IS204

What Is a Network Protocol, and How Does It Work?

A network protocol is an established set of rules that determine how data is transmitted
between different devices in the same network. Essentially, it allows connected devices to
communicate with each other, regardless of any differences in their internal processes,
structure or design. Network protocols are the reason you can easily communicate with people
all over the world, and thus play a critical role in modern digital communications.

Similar to the way that speaking the same language simplifies communication between two
people, network protocols make it possible for devices to interact with each other because of
predetermined rules built into devices’ software and hardware. Neither local area networks
(LAN) nor wide area networks (WAN) could function the way they do today without the use of
network protocols.

How Network Protocols Work

Network protocols take large-scale processes and break them down into small, specific tasks or
functions. This occurs at every level of the network, and each function must cooperate at each
level to complete the larger task at hand. The term protocol suite refers to a set of smaller
network protocols working in conjunction with each other.

Network protocols are typically created according to industry standard by various networking
or information technology organizations.

The following groups have defined and published different network protocols:

 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
 The International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
 The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)

While network protocol models generally work in similar ways, each protocol is unique and
operates in the specific way detailed by the organization that created it.

Who Uses Network Protocols?

Network protocols aren’t only relevant to certified network specialists or IT professionals.

Billions of people use network protocols daily, whether they know it or not.
Every time you use the internet, you leverage network protocols. Though you may not know
how network protocols work or how frequently you encounter them, they are necessary for
using the internet or digital communications in any capacity.

List of Network Protocols

There are thousands of different network protocols, but they all perform one of three primary
actions:

 Communication
 Network management
 Security

Each type is necessary to use network devices swiftly and safely, and they work together to
facilitate that usage.

Communication

Communication protocols allow different network devices to communicate with each other.
They are used in both analog and digital communications and can be used for important
processes, ranging from transferring files between devices to accessing the internet.

Common types of communication protocols include the following:

 Automation: These protocols are used to automate different processes in both

commercial and personal settings, such as in smart buildings, cloud technology or self-
driving vehicles.
 Instant messaging: Instantaneous, text-based communications on smartphones and
computers occur because of a number of different instant messaging network protocols.
 Routing: Routing protocols permit communication between routers and other network
devices. There are also routing protocols specifically for ad hoc networks.
 Bluetooth: Ever-popular Bluetooth devices — including headsets, smartphones and
computers — work due to a variety of different Bluetooth protocols.
 File transfer: If you have ever moved files from one device to another, either via a
physical or digital medium, you’ve used file transfer protocols (FTP).
 Internet Protocol: Internet Protocol (IP) allows data to be sent between devices via the
internet. The internet could not operate as it currently does without IP.

Network Management

Network management protocols define and describe the various procedures needed to
effectively operate a computer network. These protocols affect various devices on a single
network — including computers, routers and servers — to ensure each one, and the network as
a whole, perform optimally.
The functions of network management protocols include the following:

 Connection: These protocols establish and maintain stable connections between

different devices on the same network.
 Link aggregation: Link aggregation protocols allow you to combine multiple network
connections into one link between two devices. This works to increase the strength of
the connection and helps sustain the connection should one of the links fail.
 Troubleshooting: Troubleshooting protocols allow network administrators to identify
errors affecting the network, evaluate the quality of the network connection, and
determine how administrators can fix any issues.

Security

Security protocols, also called cryptographic protocols, work to ensure that the network and
the data sent over it are protected from unauthorized users.

Common functions of security network protocols include the following:

 Encryption: Encryption protocols protect data and secure areas by requiring users to
input a secret key or password in order to access that information.
 Entity Authentication: Entity authentication protocols create a system that requires
different devices or users on a network to verify their identity before accessing secure
areas.
 Transportation: Transportation security protocols protect data while it is transported
from one network device to another.

Network Protocol Example

Whether you know it or not, you’ve absolutely encountered network protocols when using
electronic devices – and some of them are readily identifiable.

