data

BufferedWriter writer = new BufferedWriter(new FileWriter(file));

writer.write("Hello, Java!");

writer.close();

// Reading data

BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(file));

String line;

while ((line = reader.readLine()) != null) {

System.out.println(line);

reader.close();

Features:

1. File handling: Allows operations on files, such as reading, writing, and file manipulation.

2. Buffered Streams: Buffered I/O classes optimize reading/writing efficiency.

3. Cross-platform: Works on all operating systems supporting Java.

4. Flexible: Handles both character and byte data through different streams.

5. Random Access: RandomAccessFile allows reading/writing from any part of the file.

Advantages:

1. Ease of Use: Classes like FileReader and FileWriter make file handling straightforward.

2. File Manipulation: Supports file creation, deletion, renaming, and more.

3. Platform-independent: Works on any system with Java support.

4. Supports large files: Buffered streams help process large files efficiently.

5. Simple Syntax: Java’s I/O stream API provides simple and intuitive syntax for file
handling.

Disadvantages:
 1. Error-prone: I/O operations may lead to errors like IOException.

2. No direct support for advanced file systems: Lacks advanced file system management
(like symbolic links).

3. Performance: Without buffering, reading/writing large files can be slow.

4. Memory intensive: Buffered classes use extra memory for efficient data handling.

5. Complexity for binary files: Binary files need InputStream/OutputStream instead of

Reader/Writer, complicating the process.

Java Exceptions, Types, and Exception Handling

Definition:

An exception is an event that disrupts the normal flow of a program. Java supports exception
handling using try, catch, throw, and throws.

Types of Exceptions:

1. Checked Exception: Must be handled by the programmer (e.g., IOException,

SQLException).

2. Unchecked Exception: Runtime exceptions, typically due to programming errors (e.g.,

NullPointerException, ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException).

Example (Try-Catch):

try {

int result = 10 / 0;

} catch (ArithmeticException e) {

System.out.println("Error: " + e.getMessage());

Example (Try-Finally):

try {

int result = 10 / 0;

} finally {

System.out.println("Finally block executed");

Example (Throw and Throws):

public class Test {

public void checkAge(int age) throws IllegalArgumentException {

if (age < 18) {

throw new IllegalArgumentException("Age must be 18 or older.");

}
 }

public static void main(String[] args) {

Test test = new Test();

try {

test.checkAge(15);

} catch (IllegalArgumentException e) {

System.out.println(e.getMessage());

Features:

1. Error Detection: Allows detection and handling of runtime errors.

2. Graceful Termination: Handles errors without terminating the program.

3. Hierarchical: Exceptions are organized in a class hierarchy.

4. Custom Exceptions: Developers can define custom exceptions for specific errors.

5. Multiple Catch Blocks: Multiple exception types can be handled in different blocks.

Advantages:

1. Improved Program Flow: Prevents abrupt program termination by handling errors.

2. Code Readability: Makes error handling clear and structured.

3. Separation of Concerns: Separates error-handling code from normal logic.

4. Control Over Error Handling: Customize behavior when exceptions occur.

5. Support for Multiple Exceptions: Handles multiple error types through various
exception classes.

Disadvantages:

1. Performance Overhead: Exception handling introduces performance overhead.

2. Overused Exceptions: Can lead to cluttered code if exceptions are overused for control
flow.

3. Error Masking: Misuse can hide actual issues (e.g., catching Exception).

4. Complexity: Nested try-catch blocks can make the code more complex and harder to
read.

5. Requires Explicit Handling: Must explicitly handle checked exceptions, making the code
verbose.

Here are detailed notes on:

 • JDBC (Java Database Connectivity)

• JDBC Architecture and Setup

• JDBC Drivers

• SQL Query Execution using JDBC

Each topic includes definition, features, advantages, disadvantages, and examples.

JDBC (Java Database Connectivity)

Definition:

• JDBC is an API in Java that enables communication between Java applications and
relational databases (like MySQL, Oracle, etc.).

• It provides a standard interface for connecting to a database, sending SQL queries, and
retrieving results.

Example:

import java.sql.*;

public class JdbcExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {

try {

// Load the database driver

Class.forName("com.mysql.cj.jdbc.Driver");

// Establish a connection to the database

Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/mydb",

"user", "password");

// Create a statement

Statement stmt = conn.createStatement();

// Execute a query

ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery("SELECT * FROM students");

// Process the result set

while (rs.next()) {

System.out.println("Student ID: " + rs.getInt("id"));

 System.out.println("Name: " + rs.getString("name"));

// Close resources

rs.close();

stmt.close();

conn.close();

} catch (Exception e) {

e.printStackTrace();

Features:

1. Database Connectivity: Allows Java applications to connect to various relational

databases.

