Unit-01

Introduction to Computer Networks

A Computer Network is a system of interconnected computers and devices that can

communicate with each other and share resources, data, and services. Networks can range from
small, local setups to vast, global systems like the internet.

Here are some key aspects of computer networks:

1. Types of Computer Networks:

 LAN (Local Area Network): A network confined to a small geographical area, such as a
home, office, or building. It typically uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi for communication.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): A network that spans large geographic areas, such as
countries or continents. The internet is the most well-known example of a WAN.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): A network that covers a city or a large campus.
 PAN (Personal Area Network): A small network, typically used for personal devices
like phones,laptops, or smart watches, usually within a range of a few meters.

 VPN (Virtual Private Network): A network that uses encryption and secure tunneling
protocols to provide private, secure communication over a public network (e.g., the
internet).

2. Key Components of a Computer Network:

 Devices: These include computers, printers, servers, switches, routers, and other
hardware that communicate within the network.
 Transmission Media: This can be physical (like cables – twisted pair, fiber optics) or
wireless (like Wi-Fi, radio waves).
 Protocols: Set rules for communication between devices. Common protocols include
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol), HTTP (Hypertext Transfer
Protocol), and FTP (File Transfer Protocol).

3. Network Topology:

The network topology refers to the arrangement of the network's components. Common
topologies include:

 Bus Topology: All devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus).
 Star Topology: Devices are connected to a central device (like a hub or switch).
 Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular fashion.
 Mesh Topology: Each device is connected to every other device.

4. Network Devices:
  Router: A device that routes data packets between networks, typically between a local
network and the internet.
 Switch: A device that connects devices within a single network and directs data packets
to the correct destination.
 Hub: A simple device that broadcasts data to all connected devices, but is less efficient
than a switch.
 Modem: A device that modulates and demodulates signals for internet connectivity over
phone lines or cable systems.

5. Network Security:

Protecting data and devices in a network is critical, and several methods and technologies are
used to enhance security:

 Firewalls to block unauthorized access.

 Encryption to protect sensitive data.
 Authentication to ensure only authorized users can access the network.
 VPNs for secure communication.

6. Common Network Services:

 File Sharing: Allows multiple devices to access and share files over the network.
 Internet Access: Sharing internet connectivity among devices in the network.
 Email and Messaging: Communication services within the network, either locally or
over the interne

Network Components

In a computer network, there are several key network components that work together to enable
communication, data transfer, and resource sharing. Here's an overview of the main components:

1. Devices/Nodes:

 Computers/Workstations: Devices used by end users to access and interact with the
network. These could be desktops, laptops, or any device that communicates over the
network.
 Servers: Powerful computers that manage network resources and services (e.g., file
storage, email, databases). Servers can be dedicated to specific tasks like web hosting or
network management.
  Routers: A router connects different networks and directs data packets between them. It
typically routes traffic between local networks (LANs) and the internet (WAN). Routers
manage data traffic based on IP addresses.
 Switches: A switch is a device used to connect devices within a local network (LAN). It
directs data packets between devices on the same network and uses MAC addresses to
forward data to the correct destination.
 Hubs: A hub is a basic device that connects multiple devices in a network, but it sends
data to all devices connected to it, rather than directing it to the correct one. Hubs are
outdated and have largely been replaced by switches.
 Access Points (APs): In wireless networks (Wi-Fi), access points allow wireless devices
to connect to a wired network. They act as a bridge between wireless clients and the
wired network infrastructure.
 Modems: A modem (short for modulator-demodulator) converts digital data from your
network into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines, cable systems, or other
infrastructures, allowing internet connectivity.

2. Transmission Media:

 Wired Media:
o Twisted Pair Cable: Commonly used for Ethernet networks (Cat5, Cat6 cables),
this type of cable consists of pairs of copper wires twisted together, reducing
electrical interference.
o Coaxial Cable: Used for internet connections or cable TV, coaxial cables consist
of a central conductor, insulation, shield, and an outer jacket.
o Fiber Optic Cable: Used for high-speed data transmission over long distances,
fiber optic cables use light signals instead of electrical signals, allowing for faster
and more reliable communication.
 Wireless Media:
o Wi-Fi (Radio Waves): Wireless networks often use radio waves to transmit data
between devices. Wi-Fi uses specific frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
bands) to enable wireless communication.
o Bluetooth: A short-range wireless technology used to connect devices like
headphones, keyboards, or printers to computers or mobile phones.
o Infrared (IR): An older wireless technology used for short-range
communication, often found in remote controls.

3. Protocols:

 TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The core set of protocols

that govern communication on the internet and most private networks. It handles how
data is transmitted and routed from one device to another.
 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): A protocol used for transferring web pages and
resources over the internet.
 FTP (File Transfer Protocol): A protocol used to transfer files between devices over a
network.
  SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): A protocol used to send emails between
servers.
 DNS (Domain Name System): A system that translates human-readable domain names
(like www.example.com) into IP addresses that computers use to communicate.

4. Network Interface Cards (NICs):

 NICs are hardware components that enable devices (like computers, printers, etc.) to
connect to a network. They are either wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi). Each NIC has
a unique MAC address (Media Access Control) that identifies the device on the network.

5. Firewall:

A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic. It can block or allow traffic based on predetermined security rules, protecting the
network from unauthorized access and potential threats.

6. Network Operating System (NOS):

 The Network Operating System manages and controls network devices and services.
Examples include Windows Server, Linux-based systems, and Novell NetWare. These
systems help in tasks like file sharing, network management, and user authentication.

7. Network Cables:

 Ethernet Cables (Cat5e, Cat6): These cables connect devices in a wired LAN. They
transmit data packets between network devices like computers, routers, and switches.
 Fiber Optic Cables: Used for high-speed, long-distance communication, these cables
transmit data using light.

8. Bandwidth and Data Link Layer:

 Bandwidth: The capacity of a network to transmit data. It is measured in bits per second
(bps) or multiples like Mbps (Megabits per second) or Gbps (Gigabits per second).
 Data Link Layer: This layer of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is
responsible for creating a link between devices, handling error detection and correction,
and managing how data is transferred across the physical network.