Here are a few examples of the most commonly used network protocols:

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): This Internet Protocol defines how data is
transmitted over the internet and determines how web servers and browsers should
respond to commands. This protocol (or its secure counterpart, HTTPS) appears at the
beginning of various URLs or web addresses online.
 Secure Socket Shell (SSH): This protocol provides secure access to a computer, even if
it’s on an unsecured network. SSH is particularly useful for network administrators who
need to manage different systems remotely.
 Short Message Service (SMS): This communications protocol was created to send and
receive text messages over cellular networks. SMS refers exclusively to text-based
messages. Pictures, videos or other media require Multimedia Messaging Service
(MMS), an extension of the SMS protocol.
There are various types of protocols that support a major and compassionate role in
communicating with different devices across the network. These are:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

2. Internet Protocol (IP)
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
4. Post office Protocol (POP)
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP)
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
9. Telnet
10. Gopher

Let's discuss each of them briefly:

1. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP is a popular communication protocol which is

used for communicating over a network. It divides any message into series of packets
that are sent from source to destination and there it gets reassembled at the
destination.
2. Internet Protocol (IP): IP is designed explicitly as addressing protocol. It is mostly used
with TCP. The IP addresses in packets help in routing them through different nodes in a
network until it reaches the destination system. TCP/IP is the most popular protocol
connecting the networks.
3. User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a substitute communication protocol to
Transmission Control Protocol implemented primarily for creating loss-tolerating and
low-latency linking between different applications.
4. Post office Protocol (POP): POP3 is designed for receiving incoming E-mails.
5. Simple mail transport Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is designed to send and distribute
outgoing E-Mail.
6. File Transfer Protocol (FTP): FTP allows users to transfer files from one machine to
another. Types of files may include program files, multimedia files, text files, and
documents, etc.
7. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is designed for transferring a hypertext
among two or more systems. HTML tags are used for creating links. These links may be
in any form like text or images. HTTP is designed on Client-server principles which allow
a client system for establishing a connection with the server machine for making a
request. The server acknowledges the request initiated by the client and responds
accordingly.
8. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS): HTTPS is abbreviated as Hyper Text
Transfer Protocol Secure is a standard protocol to secure the communication among
two computers one using the browser and other fetching data from web server. HTTP is
used for transferring data between the client browser (request) and the web server
(response) in the hypertext format, same in case of HTTPS except that the transferring
 of data is done in an encrypted format. So it can be said that https thwart hackers from
interpretation or modification of data throughout the transfer of packets.
9. Telnet: Telnet is a set of rules designed for connecting one system with another. The
connecting process here is termed as remote login. The system which requests for
connection is the local computer, and the system which accepts the connection is the
remote computer.
10. Gopher: Gopher is a collection of rules implemented for searching, retrieving as well as
displaying documents from isolated sites. Gopher also works on the client/server
principle.

Some other popular protocols act as co-functioning protocols associated with these primary
protocols for core functioning. These are:

 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 IMAP4 (Internet Message Access Protocol)
 SIP (Session Initiation Protocol)
 RTP (Real-Time Transport Protocol)
 RLP (Resource Location Protocol)
 RAP (Route Access Protocol)
 L2TP (Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol)
 PPTP (Point To Point Tunnelling Protocol)
 SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)
 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol)

The OSI model: How network protocols work

To understand the nuances of network protocols , it's imperative to know about the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) model first. Considered the primary architectural model for
internet working communications, the majority of network protocols used today are
structurally based on the OSI model.

The OSI model splits the communication process between two network devices into 7 layers. A
task or group of tasks is assigned to each of these 7 layers. All the layers are self-contained, and
the tasks assigned to them can be executed independently.

To put this into context, here is a representation of the communication process between two
network devices following the OSI model:
The seven layers in the OSI model can be divided into two groups: upper layers, including layers
7, 6, and 5, and lower layers, including layers 4, 3, 2, and 1. The upper layers deal with
application issues, and the lower layers deal with data transport issues.

Network protocols divide the communication process into discrete tasks across every layer of
the OSI model. One or more network protocols operate at each layer in the communication
exchange.
Following are the detailed descriptions of the functioning of network protocols in each layer of
the OSI model:

Layer 7: Application layer  Provides standard services such as virtual terminal, file,
network protocols and job transfer and operations.