2. Standardized API: Provides a common interface for different types of databases.

3. SQL Query Execution: Supports executing SQL queries (e.g., SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE,
DELETE).

4. Result Set: Provides a structured way to retrieve data from the database.

5. Connection Pooling: Supports efficient management of database connections.

Advantages:

1. Cross-platform: JDBC works across all platforms that support Java.

2. Standardized Interface: Offers a common interface to interact with different databases.

3. Performance: Executes SQL queries quickly and efficiently.

4. Supports Multiple Databases: Can be used with a variety of relational databases.

5. Scalability: JDBC can scale from small to large applications.

Disadvantages:

1. Complexity: Requires a fair amount of boilerplate code for basic operations.

2. Error Handling: JDBC requires careful exception handling, especially with SQL errors.

3. Manual Resource Management: Requires explicit closing of connections, statements,

and result sets.

4. Limited to Relational Databases: Not suitable for NoSQL databases.

5. Verbose Code: SQL operations can result in long code with multiple lines for each query.

JDBC Architecture and Setup

 Definition:

• JDBC architecture consists of four components:

1. JDBC API: Provides the application interface.

2. JDBC Driver Manager: Manages a list of database drivers.

3. JDBC Drivers: Concrete implementations for database communication.

4. Database: The actual database being connected to.

Example (Setting up JDBC in a Java application):

1. Install MySQL JDBC Driver: Download and add mysql-connector-java-x.x.xx.jar to your

project.

2. Setup Connection:

Connection conn = DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/mydb",

"username", "password");

3. Close Connection: Always close the connection, statement, and result set when done.

Features:

1. JDBC API: Provides a set of Java classes and interfaces for database interaction.

2. Driver Manager: Manages database drivers for establishing connections.

3. Driver Types: JDBC drivers come in four types (1, 2, 3, and 4) with varying levels of
functionality.

4. Standard Database Access: Offers standard ways to connect and execute queries.

5. Support for Multiple Databases: Can connect to any relational database with a
compatible driver.

Advantages:

1. Ease of Use: Setting up a JDBC connection is straightforward once the driver is

configured.

2. Flexibility: Can work with various databases by simply changing the JDBC driver.

3. Database Independence: Abstracts away database-specific code.

4. Error Handling: Clear error reporting through exceptions.

5. Scalability: Works efficiently for both small and large applications.

Disadvantages:

1. Driver Dependency: Requires the correct driver for the specific database.

2. Complex Configuration: Initial setup and configuration can be complex.

3. Not Dynamic: Switching databases requires manual changes in the driver code.

4. No Native Support for NoSQL: Does not support NoSQL databases natively.

5. Potential for Memory Leaks: Failing to close resources can lead to memory issues.
 JDBC Drivers

Definition:

JDBC drivers are the interfaces that allow Java to interact with databases. There are four types of
JDBC drivers, each with varying capabilities and performance characteristics.

Types of JDBC Drivers:

1. Type-1 Driver (JDBC-ODBC Bridge): Uses ODBC to connect to the database. It is

slower and outdated.

2. Type-2 Driver (Native-API Driver): Uses database-specific libraries (e.g., Oracle's

OCI). It requires a native library.

3. Type-3 Driver (Network Protocol Driver): Uses a middle layer to connect to the
database, making it platform-independent.

4. Type-4 Driver (Thin Driver): A pure Java driver that directly connects to the database
via TCP/IP, offering high performance.

Features:

1. Driver Types: Different drivers for different use cases and performance requirements.

2. Database-specific: Drivers are optimized for specific database systems.

3. Transparent Database Communication: The driver handles communication with the

database, abstracting the complexities.

4. Driver Configuration: Drivers need to be added to your project for JDBC to work.

5. Direct Connection: Type-4 drivers provide direct connectivity to the database.

Advantages:

1. Performance: Type-4 drivers are the most efficient since they directly communicate with
the database.

2. Platform Independence: Type-3 and Type-4 drivers work across different platforms.

3. Flexibility: Different drivers can be chosen based on specific application needs.

4. Simplified Database Communication: Drivers abstract low-level database details.

5. Portability: JDBC drivers can be used in different environments with minimal changes.

Disadvantages:

1. Driver-Specific Code: Some drivers (like Type-2) require platform-specific libraries.

2. Complexity: Configuring and choosing the right driver can be challenging.

3. Driver Limitations: Not all drivers support advanced database features.

4. Not Always Available: Some databases may lack suitable JDBC drivers.

5. Outdated Drivers: Type-1 drivers are deprecated and no longer supported in many
modern applications.

JDBC - SQL Query Execution (Create, Insert, Update, Delete, Retrieve)

 Definition:

• JDBC allows executing various SQL queries like CREATE, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, and
SELECT to manage database data.