9. Switching Devices:

 Layer 2 Switch: A switch that operates at the Data Link layer, forwarding data based on
MAC addresses.
 Layer 3 Switch (or Router Switch): A switch that operates at the Network layer,
forwarding data based on IP addresses, similar to a router.

10. Load Balancers:

  Load Balancer: A device or software that distributes network traffic across multiple
servers to ensure no single server is overwhelmed with traffic, improving performance
and reliability.

11. Proxy Servers:

A proxy server is an intermediary server between a client and a destination server. It can
improve network performance, enforce security policies, and provide anonymity by hiding the
client's IP address.

These components interact and work together to form a network that enables devices to
communicate, share data, and access resources effectively. The proper configuration and
integration of these components are crucial for optimal network performance and security.

Elements of Data Communication

Data communication refers to the process of transferring data between devices over a
transmission medium, like cables or airwaves. The elements of data communication are the key
components involved in this process, and each plays a crucial role in ensuring data is transmitted
effectively, accurately, and securely.

Here are the key elements of data communication:

1. Message:

 The message is the data or information that is being communicated. This can be in
various formats, such as text, images, audio, or video. The message is the content that
needs to be transmitted between devices.

2. Sender (Transmitter):

 The sender is the device or entity that generates and sends the message. This could be a
computer, smartphone, or any other network-enabled device. The sender converts the
message into a signal suitable for transmission over the communication medium.

3. Receiver:

 The receiver is the device or entity that receives the transmitted message. It could be
another computer, a mobile phone, or a server. The receiver decodes the signal into a
usable form, reconstructing the original message.

4. Transmission Medium:
  The transmission medium is the physical path that the data travels through between the
sender and receiver. It can be:
o Wired: Cables like copper wires (e.g., Ethernet cables), coaxial cables, or fiber
optic cables.
o Wireless: Radio waves, microwaves, infrared, or satellite connections.

5. Protocol:

 A protocol is a set of rules that defines how data is transmitted and received over a
network. It ensures that both the sender and receiver understand the format, timing, and
error-checking methods for communication. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP,
HTTP, FTP, and SMTP.

6. Encoder (Encoding):

 Encoding is the process of converting the data (message) into a signal suitable for
transmission over the medium. This could involve converting digital data into electrical
signals (in wired networks) or radio waves (in wireless networks).
 Encoder is the hardware or software that performs this conversion. This process is
essential to ensure the data is in a transmittable format.

7. Decoder (Decoding):

 Decoding is the reverse process of encoding. The receiver uses a decoder to interpret the
incoming signal and convert it back into the original message. If any error occurred
during transmission, the decoder may attempt error detection and correction.

8. Receiver's Address:

 For data to reach the correct destination, the receiver's address (e.g., IP address, MAC
address) is essential. The sender must know the receiver's address so it can correctly route
the message through the network.

9. Timing and Synchronization:

 Timing refers to the coordination of when data is sent and when it is expected to arrive.
Data communication requires synchronization between the sender and receiver to ensure
the information is interpreted correctly. There are two main types of timing:
o Synchronous communication: Data is sent in a continuous stream with timing
signals to maintain synchronization.
o Asynchronous communication: Data is sent in discrete chunks or characters
with start and stop bits to separate them.

10. Error Control:

  Error control ensures that any errors that occur during the transmission of data are
detected and corrected. This is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the message.
Methods for error control include parity bits, checksums, and cyclic redundancy
checks (CRC).

11. Flow Control:

 Flow control refers to managing the rate at which data is transmitted between the sender
and receiver to prevent overwhelming either side. Flow control methods include:
o Stop-and-wait: The sender waits for an acknowledgment from the receiver before
sending the next piece of data.
o Sliding window: A more efficient method where multiple pieces of data can be
sent before waiting for an acknowledgment.

12. Modulation/Demodulation (if applicable):

 In analog communication systems, modulation is the process of converting digital data

into analog signals for transmission over a medium (e.g., radio waves). On the receiver
side, demodulation is the process of converting the analog signal back into a digital
format.
 Modems (modulator-demodulator) are devices that perform this function, allowing
digital data to be sent over analog communication channels like phone lines.

13. Bandwidth:

 Bandwidth is the capacity of a communication medium to transmit data. It refers to the

range of frequencies that can be used for communication and is typically measured in bits
per second (bps). Higher bandwidth allows for faster data transmission.

14. Signal:

 A signal is a physical or electromagnetic wave that carries data through the transmission
medium. Signals can be:
o Analog signals: Continuous signals that vary in amplitude or frequency (e.g.,
sound waves).
o Digital signals: Discrete signals that represent data in binary form (0s and 1s).

15. Noise:

 Noise refers to any unwanted interference or disturbance that can degrade the quality of
the signal during transmission. Noise can distort the message and lead to errors, which is
why error control and signal quality are important aspects of data communication.

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model

 The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains how
different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was developed by
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI Model consists of 7
layers and each layer has specific functions and responsibilities. This layered approach
makes it easier for different devices and technologies to work together. OSI Model
provides a clear structure for data transmission and managing network issues. The OSI
Model is widely used as a reference to understand how network systems function.

Layer 1 – Physical Layer

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is responsible for the
actual physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the
form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the
next. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common
physical layer devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of
bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus topology, star topology, or mesh topology.
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex
and full duplex.
Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)
The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to
transmit it to the Host using its MAC address. Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as
Frame. Switches and Bridges are common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and
Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking, “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply
with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in
different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to
transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The sender and receiver’s
IP address are placed in the header by the network layer. Segment in the Network layer is
referred to as Packet. Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and
switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
Layer 4 – Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for
the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is
found. Protocols used in Transport Layer are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure proper data
transmission. It also adds Source and Destination port number in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For
example, when a web application requests a web server, it typically uses port number 80,
 because this is the default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have
default ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards
the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs sequencing and
reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer
and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus,
by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to
the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5 – Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of connections,
management of connections, terminations of sessions between two devices. It also provides
authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely, and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some Messenger
application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which
provides the user with an interface to create the data. This message or so-called Data is
compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s)
so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer
is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
Protocols used in the Presentation Layer are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext, and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Layer 7 – Application Layer
At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application layer
which is implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services to
access the network and for displaying the received information to the user. Protocols used in
the Application layer are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.

Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to access
files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or control files from a
remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services.

Network Services and Protocols

Network services and protocols are essential components of modern networking. They define
how devices communicate over networks, enabling applications, data sharing, and connectivity.
Below is a general overview of some key network services and protocols:

Network Services:
1. DNS (Domain Name System)
o Translates human-readable domain names (like www.example.com) into IP
addresses that computers can use to identify each other on the network.
2. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
o Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices on a network, making it easier to
manage a large number of devices.
3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
o Used for transferring files between systems over a network. It supports both
uploading and downloading files.
4. HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol / HyperText Transfer Protocol
Secure)
o The foundation of data communication on the web. HTTP is used for retrieving
web pages, and HTTPS adds a layer of encryption for secure communication.
5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
o Used for sending email messages between servers. It’s a fundamental protocol for
email delivery.
6. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
o Used for network management. It enables devices like routers, switches, and
servers to be monitored and configured remotely.
7. NTP (Network Time Protocol)
o Ensures that all devices on a network have synchronized clocks, which is critical
for time-sensitive operations.
8. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
o Creates a secure and encrypted connection over the internet between a client and a
server, allowing remote users to securely access a private network.

Network Protocols

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)

o A connection-oriented protocol that ensures reliable data transmission between
devices. It guarantees that data is delivered in the correct order and without errors.
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
o A connectionless protocol that is faster but does not guarantee reliable delivery,
order, or error checking. It's used in applications like video streaming where
speed is more critical than reliability.
3. IP (Internet Protocol)
o Defines the addressing scheme for devices on a network and is responsible for
routing data packets from the source to the destination across multiple networks.
4. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)
o Used for diagnostic purposes and error reporting. For example, the ping command
uses ICMP to test connectivity between devices.
5. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)
o Resolves IP addresses to MAC (Media Access Control) addresses, which are used
for communication on local networks.
6. SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer / Transport Layer Security)
 oProtocols designed to provide secure communication over a network, commonly
used to encrypt HTTP traffic (i.e., HTTPS).
7. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)
o A protocol for retrieving emails from a server. Unlike POP3, IMAP allows users
to manage and organize emails directly on the server.
8. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
o Another protocol for retrieving emails, but it typically downloads messages from
the server to the client and removes them from the server, making it less flexible
than IMAP.

TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet.
This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication
between devices.
It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport Layer, and the
Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage different aspects of
network communication, making it essential for understanding and working with modern
networks.
TCP/IP was designed and developed by the Department of Defense (DoD) in the 1960s and is
based on standard protocols.
The TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI model. It contains four layers, unlike the
seven layers in the OSI model. In this article, we are going to discuss the TCP/IP model in
detail.
TCP/IP model was developed alongside the creation of the ARPANET, which later became the
foundation of the modern internet.
It was designed with a focus on the practical aspects of networking at the time. The lower-level
hardware details and physical transmission medium were largely abstracted away in favor of
higher-level networking protocols.
What Does TCP/IP Do?
The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to another. The
main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate so that the receiver will
receive the same information which is sent by the sender. To ensure that, each message reaches
its final destination accurately, the TCP/IP model divides its data into packets and combines
them at the other end, which helps in maintaining the accuracy of the data while transferring
from one end to another end.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer
The diagrammatic comparison of the TCP/IP and OSI model is as follows:
1. Network Access Layer
The Network Access Layer represents a collection of applications that require network
communication. This layer is responsible for generating data and initiating connection
requests. It operates on behalf of the sender to manage data transmission, while the Network
Access layer on the receiver’s end processes and manages incoming data. In this article, we
will focus on its role from the receiver’s perspective.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access layer.
Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link layer protocols.
2. Internet or Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP:IP stands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers. IP
has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently. But
IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when compared to
the number of users.
 ICMP:ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network problems.
 ARP:ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware address
of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP,
Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
The Internet Layer is a layer in the Internet Protocol (IP) suite, which is the set of protocols
that define the Internet. The Internet Layer is responsible for routing packets of data from one
device to another across a network. It does this by assigning each device a unique IP address,
which is used to identify the device and determine the route that packets should take to reach
it.
Example: Imagine that you are using a computer to send an email to a friend. When you click
“send,” the email is broken down into smaller packets of data, which are then sent to the
Internet Layer for routing. The Internet Layer assigns an IP address to each packet and uses
routing tables to determine the best route for the packet to take to reach its destination. The
packet is then forwarded to the next hop on its route until it reaches its destination. When all of
the packets have been delivered, your friend’s computer can reassemble them into the original
email message.
In this example, the Internet Layer plays a crucial role in delivering the email from your
computer to your friend’s computer. It uses IP addresses and routing tables to determine the
best route for the packets to take, and it ensures that the packets are delivered to the correct
destination. Without the Internet Layer, it would not be possible to send data across the
Internet.
3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and retransmit
missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-end
communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another using TCP as though they were physically
connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-by-character
transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes the connection,
the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the connection make
up this transmission.
 UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided by UDP , the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
4. Application Layer
The Application Layer in the TCP/IP model combines the functions of three layers from
the OSI model: the Application, Presentation, and Session layers. This layer is analogous to
the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-
free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications from the complexities of data. The
three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the World
Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers. HTTPS stands
for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket Layer). It is
efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in, authenticate, and carry
out bank transactions.
 SSH:SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted connection.
It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP:NTP stands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank transactions.
Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you carry out a
transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server records it at
2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
The host-to-host layer is a layer in the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model that is
responsible for providing communication between hosts (computers or other devices) on a
network. It is also known as the transport layer.
Some common use cases for the host-to-host layer include:
 Reliable Data Transfer: The host-to-host layer ensures that data is transferred reliably
between hosts by using techniques like error correction and flow control. For example, if a
packet of data is lost during transmission, the host-to-host layer can request that the packet
be retransmitted to ensure that all data is received correctly.
 Segmentation and Reassembly: The host-to-host layer is responsible for breaking up
large blocks of data into smaller segments that can be transmitted over the network, and
then reassembling the data at the destination. This allows data to be transmitted more
efficiently and helps to avoid overloading the network.
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing: The host-to-host layer is responsible for multiplexing
data from multiple sources onto a single network connection, and then demultiplexing the
data at the destination. This allows multiple devices to share the same network connection
and helps to improve the utilization of the network.
 End-to-End Communication: The host-to-host layer provides a connection-oriented
service that allows hosts to communicate with each other end-to-end, without the need for
intermediate devices to be involved in the communication.