Layer 6: Presentation layer  Masks the differences in data formats between dissimilar
network protocols systems.
 Encodes and decodes data, encrypts and decrypts data,
and compresses and decompresses data.

Layer 5: Session layer  Manages user sessions and dialogues.

network protocols  Establishes and terminates sessions between users.

Layer 4: Transport layer  Manages end-to-end message delivery in networks.

network protocols  Renders reliable and sequential packet delivery through
error recovery and flow control mechanisms.

Layer 3: Network layer  Routes packets according to unique network device

protocols addresses.
 Renders flow and congestion control to prevent network
resource depletion.

Layer 2: Data link layer  Frames packets.

network protocols  Detects and corrects packet transmit errors.

Layer 1: Physical layer  Interfaces between network medium and devices.

network protocols  Defines optical, electrical, and mechanical characteristics.

Though some say the OSI model is now redundant and less significant than the Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP)/IP network model, there are still references to the OSI model even today
as the model's structure helps to frame discussions of protocols and contrast various
technologies.

Classification of network protocols

Now that you know how the OSI model works, you can dive straight into the classification of
protocols. The following are some of the most prominent protocols used in network
communication.
Application layer network protocols

1. DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP is a communication protocol that enables network administrators to automate the

assignment of IP addresses in a network. In an IP network, every device connecting to the
internet requires a unique IP. DHCP lets network admins distribute IP addresses from a central
point and automatically send a new IP address when a device is plugged in from a different
place in the network. DHCP works on a client-server model.

Advantages of using DHCP

 Centralized management of IP addresses.

 Seamless addition of new clients into a network.
 Reuse of IP addresses, reducing the total number of IP addresses required.

Disadvantages of using DHCP

 Tracking internet activity becomes tedious, as the same device can have multiple IP
addresses over a period of time.
 Computers with DHCP cannot be used as servers, as their IPs change over time.

2. DNS: Domain Name System protocol

The DNS protocol helps in translating or mapping host names to IP addresses. DNS works on a
client-server model, and uses a distributed database over a hierarchy of name servers.

Hosts are identified based on their IP addresses, but memorizing an IP address is difficult due to
its complexity. IPs are also dynamic, making it all the more necessary to map domain names to
IP addresses. DNS helps resolve this issue by converting the domain names of websites into
numerical IP addresses.

Advantages

 DNS facilitates internet access.

 Eliminates the need to memorize IP addresses.

Disadvantages

 DNS queries don't carry information pertaining to the client who initiated it. This is
because the DNS server only sees the IP from where the query came from, making the
server susceptible to manipulation from hackers.
 DNS root servers, if compromised, could enable hackers to redirect to other pages for
phishing data.
3. FTP: File Transfer Protocol

File Transfer Protocol enables file sharing between hosts, both local and remote, and runs on
top of TCP. For file transfer, FTP creates two TCP connections: control and data connection. The
control connection is used to transfer control information like passwords, commands to
retrieve and store files, etc., and the data connection is used to transfer the actual file. Both of
these connections run in parallel during the entire file transfer process.

Advantages

 Enables sharing large files and multiple directories at the same time.
 Lets you resume file sharing if it was interrupted.
 Lets you recover lost data, and schedule a file transfer.

Disadvantages

 FTP lacks security. Data, usernames, and passwords are transferred in plain text, making
them vulnerable to malicious actors.
 FTP lacks encryption capabilities, making it non-compliant with industry standards.

4. HTTP: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

HTTP is an application layer protocol used for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia
information systems. It works on a client-server model, where the web browser acts as the
client. Data such as text, images, and other multimedia files are shared over the World Wide
Web using HTTP. As a request and response type protocol, the client sends a request to the
server, which is then processed by the server before sending a response back to the client.

HTTP is a stateless protocol, meaning the client and server are only aware of each other while
the connection between them is intact. After that, both the client and server forget about each
other's existence. Due to this phenomenon, the client and server can't both retain information
between requests.

