CSE-209

Algorithms-I

Lecture 8

Asymptotic Notation-II

Md. Rafsan Jani

Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Jahangirnagar University
 Substitution method
The most general method:
1. Guess the form of the solution.
2. Verify by induction.
3. Solve for constants.
 Substitution method
The most general method:
1. Guess the form of the solution.
2. Verify by induction.
3. Solve for constants.
EXAMPLE: T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n
•[Assume that T(1) = Θ(1).]
•Guess O(n3) . (Prove O and Ω
separately.)
•Assume that T(k) ≤ ck3 for k < n .
 Example ofsubstitution
T (n) = 4T (n / 2) +
n
≤ 4c(n / 2)3 + n
3
= (c / 2)n + n
= cn3 − ((c / 2)n3 − n) desired – residual
3 desired
≤ cn
whenever (c/2)n3 – n ≥ 0, for example,
if c ≥ 2 and n ≥ 1.
residual
 Example (continued)
•We must also handle the initial conditions,
that is, ground the induction with base
cases.
•Base: T(n) = Θ(1) for all n < n0, where n0
is a suitable constant.
•For 1 ≤ n < n0, we have “Θ(1)” ≤ cn3, if we
pick c big enough.
 Example (continued)
•We must also handle the initial conditions,
that is, ground the induction with base
cases.
•Base: T(n) = Θ(1) for all n < n0, where n0
is a suitable constant.
•For 1 ≤ n < n0, we have “Θ(1)” ≤ cn3, if we
pick c big enough.

This bound is not tight!

 A tighter upper bound?
We shall prove that T(n) = O(n2).
 A tighter upper bound?
We shall prove that T(n) = O(n2).
Assume that T(k) ≤ ck2 for k < n:
T (n) = 4T (n / 2) + n
≤ 4c(n / 2) + n
2

= cn2 + n
= O(n2 )
 A tighter upper bound?
We shall prove that T(n) = O(n2).
Assume that T(k) ≤ ck2 for k < n:
T (n) = 4T (n / 2) + n
≤ 4c(n / 2)2 + n
= cn2 + n
= O(n2 )
Wrong! We must prove the
I.H.
 A tighter upper bound?
We shall prove that T(n) = O(n2).
Assume that T(k) ≤ ck2 for k < n:
T (n) = 4T (n / 2) + n
≤ 4c(n / 2)2 + n
= cn2 + n
= O(n2 )
Wrong! We must prove the
= cn − (−n) [ desired – residual ]
2
I.H. 2
≤ cn for no choice of c > 0.Lose!
 A tighter upper bound!
IDEA: Strengthen the inductive hypothesis.
•Subtract a low-order term.
Inductive hypothesis: T(k) ≤ c1k2 – c2k for k < n.
 A tighter upper bound!
IDEA: Strengthen the inductive hypothesis.
•Subtract a low-order term.
Inductive hypothesis: T(k) ≤ c1k2 – c2k for k < n.
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n
= 4(c1(n/2)2 – c2(n/2)) + n
= c1n2 – 2c2n + n
= c1n2 – c2n – (c2n – n)
≤ c1n2 – c2n if c2 ≥ 1.
 A tighter upper bound!
IDEA: Strengthen the inductive hypothesis.
•Subtract a low-order term.
Inductive hypothesis: T(k) ≤ c1k2 – c2k for k < n.
T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n
= 4(c1(n/2)2 – c2(n/2)) + n
= c1n2 – 2c2n + n
= c1n2 – c2n – (c2n – n)
≤ c1n2 – c2n if c2 ≥ 1.
Pick c1 big enough to handle the initial conditions.
 Recursion-tree method
•A recursion tree models the costs (time) of a
recursive execution of an algorithm.
•The recursion-tree method can be unreliable,
just like any method that uses ellipses (…).
•The recursion-tree method promotes intuition,
however.
•The recursion tree method is good for
generating guesses for the substitution method.
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
T(n)
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
2
n
T(n/4) T(n/2)
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
2
n
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

T(n/16) T(n/8) T(n/8) T(n/4)

 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
2
n
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

…

Θ(1)
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
2
n n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2

(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2

…

Θ(1)
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
2
n n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2 5 2
16 n
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2
…

Θ(1)
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
2
n n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2 5 2
16 n
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2 25 2
256n

…
…

Θ(1)
 Example of recursion tree
Solve T(n) = T(n/4) + T(n/2) + n2:
2
n n2
(n/4)2 (n/2)2 5 2
16 n
(n/16)2 (n/8)2 (n/8)2 (n/4)2 25 2
256n