Transmission modes refer to the direction in which data is transmitted between devices on a
network. These modes define the flow of information and how the communication occurs. There
are three primary transmission modes:

1. Simplex
2. Half-Duplex
3. Full-Duplex

1. Simplex Mode

 Definition: Simplex is a one-way communication mode where data is transmitted in only

one direction. The sender can send data, but the receiver cannot send data back to the
sender.
 Characteristics:
o Unidirectional: Data flows in one direction only.
o Example: Television broadcasts or radio signals. The television station sends
signals, and the receiver (television) can only receive them.
o Uses: Simplex communication is useful for situations where feedback from the
receiver is not necessary.
 Example of Simplex Devices:
o Keyboards (data sent from keyboard to computer, no data is sent from computer
to keyboard).
o Traditional radio broadcasting.

2. Half-Duplex Mode
  Definition: Half-Duplex is a communication mode where data transmission can occur in
both directions, but not at the same time. Each device in the communication channel can
both send and receive data, but only one device can transmit at a time.
 Characteristics:
o Bidirectional: Data can flow in both directions, but not simultaneously.
o Turn-Based: The sender and receiver alternate their roles, meaning one device
sends data while the other receives, then they switch.
o Example: Walkie-talkies or CB radios, where one person speaks while the other
listens, and then they switch.
 Example of Half-Duplex Devices:
o Walkie-talkies.
o Traditional two-way radios.
o Fax machines (the machine can either send or receive at a time, not both
simultaneously).

3. Full-Duplex Mode

 Definition: Full-Duplex is a mode where data can be transmitted and received

simultaneously, allowing two-way communication at the same time.
 Characteristics:
o Bidirectional: Data can flow in both directions simultaneously.
o Efficient: Both devices can transmit and receive data at the same time, leading to
faster communication.
o Example: Telephone calls or modern internet communication (like video
conferencing), where both parties can talk and listen simultaneously.
 Example of Full-Duplex Devices:
o Telephones.
o Cellular phones.
o Most modern networking devices, such as Ethernet networks, which can send and
receive data at the same time.

Comparison of Transmission Modes

Feature Simplex Half-Duplex Full-Duplex

Two-way (one at a
Data Flow One-way (unidirectional) Two-way (simultaneous)
time)
Communication Sender ↔ Receiver Sender ↔ Receiver
Sender → Receiver
Type (alternating) (simultaneous)
TV broadcast, keyboard Walkie-talkie, CB Telephones, Ethernet
Example
to computer radios communication
Cost & Moderate cost and Most expensive and
Least expensive, simplest
Complexity complexity complex
Summary:

 Simplex mode is used when communication only needs to go in one direction, like a
broadcast.
 Half-duplex mode is suitable when the communication direction alternates but doesn't
need to happen at the same time.
 Full-duplex mode is ideal when simultaneous, real-time communication is needed, like
in phone calls or most modern internet systems.

These modes help design systems that are appropriate for specific communication needs, from
broadcast systems to interactive two-way communication.

Signal Transmission

Signal transmission refers to the process of sending data from one point to another over a
communication medium, such as cables, air (wireless), or fiber optics. The data is converted into
signals that can be transmitted and interpreted by receiving devices.

There are several key concepts and types of signals involved in signal transmission:

1. Types of Signals

There are two primary types of signals used for transmission:

Analog Signals:

 Definition: Analog signals are continuous waves that vary smoothly over time. They
represent data using a range of values.
 Characteristics:
o Continuous: Analog signals change continuously in amplitude or frequency.
o Representation: Analog signals are represented by sine waves, which have
varying amplitude and frequency.
o Example: Traditional radio signals, sound waves, and analog TV signals.
 Advantages:
o Can represent a wide range of values.
o Analog signals are often more "natural" for many forms of data like sound.
 Disadvantages:
o Susceptible to distortion and noise over long distances.
o Degradation of signal quality over time.

Digital Signals:

 Definition: Digital signals represent data using discrete values, typically 0s and 1s
(binary).
 Characteristics:
 o Discrete: Data is transmitted in the form of bits (binary digits), which can only
take values of 0 or 1.
o Representation: Digital signals are represented by square waves, with sharp
transitions between high and low values.
o Example: Computer data, Ethernet transmission, modern telecommunication
systems.
 Advantages:
o Less prone to noise and interference.
o Easy to regenerate and amplify over long distances without loss of quality.
 Disadvantages:
o Limited to discrete data, requiring encoding for continuous signals like audio and
video.

2. Transmission Mediums

Signal transmission takes place over a variety of mediums, depending on the type of signal and
the environment. These are the most common mediums:

Wired Transmission Media:

 Twisted Pair Cables: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
Commonly used in telephone lines and Ethernet networks.
 Coaxial Cables: A central conductor surrounded by insulation, shielding, and an outer
cover. Used for cable television and broadband internet.
 Fiber Optic Cables: Uses light signals to transmit data, offering high-speed and long-
distance transmission with minimal signal loss.