Advantages

 Memory usage and CPU usage are low because of lesser concurrent connections.
 Errors can be reported without closing connections.
 Owing to lesser TCP connections, network congestion is reduced.

Disadvantages

 HTTP lacks encryption capabilities, making it less secure.

 HTTP requires more power to establish communication and transfer data.
5. IMAP and IMAP4: Internet Message Access Protocol (version 4)

IMAP is an email protocol that lets end users access and manipulate messages stored on a mail
server from their email client as if they were present locally on their remote device. IMAP
follows a client-server model, and lets multiple clients access messages on a common mail
server concurrently. IMAP includes operations for creating, deleting, and renaming mailboxes;
checking for new messages; permanently removing messages; setting and removing flags; and
much more. The current version of IMAP is version 4 revision 1.

Advantages

 As the emails are stored on the mail server, local storage utilization is minimal.
 In case of accidental deletion of emails or data, it is always possible to retrieve them as
they are stored on the mail server.

Disadvantages

 Emails won't work without an active internet connection.

 High utilization of emails by end users requires more mailbox storage, thereby
augmenting costs.

6. POP and POP3: Post Office Protocol (version 3)

The Post Office Protocol is also an email protocol. Using this protocol, the end user can
download emails from the mail server to their own email client. Once the emails are
downloaded locally, they can be read without an internet connection. Also, once the emails are
moved locally, they get deleted from the mail server, freeing up space. POP3 is not designed to
perform extensive manipulations with the messages on the mail server, unlike IMAP4. POP3 is
the latest version of the Post Office Protocol.

Advantages

 Read emails on local devices without internet connection.

 The mail server need not have high storage capacity, as the emails get deleted when
they're moved locally.

Disadvantages

 If the local device on which the emails were downloaded crashes or gets stolen, the
emails are lost.
7. SMTP: Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

SMTP is a protocol designed to transfer electronic mail reliably and efficiently. SMTP is a push
protocol and is used to send the email, whereas POP and IMAP are used to retrieve emails on
the end user's side. SMTP transfers emails between systems, and notifies on incoming emails.
Using SMTP, a client can transfer an email to another client on the same network or another
network through a relay or gateway access available to both networks.

Advantages

 Ease of installation.
 Connects to any system without any restriction.
 It doesn't need any development from your side.

Disadvantages

 Back and forth conversations between servers can delay sending a message, and also
increases the chance of the message not being delivered.
 Certain firewalls can block the ports used with SMTP.

8. Telnet: Terminal emulation protocol

Telnet is an application layer protocol that enables a user to communicate with a remote
device. A Telnet client is installed on the user's machine, which accesses the command line
interface of another remote machine that runs a Telnet server program.

Telnet is mostly used by network administrators to access and manage remote devices. To
access a remote device, a network admin needs to enter the IP or host name of the remote
device, after which they will be presented with a virtual terminal that can interact with the
host.

Advantages

 Compatible with multiple operating systems.

 Saves a lot of time due to its swift connectivity with remote devices.

Disadvantages

 Telnet lacks encryption capabilities and sends across critical information in clear text,
making it easier for malicious actors.
 Expensive due to slow typing speeds.
9. SNMP: Simple Network Management Protocol

SNMP is an application layer protocol used to manage nodes, like servers, workstations,
routers, switches, etc., on an IP network. SNMP enables network admins to monitor network
performance, identify network glitches, and troubleshoot them. SNMP protocol is comprised of
three components: a managed device, an SNMP agent, and an SNMP manager.

The SNMP agent resides on the managed device. The agent is a software module that has local
knowledge of management information, and translates that information into a form compatible
with the SNMP manager. The SNMP manager presents the data obtained from the SNMP agent,
helping network admins manage nodes effectively.

Currently, there are three versions of SNMP: SNMP v1, SNMP v2, and SNMP v3. Both versions 1
and 2 have many features in common, but SNMP v2 offers enhancements such as additional
protocol operations. SNMP version 3 (SNMP v3) adds security and remote configuration
capabilities to the previous versions.

