PHYSICS: The Study of the Universe

Physics is the branch of science that studies matter, energy, and the fundamental forces that
govern how things move and interact. It is the foundation of all natural sciences, from chemistry
to astronomy.

1. The Nature of Matter and Energy

Before diving into how objects move or interact, we need to define matter and energy.

●​ Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies space.

●​ Energy: The ability to do work or cause change.

1.1 States of Matter

There are five fundamental states of matter:

1.​ Solids – Fixed shape and volume.

2.​ Liquids – Fixed volume but take the shape of the container.
3.​ Gases – No fixed shape or volume; they expand to fill the space available.
4.​ Plasma – Ionized gas with free electrons (e.g., stars, lightning).
5.​ Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC) – Matter cooled near absolute zero, where atoms
behave as a single quantum entity.

1.2 Properties of Matter

●​ Mass (m): The amount of matter in an object. Measured in kilograms (kg).

●​ Volume (V): The space an object occupies. Measured in cubic meters (m³).
●​ Density (ρ): The mass per unit volume of a substance:

density = mass / volume

2. Motion and Forces (Classical Mechanics)
Developed primarily by Isaac Newton, mechanics explains how objects move and interact with
forces.

2.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion

These three laws describe motion:

1.​ First Law (Law of Inertia) – An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays
in motion unless acted upon by an external force.​

○​ Example: A book on a table doesn’t move unless pushed.

2.​ Second Law (F = ma) – The force acting on an object equals its mass times
acceleration:

Force = mass * acceleration

3.​ Third Law (Action-Reaction) – Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
○​ Example: A rocket launches by pushing exhaust gases downward, which pushes
the rocket upward.

2.2 Types of Forces

1. Contact Forces (Require physical contact)

●​ Normal Force – The support force exerted by a surface on an object.

○​ Example: A book resting on a table.
●​ Friction Force – The force that opposes motion between two surfaces.
○​ Example: Brakes slowing down a car.
●​ Tension Force – The force transmitted through a stretched string, rope, or cable.
○​ Example: A person pulling a box with a rope.
●​ Applied Force – Any force applied by a person or object.
○​ Example: Pushing a shopping cart.
●​ Spring Force – The restoring force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring.
○​ Example: A compressed spring bouncing back.
 2. Non-Contact Forces (Act at a distance)

●​ Gravitational Force – The force of attraction between objects with mass.

○​ Example: The Earth pulling objects downward.
●​ Magnetic Force – The force exerted by magnets on magnetic materials.
○​ Example: A magnet attracting a paperclip.
●​ Electrostatic Force – The force between charged particles.
○​ Example: A balloon sticking to a wall after being rubbed on hair.
●​ Nuclear Force – The strong force holding atomic nuclei together.
○​ Example: The force binding protons and neutrons inside an atom.

2.3 Free Fall and Gravity

●​ Gravity on Earth: g = 9.81 m/s2

●​ Objects in free fall experience only gravity, causing uniform acceleration.

3. Work, Energy, and Power

Energy is the capacity to do work.

3.1 Work (W)

Work is done when a force is applied, and the object moves in the force’s direction:

W = Fd cos (θ)

●​ If force and displacement are perpendicular, no work is done.

3.2 Energy

Energy exists in different forms:

1.​ Kinetic Energy (KE) – Energy of motion:

2.​ Potential Energy (PE)

KE = ½ mv2

PE = mgh

4.​ Thermal Energy – Energy from heat.

5.​ Electrical Energy – Energy from moving charges.
6.​ Nuclear Energy – Energy from atomic reactions.
3.3 Power (P)

Power is the rate of doing work:

P=W/t

●​ Example: A 100-Watt bulb uses 100 Joules per second.

4. Momentum and Collisions

Momentum measures how hard it is to stop a moving object.

4.1 Momentum (p)

p = mv

4.2 Conservation of Momentum

In a closed system, total momentum before and after a collision remains constant:

m1 v1 + m2 v2 = m1 v'1 + m2 v'2

Types of Momentum Conservation

The Law of Conservation of Momentum applies to different types of collisions and

interactions. These are:

1. Elastic Collision

●​ Momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.

●​ Objects bounce off each other without permanent deformation or heat loss.
●​ Example: Billiard balls colliding.

2. Inelastic Collision

●​ Momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is not.

●​ Some energy is lost as heat, sound, or deformation.
●​ Example: A car crash where the vehicles dent.

3. Perfectly Inelastic Collision

●​ Momentum is conserved, but objects stick together after collision.