Example:

1. Create Table:

String createTableSQL = "CREATE TABLE students (id INT PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(50))";

stmt.executeUpdate(createTableSQL);

2. Insert Data:

String insertSQL = "INSERT INTO students (id, name) VALUES (?, ?)";

PreparedStatement pstmt = conn.prepareStatement(insertSQL);

pstmt.setInt(1, 1);

pstmt.setString(2, "John");

pstmt.executeUpdate();

3. Update Data:

String updateSQL = "UPDATE students SET name = ? WHERE id = ?";

PreparedStatement pstmt = conn.prepareStatement(updateSQL);

pstmt.setString(1, "Alice");

pstmt.setInt(2, 1);

pstmt.executeUpdate();

4. Delete Data:

String deleteSQL = "DELETE FROM students WHERE id = ?";

PreparedStatement pstmt = conn.prepareStatement(deleteSQL);

pstmt.setInt(1, 1);

pstmt.executeUpdate();

5. Retrieve Data:

String selectSQL = "SELECT * FROM students";

ResultSet rs = stmt.executeQuery(selectSQL);

while (rs.next()) {

System.out.println("ID: " + rs.getInt("id") + ", Name: " + rs.getString("name"));

Features:

1. Support for CRUD Operations: JDBC provides methods for creating, reading, updating,
and deleting records.

2. Prepared Statements: Allows for secure and efficient handling of SQL queries with
parameters.
 3. ResultSet: Facilitates retrieving and processing data from SELECT queries.

4. Error Handling: Exception handling is used to catch and manage SQL errors.

5. Auto-commit: By default, JDBC commits changes after each statement, but this can be
controlled.

Advantages:

1. Database Management: Simplifies database operations and allows interaction with

relational databases.

2. Efficient Data Handling: Prepared statements and batch updates improve performance.

3. Security: Using PreparedStatement helps prevent SQL injection attacks.

4. Error Reporting: Exception handling provides detailed error messages.

5. Flexibility: Works with all SQL queries, allowing for a wide range of database interactions.

Disadvantages:

1. SQL Syntax Dependence: SQL queries are dependent on the database's syntax.

2. Error-Prone: Incorrect queries or database misconfigurations can lead to runtime errors.

3. Resource Management: JDBC requires explicit handling of resources like Connection,

Statement, and ResultSet.

4. Database-Specific Code: SQL code may need to be adjusted for different database
systems.

5. Performance Overhead: Frequent database operations may impact performance,

especially without optimization.

Here are detailed notes on Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT), Java Swing, and Event
Handling in Java:

Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT)

Definition:

• The Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT) is a set of APIs used to create graphical user interfaces
(GUIs) in Java.

• It provides a collection of components, such as buttons, text fields, and checkboxes, for
building desktop applications.

• AWT components are platform-dependent and rely on native operating system components
for rendering.

Features:

1. Platform-Dependent: AWT components are rendered using the underlying OS's native
GUI components.

2. Basic Components: Includes fundamental UI components like buttons, text fields, and
labels.

3. Event Handling: AWT has built-in support for handling events like clicks and key presses.
4. Lightweight: AWT is relatively lightweight compared to Swing, relying on the system's
native libraries.

5. Limited Customization: Limited ability to customize the appearance of components, as it

uses OS-native components.

Advantages:

1. Cross-Platform: Works across different operating systems, as it relies on the native GUI
components.

2. Simple to Use: AWT is easy to use for basic GUI development and learning.

3. Direct OS Integration: Seamless integration with the underlying operating system’s GUI.

4. Event Handling Support: Offers support for user interactions through events.

5. Lightweight: It does not require heavy overhead in terms of resources.

Disadvantages:

1. Lack of Flexibility: Limited ability to customize or extend AWT components.

2. Inconsistent Appearance: Since it relies on OS-native components, UI design can vary

across different platforms.

3. Limited Features: AWT does not provide advanced features like complex layouts or UI
elements.

4. Slow Rendering: AWT components may have slower rendering speeds on modern
platforms.

5. Limited Support for Complex Applications: AWT may not be suitable for building
sophisticated or highly interactive applications.

Java Swing

Definition:

• Swing is a more advanced GUI toolkit than AWT. It is a part of the Java Foundation Classes
(JFC).

• Swing components are written entirely in Java, making them platform-independent.

• Swing provides a richer set of components compared to AWT, with better customization
and a more modern look and feel.

Components:

1. JLabel: Used to display a single line of text or image.

2. ImageIcon: Used for displaying images.

3. JButton: A button component that can trigger actions when clicked.

4. JToggleButton: A button that can have two states: pressed or not pressed.

5. JCheckBox: A checkbox component that allows the user to select or deselect an option.

6. JRadioButton: A button that is part of a group of mutually exclusive options.

7. JTextField: A single-line text field for input.

8. JTextArea: A multi-line text area for input and display.

9. JPasswordField: A text field that hides the input text (commonly used for passwords).

10. JList: A list of items from which the user can select.

11. JComboBox: A drop-down list of items from which the user can choose.

Containers:

• JFrame: A top-level window for a GUI application.