Wireless Transmission Media:

 Radio Waves: Used in communication systems like mobile phones, Wi-Fi, and
Bluetooth.
 Microwave: Uses high-frequency radio waves for long-distance communication, such as
satellite communication.
 Infrared: Short-range communication, used in remote controls, and some wireless
devices.
 Visible Light: Emerging technologies like Li-Fi use visible light for data transmission.

3. Signal Modulation

Since raw signals (analog or digital) may not always be suitable for long-distance transmission,
modulation is applied to make signals compatible with transmission mediums, especially in
analog communication.
Modulation Types:

 Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varies the amplitude of the carrier signal to encode data.
Commonly used in AM radio broadcasting.
 Frequency Modulation (FM): Varies the frequency of the carrier signal to encode data.
Used in FM radio broadcasting.
 Phase Modulation (PM): Varies the phase of the carrier wave to encode data. Often
used in digital communication systems like GPS.
 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): Combines both amplitude and phase
modulation to transmit data efficiently over a limited bandwidth. Used in cable modems
and digital television.

Digital Modulation Techniques:

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Uses different frequencies to represent binary data.
 Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Modifies the phase of the carrier wave to encode binary data.
 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK): Uses four different phases to encode data,
allowing more data to be transmitted in the same bandwidth.
 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM): A method of encoding digital
data on multiple carrier frequencies, often used in Wi-Fi, LTE, and digital TV.

4. Signal Attenuation, Noise, and Interference

During signal transmission, signals may degrade due to attenuation, noise, and interference:

Attenuation:

 Refers to the loss of signal strength as it travels over a transmission medium.

 Over long distances, the signal weakens, which may result in data loss or distortion.
Amplifiers or repeaters are used to boost the signal.

Noise:

 Noise is any unwanted signal that disrupts the communication process.

o Thermal Noise: Random fluctuations in electrical circuits.
o Cross-talk: Signals from nearby wires or cables interfere with the transmitted
signal.
o Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Interference from electrical devices or
machinery.
Interference:

 Interference occurs when signals from multiple sources overlap, leading to a degradation
in the quality of the received signal.
o Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measure of signal quality. A higher ratio means
less noise and better communication quality.

5. Signal Propagation

The way a signal travels through a medium is crucial to understanding transmission. There are
several propagation methods:

 Line-of-Sight Propagation: Requires a direct path between the transmitter and receiver.
Common in microwave and satellite communications.
 Ground Wave Propagation: The signal follows the Earth's curvature. Used in AM radio
transmissions.
 Skywave Propagation: Signals are reflected by the ionosphere, allowing communication
over long distances, such as in shortwave radio.

6. Error Detection and Correction

During transmission, errors can occur due to noise, interference, or other factors. Mechanisms
are in place to detect and correct these errors:

 Parity Bits: A simple error-detection method, where a parity bit is added to ensure that
the total number of 1-bits is either even or odd.
 Checksums: A method of error-checking by adding a calculated value to the transmitted
data, which can be verified by the receiver.
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A more complex error-detection mechanism that
checks for changes to raw data during transmission.
 Forward Error Correction (FEC): Allows the receiver to detect and correct errors
without needing a retransmission.

Conclusion

Signal transmission is the foundation of communication systems, enabling the transfer of data
across distances. The type of signal (analog or digital), the choice of transmission medium, the
use of modulation techniques, and mechanisms for error correction all contribute to the
effectiveness of communication. Understanding these factors is essential for optimizing network
performance, improving signal quality, and reducing transmission errors.

Switching Techniques

Switching techniques are methods used to route data between different devices or networks in
communication systems. They determine how data is transferred from one point to another,
either within a network or across different networks. Switching can be performed using various
methods, depending on the type of network (e.g., circuit-switched or packet-switched) and the
nature of the data being transmitted.

Types of Switching Techniques:

1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching

1. Circuit Switching:

Circuit Switching is a communication method used in networks where a dedicated

communication path (or circuit) is established between the sender and receiver for the entire
duration of the communication. This technique was widely used in traditional telephone systems
and is still used in some types of communication networks.

How Circuit Switching Works

1. Establishing the Circuit:

o Before any communication begins, a dedicated path (or circuit) is established
between the sender and receiver.
o This path is reserved exclusively for the communication session, meaning no
other user can access the resources (bandwidth) on that path while the call or data
transfer is ongoing.
2. Data Transfer:
o Once the circuit is established, data (such as voice or video) can be transmitted
along the path in a continuous stream without interruption.
o Since the path is dedicated, the data flow is consistent, and there is no interference
from other users on the same channel.
3. Circuit Release:
o After the communication is completed, the circuit is released and the dedicated
resources (like bandwidth and routing paths) are freed for future use.

Key Characteristics of Circuit Switching

  Dedicated Path: A physical or virtual circuit is reserved for the entire communication
session. The resources are exclusively used by the sender and receiver for the duration of
the session.
 Continuous Transmission: Once the circuit is established, data can flow without
interruption. This makes it ideal for real-time communication, such as voice calls.
 Fixed Bandwidth: The dedicated path ensures that bandwidth is fixed, and there is no
sharing or dynamic allocation of resources.
 Setup Time: The process of setting up the circuit before communication can begin
introduces a setup delay. This delay is often negligible for voice calls, but can be
significant for other types of data transmission.
 Inefficient for Bursty Data: Circuit switching can be inefficient when the
communication doesn't continuously use the full bandwidth (e.g., bursty or intermittent
data). This is because the resources remain reserved for the entire duration of the call,
even if no data is being transmitted at times.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

1. Predictable and Consistent:

o Since the circuit is dedicated, the quality of the communication is predictable. For
example, voice communication via circuit-switched networks usually has low
delay and no jitter, making it ideal for real-time applications like phone calls.
2. No Contention for Resources:
o Since the communication path is reserved for the session, there is no contention
for bandwidth during the communication, ensuring stable transmission.
3. Guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS):
o For real-time communication (like voice and video), circuit-switched networks
offer guaranteed bandwidth, ensuring that calls or data transfers happen without
interruptions or delays.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

1. Inefficient Resource Usage:

o If the communication session is not actively sending data (for instance, during
pauses in conversation), the dedicated resources are still reserved and not
available to others, leading to inefficiency.
2. Scalability Issues:
o Circuit-switched networks can be hard to scale for large numbers of users because
they require a separate dedicated path for each call or session. This can lead to
network congestion or resource wastage if the demand exceeds the available
circuits.
3. Setup Delay:
o Establishing a dedicated circuit before communication starts introduces a delay.
For voice calls, this setup time is usually short, but it can be more noticeable in
data networks.
4. Fixed Bandwidth Allocation:
 o The bandwidth is fixed for the session, which may not be suitable for data that
varies in size or requires flexibility, such as internet browsing or file transfers.