●​ Maximum kinetic energy loss occurs.
●​ Example: Two clay balls colliding and merging into one.
 4. Explosion (Reverse Collision)

●​ Momentum is conserved, but objects move apart.

●​ Example: A gun recoiling after firing a bullet.

Each type follows the momentum conservation principle, but kinetic energy
conservation depends on the type of collision!

5. Waves and Light

Waves transfer energy without transferring matter.

5.1 Types of Waves

1.​ Mechanical Waves – Require a medium (e.g., sound, water).

2.​ Electromagnetic Waves – Do not require a medium (e.g., light, radio waves).

5.2 Properties of Waves

●​ Wavelength (λ) – Distance between wave peaks.

●​ Frequency (f) – Number of waves per second (Hz).
●​ Speed (v) – Wave speed depends on the medium:

v=fλ

5.3 Light and Optics

Types of Light Behavior in Optics

Light interacts with surfaces and materials in different ways. The main types of optical
phenomena include:

1. Reflection

●​ Light bounces off a surface.

●​ Types:
○​ Specular Reflection – Smooth surfaces (like mirrors) reflect light in a
single direction.
○​ Diffuse Reflection – Rough surfaces scatter light in many directions.
●​ Example: Seeing yourself in a mirror.

2. Refraction
 ●​ Governed by Snell’s Law:
-​ Light bends when passing from one medium to another due to a
change in speed.

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

●​ Example: A straw appearing bent in water.

3. Dispersion

●​ Light splits into different colors due to varying refractive indices for different
wavelengths.
●​ Example: A prism creating a rainbow.

4. Diffraction

●​ Light bends around obstacles or through small openings.

●​ More noticeable when the obstacle size is close to the wavelength of light.
●​ Example: Patterns formed by light passing through a fine slit.

5. Interference

●​ Overlapping light waves combine to form brighter (constructive interference) or

darker (destructive interference) regions.
●​ Example: Colorful soap bubbles.

6. Polarization

●​ Light waves vibrate in a single plane.

●​ Used in sunglasses and LCD screens to reduce glare.
6. Electricity and Magnetism
Electricity and magnetism are linked through Maxwell’s Equations.

-​ Maxwell’s equations describe the fundamental behavior of electricity and magnetism,

unifying them into electromagnetism. These four equations explain how electric and
magnetic fields interact.

6.1 Electric Charge and Fields

●​ Charge is measured in Coulombs (C).

●​ Like charges repel, opposite charges attract.

6.2 Ohm’s Law

V = IR

●​ I = Current (Amperes, A)
●​ R = Resistance (Ohms, Ω)

6.3 Magnetism and Electromagnetism

●​ Moving charges create magnetic fields.

●​ Electromagnetic Induction: A changing magnetic field induces current.
7. Modern Physics
Einstein and quantum physics revolutionized our understanding of nature.

7.1 Theory of Relativity

●​ Special Relativity (Einstein) states that the speed of light is constant, and time slows
down at high speeds.
●​ General Relativity explains gravity as spacetime curvature.

7.2 Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is based on several fundamental principles that describe how
particles behave at the atomic and subatomic levels. Here are the key principles:

1. Wave-Particle Duality
Particles, such as electrons and photons, exhibit both wave-like and particle-like
properties. This was demonstrated in the double-slit experiment, where particles create
an interference pattern like waves but also behave as discrete particles when observed.

2. Superposition Principle
A quantum system can exist in multiple states at the same time until it is
measured. For example, a qubit in quantum computing can be in a state of 0, 1, or both
simultaneously ().
3. Quantum Entanglement
When two particles become entangled, their states are correlated no matter how
far apart they are. Measuring one instantaneously affects the other, even across vast
distances—something Einstein called "spooky action at a distance."

4. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

It is impossible to simultaneously know the exact position and momentum of a
particle. The more precisely one is measured, the less precisely the other can be
known.

5. Quantum Tunneling
Particles can pass through energy barriers that they classically shouldn’t be able
to cross, which explains phenomena like nuclear fusion in the Sun and semiconductor
operation in transistors.

6. Probability and Measurement (Born Rule)

Quantum mechanics does not provide definite outcomes but rather probabilities
of different outcomes. When a quantum system is measured, it "collapses" into one of
its possible states.

7. Schrödinger’s Equation
This equation describes how quantum states evolve over time. It is the quantum
analog of Newton’s laws but works with wave functions instead of definite positions and
velocities.

