STATISTICS AND PROBABILITY

Second Semester, Final Term

Statistical Inference - processes by which conclusions ●​ We use t-distribution to estimate the population
about parameters in the population are made based on mean when the sample is a random sample.
sample data. ●​ The t-distribution and normal distribution both
A.​ Estimation - any of numerous procedures used have bell shapes, but t-distribution has heavier
to calculate the value of some property of a tails, resulting in a different spread of values.
population from observations of a sample drawn T-Values - “Critical Values of T” in the sense that they
from the population. are the boundaries of the middle area where the true
●​ It involves determining an unknown parameter’s mean lies, also called “Confidence Coefficients”.
value based on sample data. ●​ The t-values found in t-table are the proportions
Estimate - a value or a range of values that approximate of the areas in the two tails of the t-curve.
a parameter. Degrees of Freedom - the number of free choices left
●​ Point Estimate - is a specific numerical value of after a sample statistic is calculated. It is equal to one
a population parameter. The sample mean x̄ is less than the sample size.
the best point estimate of a population mean. ●​ In the t-table, the t-values are based on degrees
●​ Interval Estimate - “Confidence Interval”, is a of freedom (n − 1).
range of values used to estimate a parameter. It Ex.
defines a range within which the value of the 1.​ Find the confidence coefficient given n=6, 90%
property can be expected with a specified degree confidence. (6 − 1 = n=5)
of confidence to fall. 2.015 = ± 2.02, or The researcher is 90% confident that
Confidence Interval - refers to a range of values that is the true mean lies between -2.02 and 2.02.
used to estimate a parameter. 2.​ Find the confidence coefficient given n=6, 95%
Confidence Level - the probability that the interval confidence. (6 − 1 = n=5)
estimate contains the parameter. The three (3) commonly 2.571 = ± 2.57, or The researcher is 95% confident that
used confidence levels are 90%, 95%, and 99%. the true mean lies between -2.57 or 2.57.
●​ Is the probability of correctly rejecting the null 3.​ Find the confidence coefficient given n=16, 99%
hypothesis when it is false. confidence. (16 − 1 = n=15)
Ex. 2.947 = ± 2.95, or The researcher is 99% confident that
n = 20 , df = 19 , Confidence level: 90% , a = 0.10 the true mean lies between -2.95 and 2.95.
t-values = ± 1.729 B.​ Hypothesis Testing - refers the decision-making
Significance Level (Alpha) - is the probability of process for evaluating claims about a population
making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is based on the characteristics of a sample
true. purportedly coming from that population.
●​ To determine if there is enough evidence to
reject a null hypothesis.

T-Distribution - “Student’s t-distribution”, used to

estimate the population mean when the sample size is
small (less than 30), and the population standard
deviation is unknown.

Reviewer By: Janna Micah Gabisan, 11-AH 1

(A.Y. 2024-2025)
 Interpretation: The researcher is 95% confident that the
true population mean sensory rate falls between 7.26 and
9.14.
Lower Limit for Estimation: x̄ − E
Upper Limit for Estimation: x̄ + E
Ex.

Z-Distribution - used to estimate the population mean

when a sample is a random sample, sample size is large
(at least 30), and the population standard deviation (σ) is
known.

Interpretation: We are 99% confident that the true

population mean falls between 0.87 and 1.73.

Reviewer By: Janna Micah Gabisan, 11-AH 1

(A.Y. 2024-2025)
 Inferential Statistics - a branch of statistics that focuses
on making predictions or inferences about a population
based on a sample of data drawn from that population. It
allows us to generalize and draw conclusions beyond
the immediate data available.

Ex.

Hypothesis - the formal statement of the tentative or

expected prediction or explanation of the relationship
between two or more variables in a specified population.
1.​ Null Hypothesis (H₀) - is a statement that there
is no difference between a parameter and a
specific value, or between two (2) parameters.

Reviewer By: Janna Micah Gabisan, 11-AH 1

(A.Y. 2024-2025)
2.​ Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H₁) - is a
statement that there is a difference between a
parameter and a specified value, or between two
(2) parameters.

Reviewer By: Janna Micah Gabisan, 11-AH 1

(A.Y. 2024-2025)
Type I Error - if the null hypothesis is true and rejected,
the decision is incorrect.
Type II Error - if the null hypothesis is false and
accepted, the decision is incorrect.

Reviewer By: Janna Micah Gabisan, 11-AH 1

(A.Y. 2024-2025)