• JPanel: A container used to organize components within a frame.

• JScrollPane: A container that allows for scrolling content.

Layout Managers:

1. FlowLayout: Places components in a row, wrapping to the next line if necessary.

2. BorderLayout: Divides the container into five regions: North, South, East, West, and
Center.

3. GridLayout: Divides the container into a grid of cells.

4. BoxLayout: Arranges components either vertically or horizontally.

5. CardLayout: Allows switching between different "cards" of components.

Swing vs AWT:

1. Swing is platform-independent, while AWT is dependent on the native OS.

2. Swing components are more customizable than AWT.

3. Swing uses Java components, while AWT uses native OS components.

4. Swing is more feature-rich, providing advanced features like tooltips, trees, and tables.

5. Swing offers a consistent look and feel across all platforms, while AWT's appearance
may differ based on the OS.

Advantages of Swing:

1. Platform-Independent: Swing components do not rely on the OS, making the

application’s appearance consistent.

2. Highly Customizable: Swing components can be easily customized in terms of

appearance and behavior.

3. Rich Set of Components: Provides a wide range of components for building modern
GUIs.

4. Event Handling: Swing has a robust event-handling model, making it ideal for interactive
applications.

5. Better Look and Feel: Swing offers a more modern and appealing look compared to AWT.

Disadvantages of Swing:

1. Slower than AWT: Swing has a higher performance overhead as compared to AWT due
to its abstraction.

2. More Complex: Swing can be more complex to learn and use, especially for beginners.
 3. Less Support for Lightweight Components: Swing’s use of heavyweight components
can be less efficient than lightweight components in other toolkits.

4. Memory Intensive: Swing applications consume more memory than AWT applications.

5. Not Ideal for Mobile: Swing is more suited for desktop applications and is not commonly
used for mobile development.

Event Handling in Java

Definition:

• Event handling is a mechanism that allows an application to respond to user actions, such
as clicks, keyboard presses, or mouse movements.

• The Event Delegation Model in Java involves an event source that generates an event
and an event listener that handles the event.

Key Components:

1. Event: An object that encapsulates information about an action or change.

2. Event Source: An object that generates events (e.g., a button click).

3. Event Listener: An interface that listens for specific events and responds to them.

4. Event Delegation Model: In this model, the event is sent to the appropriate listener
method rather than directly within the source object.

Event Classes and Interfaces:

• Event Classes: Classes such as ActionEvent, MouseEvent, KeyEvent, and WindowEvent

represent different types of events.

• Event Listener Interfaces: Interfaces such as ActionListener, MouseListener, KeyListener,

and WindowListener define methods that handle different types of events.

Example of Event Handling:

import javax.swing.*;

import java.awt.event.*;

public class ButtonExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {

JFrame frame = new JFrame("Event Handling Example");

JButton button = new JButton("Click Me");

// Event listener for button click

button.addActionListener(new ActionListener() {

public void actionPerformed(ActionEvent e) {

System.out.println("Button clicked!");
 }

});

frame.add(button);

frame.setSize(300, 200);

frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);

frame.setVisible(true);

Features:

1. Event Delegation Model: Events are passed from the source to the listener, making code
modular.

2. Multiple Event Sources: Multiple components can generate events, and listeners can
handle them.

3. Rich Event Handling: Java provides a comprehensive set of event classes and listeners
for different kinds of user interactions.

4. Thread-Safety: Event handling in Java is thread-safe, ensuring safe interaction in multi-

threaded environments.

5. Separation of Concerns: The model allows for a clean separation between the event
source (component) and the event handler (listener).

Advantages:

1. Separation of Logic: Event handling keeps the event source and listener separate,
making the code easier to manage and debug.

2. Ease of Use: Java provides simple interfaces and classes to implement event handling.

3. Scalability: Event handling is scalable, allowing multiple listeners to handle events from
various components.

4. Customization: Events can be customized to handle specific actions or trigger specific

behaviors.

5. Reusability: Event listeners can be reused across different components, making your
code modular and maintainable.

Disadvantages:

1. Complexity: For large applications, managing event handling across many components
can become complex.

2. Memory Leaks: Failing to deregister event listeners can lead to memory leaks.

3. Performance Overhead: Event delegation introduces some performance overhead,

especially in applications with many components.

4. Code Bloat: Having many listeners for different events can lead to bloated code.
5. Hard to Debug: Tracking down the flow of events in large applications can be difficult,
especially if events are not well-organized.