Presentation layer network protocols

LPP: Lightweight Presentation Protocol

The Lightweight Presentation Protocol helps provide streamlined support for OSI application
services in networks running on TCP/IP protocols for some constrained environments. LPP is
designed for a particular class of OSI applications, namely those entities whose application
context contains only an Association Control Service Element (ACSE) and a Remote Operations
Service Element (ROSE). LPP is not applicable to entities whose application context is more
extensive, i.e., contains a Reliable Transfer Service Element.

Session layer network protocols

RPC: Remote Procedure Call protocol

RPC is a protocol for requesting a service from a program in a remote computer through a
network, and can be used without having to understand the underlying network technologies.
RPC uses TCP or UDP for carrying the messages between communicating programs. RPC also
works on client-server model. The requesting program is the client, and the service providing
program is the server.

Advantages

 RPC omits many protocol layers to improve performance.

 With RPC, code rewriting or redeveloping efforts are minimized.

Disadvantages
  Not yet proven to work effectively over wide-area networks.
 Apart from TCP/IP, RPC does not support other transport protocols.

Transport layer network protocols

1. TCP: Transmission Control Protocol

TCP is a transport layer protocol that provides a reliable stream delivery and virtual connection
service to applications through the use of sequenced acknowledgement. TCP is a connection-
oriented protocol, as it requires a connection to be established between applications before
data transfer. Through flow control and acknowledgement of data, TCP provides extensive
error checking. TCP ensures sequencing of data, meaning the data packets arrive in order at the
receiving end. Retransmission of lost data packets is also feasible with TCP.

Advantages

 TCP ensures three things: data reaches the destination, reaches it on time, and reaches
it without duplication.
 TCP automatically breaks data into packets before transmission.

Disadvantages

 TCP cannot be used for broadcast and multicast connections.

2. UDP: User Datagram Protocol

UDP is a connection-less transport layer protocol that provides a simple but unreliable message
service. Unlike TCP, UDP adds no reliability, flow control, or error recovery functions. UDP is
useful in situations where the reliability mechanisms of TCP are not necessary. Retransmission
of lost data packets isn't possible with UDP.

Advantages

 Broadcast and multicast connections are possible with UDP.

 UDP is faster than TCP.

Disadvantages

 In UDP, it's possible that a packet may not be delivered, be delivered twice, or not be
delivered at all.
 Manual disintegration of data packets is needed.

Network layer protocols

1. IP: Internet Protocol (IPv4)

IPv4 is a network layer protocol that contains addressing and control information, which helps
packets be routed in a network. IP works in tandem with TCP to deliver data packets across the
network. Under IP, each host is assigned a 32-bit address comprised of two major parts: the
network number and host number. The network number identifies a network and is assigned by
the internet, while the host number identifies a host on the network and is assigned by a
network admin. The IP is only responsible for delivering the packets, and TCP helps puts them
back in the right order.

Advantages

 IPv4 encrypts data to ensure privacy and security.

 With IP, routing data becomes more scalable and economical.

Disadvantages

 IPv4 is labor intensive, complex, and prone to errors.

2. IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6

IPv6 is the latest version of the Internet Protocol, a network layer protocol that possesses
addressing and control information for enabling packets to be routed in the network. IPv6 was
created to deal with IPv4 exhaustion. It increases the IP address size from 32 bits to 128 bits to
support more levels of addressing.

Advantages

 More efficient routing and packet processing compared to IPv4.

 Better security compared to IPv4.

Disadvantages

 IPv6 is not compatible with machines that run on IPv4.

 Challenge in upgrading the devices to IPv6.

3. ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

ICMP is a network layer supporting protocol used by network devices to send error messages
and operational information. ICMP messages delivered in IP packets are used for out-of-band
messages related to network operation or misoperation. ICMP is used to announce network
errors, congestion, and timeouts, as well assist in troubleshooting.

Advantages
  ICMP is used to diagnose network issues.

Disadvantages

 Sending a lot of ICMP messages increases network traffic.