Physics is a vast field that explains everything from falling objects to black holes. It is the
foundation of engineering, astronomy, and technology.
BIOLOGY:
Biology is the study of life—how it starts, how it functions, and how it interacts with the
environment. It covers everything from the smallest molecules in cells to massive ecosystems
and even how life evolves over time.

1. What Makes Something Alive?

Before diving into biology, we need to ask: What defines life?

All living things share these seven characteristics:

1.​ Made of Cells – The smallest unit of life.

2.​ Metabolism – Convert energy to sustain life.
3.​ Homeostasis – Maintain internal balance (e.g., body temp).
4.​ Growth & Development – Increase in size and complexity.
5.​ Reproduction – Produce offspring.
6.​ Response to Stimuli – React to surroundings (e.g., plants bending toward light).
7.​ Evolution & Adaptation – Change over generations for survival.

If something lacks even one of these traits, it's not alive!

Example: Viruses are debated because they need a host to reproduce.

2. The Cell: The Fundamental Unit of Life

Cells are the basic building blocks of all living things.

2.1 The Cell Theory

Proposed by Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow, the cell theory states:

1.​ All living things are made of cells.

2.​ The cell is the basic unit of life.
3.​ All cells come from pre-existing cells.
2.2 Types of Cells

Prokaryotic Cells (Simple Cells)

●​ No nucleus (DNA floats freely).

●​ No membrane-bound organelles.
●​ Example: Bacteria and Archaea.

Eukaryotic Cells (Complex Cells)

●​ Have a nucleus (DNA enclosed in membrane).

●​ Have organelles that perform specific functions.
●​ Example: Plants, animals, fungi, protists.

2.3 Cell Organelles & Their Functions

3. The Chemistry of Life: Biomolecules

Living organisms rely on four major macromolecules:

1.​ Carbohydrates – Provide quick energy (e.g., glucose, starch).

2.​ Lipids (Fats & Oils) – Store energy, make up cell membranes.
3.​ Proteins – Build body structures, speed up reactions (enzymes).
 4.​ Nucleic Acids (DNA & RNA) – Carry genetic instructions.

How Enzymes Work (Lock & Key Model)

●​ Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions.

●​ They have an active site where a substrate binds.
●​ The reaction occurs, and the product is released.
●​ Example: Amylase in saliva breaks down starch into sugar.

4. Metabolism: How Organisms Get

Energy
Organisms need energy to survive.

4.1 Photosynthesis (Plants & Algae)

Occurs in chloroplasts using sunlight, CO₂, and water to produce glucose and oxygen.

Equation:

6CO2 + 6H2O + Light → C6H12O6 + 6O2

4.2 Cellular Respiration (All Organisms)

Occurs in the mitochondria to break down glucose into ATP (energy).

Equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Respiration

Fermentation (anaerobic) produces lactic acid (muscle fatigue) or alcohol (used in brewing).

5. Genetics: How Traits Are Passed Down

5.1 DNA Structure (Watson & Crick’s Model)

●​ Double helix shape.

●​ Made of nucleotides:
○​ Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)
○​ Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)

5.2 Mendelian Genetics (Gregor Mendel’s Pea Plant Experiments)

●​ Law of Segregation – Each parent gives one allele.

●​ Law of Independent Assortment – Genes are inherited separately.
●​ Dominant vs. Recessive Traits – Dominant alleles mask recessive ones.

5.3 Mutations

Changes in DNA sequence can be:

●​ Harmful (diseases like cancer).

●​ Beneficial (increases survival).
●​ Neutral (no effect).

Example: Sickle Cell Anemia is caused by a mutation in hemoglobin.

6. Evolution & Natural Selection (Darwin)

●​ Evolution – Change in species over time.
●​ Natural Selection – Survival of the fittest.
●​ Speciation – The formation of new species.

Example: Peppered Moth Evolution due to industrial pollution.

7. Human Biology & Organ Systems

7.1 Major Organ Systems

8. Ecology: Interactions in Nature

8.1 Levels of Organization

Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

8.2 Biogeochemical Cycles

●​ Water Cycle – Evaporation, condensation, precipitation.

●​ Carbon Cycle – CO₂ absorbed by plants, released by respiration.
●​ Nitrogen Cycle – Bacteria convert nitrogen for plants.

8.3 Food Chains

Grass → Rabbit → Snake → Eagle

9. Microbiology & Disease

●​ Bacteria – Some are good (gut bacteria), some cause disease.
●​ Viruses – Non-living, need a host (e.g., COVID-19).
●​ Vaccines train the immune system to fight infections.
10. Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering
●​ CRISPR – Gene editing technology.
●​ GMOs – Crops modified for better traits.
●​ Cloning – Creating genetic copies of organisms.