…
…

Θ(1)
Total =
n 2
(
2
5
1 ++ 5
16 16 16
25
( ) +( ) 3

= Θ(n ) geometric series

+· )
 The master method

The master method applies to recurrences of

the form
T(n) = a T(n/b) + f (n) ,
where a ≥ 1, b > 1, and f is
asymptotically positive.
 Three common cases
Compare f (n) with nlogba:
1. f (n) = O(nlogba – ε) for some constant ε > 0.
•f (n) grows polynomially slower than
nlogba
(by an nε factor).
Solution: T(n) = Θ(nlogba) .
 Three common cases
Compare f (n) with nlogba:
1. f (n) = O(nlogba – ε) for some constant ε > 0.
•f (n) grows polynomially slower than nlogba
(by an nε factor).
Solution: T(n) = Θ(nlogba) .
2. f (n) = Θ(nlogba lgkn) for some constant k ≥
0.
•f (n) and nlogba grow at similar rates.
Solution: T(n) = Θ(nlogba lgk+1n) .
 Three common cases (cont.)
Compare f (n) with nlogba:
3. f (n) = Ω(nlogba + ε) for some constant ε > 0.
•f (n) grows polynomially faster than nlogba
(by an nε factor),
and f (n) satisfies the regularity condition that
af (n/b) ≤ cf (n) for some constant c < 1.
Solution: T(n) = Θ( f (n)) .
 Examples

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n

a = 4, b = 2 ⇒ nlogba = n2; f (n) =
n.
CASE 1: f (n) = O(n2 – ε) for ε = 1.
∴ T(n) = Θ(n2).
 Examples

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n

a = 4, b = 2 ⇒ nlogba = n2; f (n) = n.
CASE 1: f (n) = O(n2 – ε) for ε = 1.
∴ T(n) = Θ(n2).

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2

a = 4, b = 2 ⇒ nlogba = n2; f (n) = n2.
CASE 2: f (n) = Θ(n2lg0n), that is, k = 0.
∴ T(n) = Θ(n2lg n).
 Examples
EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3
a = 4, b = 2 ⇒ nlogba = n2; f (n) = n3.
CASE 3: f (n) = Ω(n2 + ε) for ε = 1
and 4(n/2)3 ≤ cn3 (reg. cond.) for c = 1/2.
∴ T(n) = Θ(n3).
 Examples
EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n3
a = 4, b = 2 ⇒ nlogba = n2; f (n) = n3.
CASE 3: f (n) = Ω(n2 + ε) for ε = 1
and 4(n/2)3 ≤ cn3 (reg. cond.) for c = 1/2.
∴ T(n) = Θ(n3).

EX. T(n) = 4T(n/2) + n2/lg n

a = 4, b = 2 ⇒ nlogba = n2; f (n) = n2/lg n.
Master method does not apply. In particular,
for every constant ε > 0, we have nε = ω(lg
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f a
(n)
f f … f
(n/b) (n/b) (n/b)
2 …
2
f (n/b ) af (n/b2)
f (n/b )
…

Τ (1)
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f f
a
(n) (n)
f f … f af (n/b)
(n/b) (n/b) (n/b)
2 … a2 f
2
f (n/b ) a f (n/b2)
f (n/b ) (n/b2)

…
…

Τ
(1)
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f f
a
(n) (n)
f f … f af (n/b)
h = logbn (n/b) (n/b) (n/b)
2 … a2 f
2
f (n/b ) a f (n/b2)
f (n/b ) (n/b2)

…
…

Τ
(1)
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f f
a
(n) (n)
f f … f af (n/b)
h = logbn (n/b) (n/b) (n/b)
2 … a2 f
2
f (n/b ) a f (n/b2)
f (n/b ) (n/b2)
#leaves = ah

…
…

log n
Τ = a b nlogbaΤ
log a
(1) = n b (1)
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f f
a
(n) (n)
f f … f af (n/b)
h = logbn (n/b) (n/b) (n/b)
2 … a2 f
2
f (n/b ) a f (n/b2)
f (n/b ) (n/b2)

…
…

Τ nlogbaΤ
(1) (1)
log a
Θ(n b )
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f f
a
(n) (n)
f f … f af (n/b)
h = logbn (n/b) (n/b) (n/b)
2 … a2 f
2
f (n/b ) a f (n/b2)
f (n/b ) (n/b2)

…
…

Τ nlogbaΤ
(1) (1)logba
Θ(n lg n)
 Idea of master theorem
Recursion tree:
f f
a
(n) (n)
f f … f af (n/b)
h = logbn (n/b) (n/b) (n/b)
2 … a2 f
2
f (n/b ) a f (n/b2)
f (n/b ) (n/b2)

…
…

Τ nlogbaΤ
(1) (1)
Θ( f
(n))
 Appendix: geometric series

1 + x + x2 · + x n =1− for x ≠ 1
+
n+1
1 −
x x
2 1
1 + x + x +· = for |x| < 1
1−
x
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 Reference
https://ocw.mit.edu/courses/6-046j-intr
oduction-to-algorithms-sma-5503-fall-2
005/pages/readings/