 End users are affected if malicious users send many ICMP destination unreachable
packets.

Data link layer network protocols

1. ARP: Address Resolution Protocol

The Address Resolution Protocol helps map IP addresses to physical machine addresses (or a
MAC address for Ethernet) recognized in the local network. A table called an ARP cache is used
to maintain a correlation between each IP address and its corresponding MAC address. ARP
offers the rules to make these correlations, and helps convert addresses in both directions.

Advantages

 MAC addresses need not be known or memorized, as the ARP cache contains all the
MAC addresses and maps them automatically with IPs.

Disadvantages

 ARP is susceptible to security attacks called ARP spoofing attacks.

 When using ARP, sometimes a hacker might be able to stop the traffic altogether. This is
also known as ARP denial-of-services.

2. SLIP: Serial Line IP

SLIP is used for point-to-point serial connections using TCP/IP. SLIP is used on dedicated serial
links, and sometimes for dial-up purposes. SLIP is useful for allowing mixes of hosts and routers
to communicate with one another; for example, host-host, host-router, and router-router are
all common SLIP network configurations. SLIP is merely a packet framing protocol: It defines a
sequence of characters that frame IP packets on a serial line. It does not provide addressing,
packet type identification, error detection or correction, or compression mechanisms.

Advantages

 Since it has a small overhead, it is suitable for usage in microcontrollers.

 It reuses existing dial-up connections and telephone lines.
 It's easy to deploy since it's based on the Internet Protocol.

DIsadvantages
  SLIP doesn't support automatic setup of network connections in multiple OSI layers at
the same time.
 SLIP does not support synchronous connections, such as a connection created through
the internet from a modem to an internet service provider (ISP).

OSI Layer Name Common Protocols

7 Application HTTP | FTP | SMTP | DNS | Telnet
6 Presentation
5 Session
4 Transport TCP | SPX
3 Network IP | IPX
2 Data Link Ethernet
1 Physical

Fig 1. OSI model related to common network protocols

Figure 1 illustrates how some of the major protocols would correlate to the OSI model in order
to communicate via the Internet. In this model, there are four layers, including:

 Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

 IP/IPX (Network Layer)
 TCP/SPX (Transport Layer)
 HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SMTP, and DNS(combined Session/Presentation/Application Layers)

Assuming you want to send an e-mail message to someone in Italy, we will examine the layers
"from the bottom up" -- beginning with Ethernet (physical/data link layers).

Ethernet (Physical/Data Link Layers)

The physical layer of the network focuses on hardware elements, such as cables, repeaters, and
network interface cards. By far the most common protocol used at the physical layer is
Ethernet. For example, an Ethernet network (such as 10BaseT or 100BaseTX) specifies the type
of cables that can be used, the optimal topology (star vs. bus, etc.), the maximum length of
cables, etc. (See the Cabling section for more information on Ethernet standards related to the
physical layer).

The data link layer of the network addresses the way that data packets are sent from one node
to another. Ethernet uses an access method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection). This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before
sending anything through the network. If the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If
some other node is already transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again
when the line is clear. Sometimes, two computers attempt to transmit at the same instant.
When this happens a collision occurs. Each computer then backs off and waits a random
amount of time before attempting to retransmit. With this access method, it is normal to have
collisions. However, the delay caused by collisions and retransmitting is very small and does not
normally effect the speed of transmission on the network.

Ethernet

The original Ethernet standard was developed in 1983 and had a maximum speed of 10 Mbps
(phenomenal at the time) over coaxial cable. The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree
topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other factors. This heavy coaxial cabling
was expensive to purchase, install, and maintain, and very difficult to retrofit into existing
facilities.

The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair wire. Common twisted pair
standards are 10BaseT, 100BaseT, and 1000BaseT. The number (10, 100, 1000) ands for the
speed of transmission (10/100/1000 megabits per second); the "Base" stands for "baseband"
meaning it has full control of the wire on a single frequency; and the "T" stands for "twisted
pair" cable. Fiber cable can also be used at this level in 10BaseFL.