Applications of Circuit Switching

 Traditional Telephone Networks (PSTN):

o Circuit switching is the backbone of the traditional public switched telephone
network (PSTN). When you make a phone call, a dedicated circuit is established
for the entire duration of the conversation.
 ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network):
o ISDN uses circuit switching for voice and data transmission. It guarantees a
consistent and dedicated bandwidth for communication.
 Leased Line Connections:
o In some private networks or for specific applications, businesses may use circuit-
switched connections (like leased lines) where a dedicated path is used for
communication between two locations.

2. Packet Switching:

Packet Switching is a method used to transmit data over a network by breaking it down into
smaller, manageable units called packets. These packets are independently routed through the
network to their destination, where they are reassembled in the correct order. This method is the
foundation of modern data communication, including the Internet.

How Packet Switching Works

1. Data Segmentation:
o The data to be transmitted (e.g., a file, an email, or a web page) is broken down
into smaller pieces called packets.
o Each packet typically contains a portion of the original data, along with
information such as the source and destination addresses, a sequence number (to
maintain order), and error-checking information.
2. Packet Routing:
o Packets are sent independently through the network. Each packet may take a
different route based on the current network conditions (e.g., congestion,
availability of paths).
o Routers or intermediate network devices examine the destination address in each
packet and determine the best path for it to take toward its destination.
o Packets do not follow a fixed path, which is why the method is called
"connectionless". If a particular path is congested or unavailable, the router will
forward the packet through a different route.
3. Reassembly at the Destination:
o Once all packets arrive at the destination, they are reassembled into the original
message using the sequence numbers included in each packet.
o If any packet is lost or corrupted during transmission, it can be retransmitted,
depending on the protocol used (e.g., TCP).
 4. Error Handling:
o Packets include error-checking codes (like checksums) to detect and correct
transmission errors. If an error is detected, the packet is discarded, and the sender
is notified to resend the packet.

Key Characteristics of Packet Switching

 Connectionless Communication:
o No dedicated path is established before the transmission. Each packet is sent
independently, and the route is determined dynamically.
o It is flexible because packets can take different routes to avoid network
congestion or failures.
 Data Breakdown into Packets:
o The original message is divided into smaller packets, which allows for efficient
use of network resources.
o This approach ensures that the network does not have to reserve a large amount of
bandwidth for the entire communication.
 Store-and-Forward:
o Routers temporarily store packets before forwarding them to the next hop. This
can lead to variable delays depending on the network conditions.
 Routing Decisions:
o Routers decide the best path for each packet based on current network conditions,
such as load and congestion. The routing is dynamic and adapts to changes in the
network.
 Error Detection and Recovery:
o Error-checking methods (e.g., checksums) are used to ensure that data is
accurately transmitted. If packets are lost or corrupted, they can be retransmitted
by the sender (if using protocols like TCP).

Advantages of Packet Switching

1. Efficient Use of Resources:

o Resource sharing: Since there is no dedicated circuit, bandwidth is shared
dynamically. This allows multiple users to send data simultaneously over the
same network infrastructure, increasing efficiency.
o Better for Bursty Traffic: Since data is divided into smaller packets, the network
can handle intermittent bursts of traffic efficiently without requiring constant
allocation of dedicated resources.
2. Scalability:
o Packet switching works well for large networks because the resources (such as
routers and bandwidth) are used dynamically and are not tied to specific
connections.
o The network can accommodate many users without the need to set up dedicated
paths for each user.
3. Fault Tolerance:
 o If a particular path in the network is congested or fails, packets can be rerouted
through alternative paths. This makes packet switching more resilient to network
failures than circuit switching.
4. Flexibility:
o Multiple applications (like email, web browsing, and file transfers) can coexist on
the same network. Each application uses the resources when needed, and the
network efficiently manages the data flow.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

1. Variable Latency:
o Since packets can take different paths, some packets may arrive later than others.
This can result in delay jitter, especially for real-time communication (like voice
and video), which may affect the quality of service.
2. Overhead:
o Each packet includes additional information like header data (source/destination
address, sequence number, error-checking), which adds overhead to the
transmission. For large amounts of data, this can be inefficient.
3. Reassembly and Ordering Issues:
o Since packets may arrive in a different order, the receiving system must handle
reordering. If any packets are lost, they must be retransmitted, which can cause
delays.
4. Security Concerns:
o As packets can be routed through various intermediate devices, there are potential
security risks related to data interception, unauthorized access, and tampering.

Types of Packet Switching Protocols

1. Connectionless Packet Switching:

o In this mode, there is no setup or continuous path for communication. Each packet
is routed independently based on the current network conditions. UDP (User
Datagram Protocol) is an example of a connectionless protocol.
o Used when low latency is crucial, and some data loss is acceptable, such as in
real-time applications like VoIP or video streaming.
2. Connection-Oriented Packet Switching:
o In this approach, a connection is established between the sender and receiver
before transmission begins. While packets are still routed individually, the
network maintains a logical connection for the duration of the communication.
o TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is an example of a connection-oriented
protocol. It ensures reliable delivery of data and reorders packets as needed.