Taxonomy & Classification: Organizing

Life
Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying organisms. It was developed by Carl
Linnaeus, who introduced the binomial nomenclature system, where each organism has a
Genus and species name (e.g., Homo sapiens for humans).

1. The Hierarchy of Classification (Taxonomic Ranks)

The classification system is ordered as follows:

Domain → Kingdom → Phylum → Class → Order → Family → Genus → Species

Mnemonic to Remember This Order:

"Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup"

●​ Domain
●​ Kingdom
●​ Phylum
●​ Class
●​ Order
●​ Family
●​ Genus
●​ Species

Biological Classification (Taxonomic Hierarchy)

Biological classification is a system used to organize and categorize all living organisms based
on their similarities and evolutionary relationships. The hierarchy, from the most general to the
most specific, is as follows:
1. Domain (Most General)

●​ The broadest category, classifying life into three groups:

○​ Bacteria – Prokaryotic, single-celled organisms.
○​ Archaea – Prokaryotic, often found in extreme environments.
○​ Eukarya – Organisms with complex cells, including animals, plants, fungi, and
protists.

2. Kingdom

●​ The second broadest category, grouping organisms based on fundamental traits.

●​ Example:
○​ Animalia (Animals)
○​ Plantae (Plants)
○​ Fungi (Mushrooms, mold)
○​ Protista (Single-celled eukaryotes)

3. Phylum

●​ Groups organisms with similar body plans or structures.

●​ Example:
○​ Chordata (Animals with a backbone, like mammals and birds)
○​ Arthropoda (Insects, spiders, crustaceans)

4. Classes of Animals (Under Phylum Chordata)

Animals in Phylum Chordata (those with a notochord, dorsal nerve cord, and pharyngeal
slits at some stage in life) are classified into several classes based on their
characteristics.

1. Mammalia (Mammals)

●​ Features: Warm-blooded, have fur or hair, give birth to live young (mostly),
and produce milk for their offspring.
●​ Examples: Humans, dogs, cats, whales, bats, elephants.
2. Aves (Birds)

●​ Features: Warm-blooded, have feathers, lay eggs, and have hollow bones
for flight.
●​ Examples: Eagles, parrots, penguins, chickens, ostriches.

3. Reptilia (Reptiles)

●​ Features: Cold-blooded, have dry, scaly skin, lay eggs (some give live
birth), and breathe with lungs.
●​ Examples: Snakes, lizards, turtles, crocodiles.

4. Amphibia (Amphibians)

●​ Features: Cold-blooded, live both in water and on land, have moist skin,
and undergo metamorphosis.
●​ Examples: Frogs, toads, salamanders, newts.

5. Actinopterygii (Ray-Finned Fish - Bony Fish)

●​ Features: Have bony skeletons, gills for breathing, and fins supported by
rays.
●​ Examples: Goldfish, salmon, tuna, clownfish.

6. Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fish)

●​ Features: Skeleton made of cartilage instead of bone, gill slits, and some
give live birth.
●​ Examples: Sharks, rays, skates.

7. Agnatha (Jawless Fish)

●​ Features: No jaws, elongated bodies, and mostly parasitic or scavengers.

●​ Examples: Lampreys, hagfish.
5. Order

●​ Groups organisms with even more specific shared traits.

●​ Example:
○​ Carnivora (Carnivores like dogs, cats, and bears)
○​ Primates (Apes, monkeys, humans)

6. Family

●​ A more specific category that groups closely related organisms.

●​ Example:
○​ Felidae (Cats – lions, tigers, domestic cats)
○​ Canidae (Dogs, wolves, foxes)

7. Genus

●​ Groups very closely related species.

●​ Example:
○​ Panthera (Big cats – lions, tigers, leopards)
○​ Homo (Humans and extinct relatives)

8. Species (Most Specific)

●​ The smallest and most specific classification.

●​ Organisms in the same species can successfully reproduce.
●​ Example:
○​ Homo sapiens (Humans)
○​ Panthera leo (Lion)

Mnemonic to Remember the Order:

Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Soup.

This hierarchy helps scientists classify and study organisms based on their relationships
and shared traits!
2. The Five (or Six) Kingdoms of Life
Originally, living things were grouped into five kingdoms, but modern systems sometimes use
six.