Fast Ethernet

The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to 100 Mbps. Fast Ethernet requires the
use of different, more expensive network concentrators/hubs and network interface cards. In
addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet standards
include:

 100BaseT - 100 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

 100BaseFX - 100 Mbps over fiber cable.
 100BaseSX -100 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 100BaseBX - 100 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.

Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps). It
can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. (see the Cabling section for more
information).

 1000BaseT - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 5 or better UTP cable.

 1000BaseTX - 1000 Mbps over 2-pair category 6 or better UTP cable.
 1000BaseFX - 1000 Mbps over fiber cable.
 1000BaseSX -1000 Mbps over multimode fiber cable.
 1000BaseBX - 1000 Mbps over single mode fiber cable.

The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. with 10 Gigabit Ethernet (10,000 Mbps) and 100
Gigabit Ethernet (100,000 Mbps),
Ethernet Protocol Summary
Protocol Cable Speed
Ethernet Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber 10 Mbps
Fast Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 100 Mbps
Gigabit Ethernet Twisted Pair, Fiber 1000 Mbps

Older Network Protocols

Several very popular network protocols, commonly used in the 90's and early 21st century have
now largely fallen into disuse. While you may hear terms from time to time, such as "Localtalk"
(Apple) or "Token Ring" (IBM), you will rarely find these systems still in operation. Although
they played an important role in the evolution of networking, their performance and capacity
limitations have relegated them to the past, in the wake of the standardization of Ethernet
driven by the success of the Internet.

IP and IPX (Network Layer)

The network layer is in charge of routing network messages (data) from one computer to
another. The common protocols at this layer are IP (which is paired with TCP at the transport
layer for Internet network) and IPX (which is paired with SPX at the transport layer for some
older Macintosh, Linus, UNIX, Novell and Windows networks). Because of the growth in
Internet-based networks, IP/TCP are becoming the leading protocols for most networks.

Every network device (such as network interface cards and printers) have a physical address
called a MAC (Media Access Control) address. When you purchase a network card, the MAC
address is fixed and cannot be changed. Networks using the IP and IPX protocols assign logical
addresses (which are made up of the MAC address and the network address) to the devices on
the network, This can all become quite complex -- suffice it to say that the network layer takes
care of assigning the correct addresses (via IP or IPX) and then uses routers to send the data
packets to other networks.

TCP and SPX (Transport Layer)

The transport layer is concerned with efficient and reliable transportation of the data packets
from one network to another. In most cases, a document, e-mail message or other piece of
information is not sent as one unit. Instead, it is broken into small data packets, each with
header information that identifies its correct sequence and document.

When the data packets are sent over a network, they may or may not take the same route -- it
doesn't matter. At the receiving end, the data packets are re-assembled into the proper order.
After all packets are received, a message goes back to the originating network. If a packet does
not arrive, a message to "re-send" is sent back to the originating network.
TCP, paired with IP, is by far the most popular protocol at the transport level. If the IPX protocol
is used at the network layer (on networks such as Novell or Microsoft), then it is paired with
SPX at the transport layer.

HTTP, FTP, SMTP and DNS (Session/Presentation/Application Layers)

Several protocols overlap the session, presentation, and application layers of networks. There
protocols listed below are a few of the more well-known:

 DNS - Domain Name System - translates network address (such as IP addresses) into
terms understood by humans (such as Domain Names) and vice-versa
 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol - can automatically assign Internet
addresses to computers and users
 FTP - File Transfer Protocol - a protocol that is used to transfer and manipulate files on
the Internet
 HTTP - HyperText Transfer Protocol - An Internet-based protocol for sending and
receiving webpages
 IMAP - Internet Message Access Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the
Internet
 IRC - Internet Relay Chat - a protocol used for Internet chat and other communications
 POP3 - Post Office protocol Version 3 - a protocol used by e-mail clients to retrieve
messages from remote servers
 SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol - A protocol for e-mail messages on the Internet

PREPARED BY:

ENGR. GREGOR PIO F. DIONGON, MSIT

CCIS - FACULTY