Applications of Packet Switching

1. Internet Communication:
 o The backbone of the internet relies on packet switching. Web pages, emails,
videos, and other data are broken into packets and transmitted over the internet,
reassembled at their destination.
2. Voice over IP (VoIP):
o VoIP services like Skype or Zoom use packet switching for voice communication,
where voice data is transmitted in packets. VoIP uses protocols like UDP to
minimize latency.
3. File Transfer Protocols:
o File transfer services (e.g., FTP) use packet switching to transfer files over the
internet. The data is broken into packets, and the entire file is reassembled at the
destination.
4. Wireless Networks (Wi-Fi, LTE):
o Modern wireless networks (like Wi-Fi, 4G LTE) use packet switching for data
transmission. This allows multiple users to share the same bandwidth efficiently.

3. Message Switching:

Message Switching is a store-and-forward communication method where entire messages are

sent from one node (router or intermediate device) to the next in their entirety. The message is
stored temporarily at each node until the next node is ready to receive and forward it. This
process continues until the message reaches its final destination.

Unlike circuit switching or packet switching, message switching does not require a dedicated
path between sender and receiver, and the entire message is sent at once, not in fragments.

How Message Switching Works

1. Message Creation:
o The sender creates a complete message, which can vary in size, such as a letter,
email, or large data file. This message is sent to the first node (typically a router
or switching station) in the network.
2. Storage at Intermediate Nodes:
o Each node in the network stores the entire message temporarily in memory before
forwarding it. The node checks if the next node is ready to receive the message. If
the next node is busy or unavailable, the message waits in the queue until it can be
forwarded.
3. Forwarding the Message:
o When the next node is available, the message is forwarded. This process
continues from node to node until it reaches the destination.
4. Delivery at the Destination:
o When the message reaches its destination, the receiver can read or process the
message, which has been stored and forwarded through the network.
5. Error Handling:
 o If a message is lost or corrupted during transmission, the sender may be notified,
and the message can be retransmitted from the original source.

Key Characteristics of Message Switching

 Store-and-Forward:
o At each node, the entire message is temporarily stored before being forwarded to
the next node. This can lead to significant delays, especially if the message is
large or the network is congested.
 No Dedicated Path:
o Unlike circuit switching, message switching does not reserve a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver. Messages are routed through the network on an
as-needed basis.
 Variable Transmission Time:
o Since the message is stored at each node and forwarded when the next node is
ready, the overall transmission time can be unpredictable and vary depending on
network conditions and node availability.
 Message Integrity:
o The entire message is transmitted as a single unit, so the order of the message is
preserved. If any portion of the message is lost or corrupted, the entire message
must be retransmitted.

Advantages of Message Switching

1. Efficient Use of Resources:

o Because no dedicated path is needed, resources are used efficiently, and nodes are
only involved in the transmission when necessary.
2. Reliability:
o If a message cannot be delivered immediately (e.g., due to congestion or
unavailable nodes), it is stored and forwarded later. This gives message switching
greater reliability compared to circuit switching.
3. Scalability:
o Message switching can scale to larger networks because no dedicated paths need
to be established between each sender and receiver, making it more flexible for
systems with numerous users.
4. Error Handling:
o Since the message is stored at each node, error detection and correction can be
handled more easily. If a node detects an error, it can discard the message and
request a retransmission.

Disadvantages of Message Switching

 1. High Delay:
o Since each message is stored at each node before being forwarded, the
transmission delay can be significant, particularly for large messages or in a
congested network. This makes it unsuitable for real-time communications.
2. Inefficient for Large Messages:
o If a message is very large, storing it at each node can take up significant memory,
and forwarding it may be slow. This is particularly problematic for networks with
limited resources.
3. No Support for Real-Time Communication:
o The high latency and the store-and-forward process make message switching
unsuitable for applications that require low latency or real-time interaction (e.g.,
voice or video calls).
4. Network Congestion:
o If a node is busy or has limited resources, it may cause delays in forwarding
messages, potentially creating bottlenecks and increasing network congestion.

Applications of Message Switching

 Telegraph Networks:
o One of the earliest uses of message switching was in telegraph networks, where
messages were passed through various stations and stored until the next available
station could forward them.
 Satellite Communications:
o In early satellite communication systems, message switching was used to store
and forward messages from one ground station to another. Due to long
transmission delays between Earth stations and satellites, this method was more
suitable than continuous communication.
 Email Systems:
o In some early email systems, messages were stored at intermediate servers (mail
servers) before being forwarded to the final destination. While modern email
systems generally use other protocols (e.g., SMTP), message switching was part
of the early email infrastructure.
Message Switching vs. Other Switching Techniques

Feature Message Switching Circuit Switching Packet Switching

Dedicated path No dedicated path;

No dedicated path; message
Path Setup established before packets routed
routed independently
communication independently

Data divided into

Transmission Entire message transmitted Continuous stream of
packets, routed
Type at once data
independently

Less efficient for large

Low efficiency for bursty High efficiency, shared
Efficiency messages, delays at each
traffic bandwidth
node

High delay (due to store- Variable delay due to

Delay Low delay after setup
and-forward) routing and congestion

Easy error detection;

Error No error handling; call Packet retransmission if
retransmission of entire
Handling dropped if error occurs needed, error checking
message

Older telegraph systems,

Traditional phone Internet, VoIP, email,
Example message-based
systems, ISDN file transfers
communication

Physical Transmission

Physical Transmission refers to the process of transferring data over a communication medium
(such as a wire, optical fiber, or through the air) using physical signals. It is the lowest layer of
the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, specifically the Physical Layer, which is
responsible for the actual transmission of raw bits over a medium.

Key Concepts of Physical Transmission

1. Transmission Medium:
o This is the physical pathway through which data is transmitted. It can be guided
or unguided.
  Guided Media:
These involve physical cables that guide the data signals from one point to
another. Examples include:
 Twisted Pair Cable: Two insulated copper wires twisted together.
Commonly used in telephone networks and Ethernet cables.
 Coaxial Cable: A central conductor surrounded by insulation, a
metal shield, and an outer layer. It’s used for cable TV and
broadband internet connections.
 Fiber Optic Cable: Uses light pulses transmitted through glass or
plastic fibers. It's the fastest and most reliable medium, used for
long-distance communication, internet backbones, and
telecommunications.
 Unguided Media:
These involve transmitting signals through the air, without the need for
physical cables. Examples include:
 Radio Waves: Used for Wi-Fi, cellular networks, and television
broadcasts.
 Microwave: Used for point-to-point communication, often in
satellite communication or wireless networks.
 Infrared: Often used for short-range communication, such as in
remote controls.
 Satellite Communication: Uses high-frequency radio waves sent
between the Earth and satellites in space.
2. Signal Types:
o Physical transmission relies on different types of signals to represent data. These
can either be analog or digital signals.
 Analog Signals:
These signals vary continuously and are represented by a smooth,
continuous wave. They are used in traditional phone lines and some
broadcasting systems.
 Example: The sound waves in voice communication are analog.
 Digital Signals:
These signals use discrete values, typically represented as binary (0s and
1s). Digital transmission is less susceptible to noise and can be
compressed and encrypted, making it the preferred method for modern
communication.
 Example: Computer data, internet traffic, and digital telephony are
transmitted using digital signals.
3. Modulation and Demodulation:
o Since raw data (like binary 0s and 1s) cannot directly travel through most physical
transmission mediums, modulation is used to convert the data into a suitable
format for transmission.
 Modulation: The process of changing a carrier signal to encode the data.
This is done by varying some aspect of the carrier wave (e.g., amplitude,
frequency, or phase) to represent the binary data.
  Amplitude Modulation (AM): The amplitude of the carrier signal
is varied to represent data.
 Frequency Modulation (FM): The frequency of the carrier wave
is varied.
 Phase Modulation (PM): The phase of the carrier signal is varied.
 Demodulation: The reverse process where the modulated signal is
converted back into the original data at the receiving end.
4. Transmission Rate (Bandwidth):
o Bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted over a channel in a
given period (usually measured in bits per second or bps).
o Higher bandwidth allows for the transmission of more data at once, making it
ideal for applications that require high-speed data transfer, such as streaming
video or large file transfers.
o Bandwidth vs. Throughput:
 Bandwidth is the maximum capacity of the transmission medium.
 Throughput is the actual data transfer rate achieved, which is often lower
than the bandwidth due to factors like network congestion or signal
interference.
5. Transmission Modes:
o Transmission mode refers to the direction in which data flows between devices.
There are three primary transmission modes:
 Simplex: Data flows in only one direction, like a radio broadcast or TV
transmission.
 Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but not at the same time, like
walkie-talkies or traditional radio communication.
 Full-Duplex: Data can flow in both directions simultaneously, like
telephones or modern internet connections.
6. Signal Attenuation and Amplification:
o Attenuation: Over distance, signals weaken (attenuate) due to the inherent
resistance and interference in the transmission medium. This weakening limits the
range of the transmission.
 Loss of Signal Strength: This occurs in electrical wires and fiber-optic
cables and can degrade signal quality. In copper wires, this is a major
issue as the signal can be lost or corrupted over long distances.
o Amplification: To counter attenuation, amplifiers or repeaters are used to boost
the signal.
 In fiber optics, optical amplifiers boost the light signal without
converting it to an electrical signal.
 In copper wires, electrical amplifiers regenerate and amplify the analog
signal.
7. Noise and Interference:
o Noise refers to unwanted electrical signals that interfere with the intended signal,
potentially causing data errors. It can come from various sources, such as
electrical equipment, weather conditions, or poor shielding.
 Thermal Noise: This occurs due to the random movement of electrons in
a conductor, creating a constant, low-level noise.
  Crosstalk: Unwanted interference between adjacent cables or channels.
 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): External signals that can corrupt
data transmission, such as from motors, high-voltage power lines, or
nearby devices.
o Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):
A higher SNR indicates that the signal is much stronger than the noise, leading to
more reliable transmission. A lower SNR increases the likelihood of data errors,
requiring error-correcting protocols.
8. Error Detection and Correction:
o To ensure that the data arrives correctly, error-detection and correction methods
are often applied in the physical layer or higher layers. Techniques include:
 Checksums: Adding a calculated value to the message for error detection.
 Parity Bits: Adding an extra bit to a byte to ensure the total number of 1s
is even or odd.
 Forward Error Correction (FEC): Using redundancy to detect and
correct errors without needing retransmission.
9. Multiplexing:
o Multiplexing refers to the technique of combining multiple signals into one
signal over a shared medium. It maximizes the use of available bandwidth and
increases transmission efficiency.
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): Divides the available bandwidth
into time slots, with each signal being transmitted in its own time slot.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): Divides the available
bandwidth into frequency bands, with each signal being transmitted in its
own frequency band.
 Code Division Multiplexing (CDM): Uses unique codes to distinguish
signals transmitted on the same frequency channel.

Physical Layer Technologies

 Ethernet:
A common physical layer technology used in local area networks (LANs). It uses
copper cables (twisted pair or coaxial cables) or fiber optics for data transmission.
 Wi-Fi:
A wireless communication technology based on the IEEE 802.11 standard, using radio
waves to transmit data over short to medium ranges.
 Bluetooth:
A short-range wireless communication technology for transferring data between devices
over a short distance using radio waves.
 Fiber Optics:
Uses light signals to carry data at extremely high speeds over long distances. Fiber optics
provide much higher bandwidth and lower signal attenuation compared to copper cables.
 5G Networks:
The fifth generation of mobile wireless technology, using high-frequency radio waves to
provide faster data speeds, lower latency, and support for a large number of devices in
densely populated areas.
Conclusion

Physical transmission is the foundation of all data communication. The physical layer handles
the actual transmission of raw data bits over a medium, whether through wired (fiber-optic,
coaxial, or twisted-pair cables) or wireless (radio waves, microwaves) means. The quality and
efficiency of physical transmission depend on factors like the transmission medium, signal
type, bandwidth, and noise interference. Understanding these fundamental aspects is critical
for optimizing and troubleshooting communication systems in modern networks.