Mnemonic for the Five Kingdoms:

"My Poor Friend Plays Accordion"​

(Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia)

3. Animal Kingdom Classification (Phylum

Mnemonics)
The Animal Kingdom (Kingdom Animalia) is divided into major phyla, which are broad
groups based on body structure.
3.1 Major Phyla in the Animal Kingdom

Mnemonic for Animal Phyla:

"Prince Charles Plays Nintendo And Makes Amazing Eggnog Constantly"​

(Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda,
Echinodermata, Chordata)

4. Biological Hierarchy (Organization of

Life)
Life is structured from the smallest units to the largest:

Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism →

Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

Mnemonic for Biological Hierarchy:

"Aunt Mary Can Tell Olivia Our Orange Penguins Can't Ever Bake"​
(Atoms, Molecules, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organism, Population,
Community, Ecosystem, Biosphere)
5. Classification of Vertebrates (Chordata
Subgroups)
Vertebrates (animals with backbones) fall into five major classes:

Mnemonic for Vertebrate Classes:

"Fabulous Amphibians Read Books Monthly"​

(Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, Mammals)

Classification of Invertebrates
Invertebrates are animals that lack a backbone. They make up about 97% of all animal
species and are incredibly diverse, ranging from microscopic organisms to giant squid.

Types of Invertebrates

Invertebrates are classified into major phyla based on their body structures, movement, and
specialized organs.

1. Porifera (Sponges)

●​ Simplest multicellular animals

●​ No organs, just specialized cells
 ●​ Filter feeders: water flows through pores, trapping food particles

Example: Bath sponge, barrel sponge

2. Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals, Sea Anemones)

●​ Radial symmetry (body parts arranged around a central axis)

●​ Nematocysts: stinging cells used for capturing prey
●​ Two life stages: Polyp (sessile) and Medusa (free-swimming)

Example: Box jellyfish, Portuguese man o' war, sea anemones

3. Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

●​ Bilateral symmetry (left and right sides mirror each other)

●​ No circulatory or respiratory system
●​ Some are parasitic, like tapeworms

Example: Planarians (free-living), Tapeworms (parasitic)

4. Nematoda (Roundworms)

●​ Complete digestive system (mouth and anus)

●​ Cuticle: tough outer covering for protection
●​ Many are parasites in humans and animals

Example: Hookworms, Trichinella

5. Annelida (Segmented Worms)

●​ True segmentation (body divided into repeating sections)

●​ Closed circulatory system (blood enclosed in vessels)
●​ Some are decomposers, others are parasites

Example: Earthworms, Leeches

6. Mollusca (Mollusks: Snails, Octopuses, Clams)

●​ Soft body often protected by a calcium carbonate shell

●​ Three major groups:
○​ Gastropods (snails, slugs)
○​ Bivalves (clams, oysters)
○​ Cephalopods (octopuses, squids)

Example: Squid (intelligent cephalopod), Mussels (filter feeders)

7. Arthropoda (Insects, Crabs, Spiders: The Largest Group)

●​ Exoskeleton made of chitin

●​ Segmented body: Head, Thorax, Abdomen
●​ Jointed appendages (legs, antennae, pincers)

Main Classes of Arthropods:

1.​ Insects – Six legs, wings (Beetles, Butterflies, Ants)

2.​ Arachnids – Eight legs, no wings (Spiders, Scorpions)
3.​ Crustaceans – Gills, two pairs of antennae (Crabs, Lobsters)
4.​ Myriapods – Many legs (Millipedes, Centipedes)

Example: Tarantulas (Arachnids), Crabs (Crustaceans), Grasshoppers (Insects)

8. Echinodermata (Starfish, Sea Urchins, Sand Dollars)

●​ Radial symmetry in adults (but bilateral symmetry as larvae)

●​ Water vascular system with tube feet for movement
●​ Regeneration ability (starfish can regrow arms)

Example: Crown-of-thorns starfish, Sea cucumbers

Mnemonic to Remember Invertebrate Phyla:

"People Can Play Nice And Make Amazing Everything"​
(Porifera, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda,
Echinodermata)
Invertebrates make up the vast majority of animal life and are essential for ecosystems. They
range from simple sponges to highly complex cephalopods like octopuses. Arthropods dominate
the animal kingdom, while echinoderms exhibit unique regenerative properties. Understanding
invertebrates is crucial for studying biodiversity, ecology, and evolutionary biology.

Biology is the key to understanding life, from cells to ecosystems. It helps in medicine,
genetics, and conservation.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY: FULL
EXPLANATION
Chemistry is the study of matter, how it interacts, and how it changes through different
processes. It is often called the central science because it connects physics, biology, geology,
and engineering.

I. MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES

1. What is Matter?

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space (volume). Everything around us—air,
water, rocks, and even living organisms—is made of matter.

2. States of Matter

Matter exists in four fundamental states:

●​ Solid – Has a fixed shape and volume due to tightly packed particles.
●​ Liquid – Has a fixed volume but takes the shape of its container. Particles are less
tightly packed than in a solid.
●​ Gas – Has no fixed shape or volume; particles move freely and spread out to fill a
container.
●​ Plasma – A high-energy state of matter where electrons are stripped from atoms. Found
in stars and lightning.
Phase Changes

Matter can change between states through physical changes:

3. Physical vs. Chemical Properties of Matter

Physical properties are characteristics that can be observed without changing the
substance's identity.

●​ Example: Color, density, boiling point, hardness.

Chemical properties describe how a substance interacts with other substances.

●​ Example: Reactivity, flammability, ability to rust.

4. Physical vs. Chemical Changes

●​ Physical change: Alters appearance but not composition.

○​ Example: Cutting paper, melting ice.
●​ Chemical change: Produces a new substance with different properties.
○​ Example: Burning wood, rusting iron.

Signs of a Chemical Change:

1.​ Color change (e.g., rusting metal)

2.​ Gas production (e.g., bubbling in vinegar and baking soda)
 3.​ Formation of a precipitate (solid forming in a liquid solution)
4.​ Temperature change (heat released or absorbed)

II. ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. Atomic Theory and Discoveries

Democritus (400 BC) – First to propose the concept of atoms as indivisible particles.

John Dalton (1803) – Developed the Atomic Theory:

1.​ All matter is composed of indivisible atoms. (Later disproven)

2.​ Atoms of the same element are identical in mass and properties.
3.​ Atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.
4.​ Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.

J.J. Thomson (1897) – Discovered the electron using a cathode ray tube experiment.
Proposed the Plum Pudding Model (electrons scattered within a positive sphere).

Ernest Rutherford (1911) – Discovered the nucleus through the gold foil experiment.
Proposed the nuclear model: a dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons.

Niels Bohr (1913) – Proposed the Bohr model, where electrons orbit the nucleus in fixed
energy levels.

Quantum Mechanical Model (Modern) – Electrons exist in probability clouds (orbitals), not
fixed paths.

2. Structure of the Atom

Atoms consist of three subatomic particles:

Atomic Number (Z) = Number of protons (determines element).​
Mass Number (A) = Protons + Neutrons.

Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

●​ Example:
○​ Carbon-12 (6 protons, 6 neutrons)
○​ Carbon-14 (6 protons, 8 neutrons)

3. Electron Configuration

Electrons are arranged in energy levels (shells) around the nucleus.

●​ 1st shell: 2 electrons

●​ 2nd shell: 8 electrons
●​ 3rd shell: 18 electrons
●​ 4th shell: 32 electrons

Example:

●​ Oxygen (8 electrons) → 1s² 2s² 2p⁴

III. THE PERIODIC TABLE

1. Periodic Law (Mendeleev, 1869)

●​ Elements are arranged by increasing atomic number.

●​ Elements in the same group (column) have similar properties.
2. Groups and Periods

3. Periodic Trends

●​ Atomic Radius: Decreases across a period, increases down a group.

●​ Ionization Energy: Increases across a period, decreases down a group.
●​ Electronegativity: Increases across a period, decreases down a group.
IV. CHEMICAL BONDING
1. Types of Chemical Bonds

●​ Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons (metal + nonmetal).

○​ Example: NaCl (Sodium Chloride).
●​ Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons (nonmetal + nonmetal).
○​ Example: H₂O (Water).
●​ Metallic Bond: Delocalized electrons in a metal lattice.
○​ Example: Cu (Copper).

V. CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. Types of Chemical Reactions

FUNDAMENTAL LAWS IN CHEMISTRY

Chemistry follows several fundamental laws that explain how matter behaves in reactions.
These laws were established over centuries through experiments and observations.

I. THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS (LAVOISIER'S

LAW)
Discovered by: Antoine Lavoisier (1789)​
Statement:​
Mass is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.

Explanation:

●​ The total mass of reactants = total mass of products.

●​ Atoms are rearranged in reactions but are not lost or gained.
●​ This is why chemical equations must be balanced.

Example:​
If 10 g of hydrogen reacts with 80 g of oxygen to form water, the total mass of water must be:

10 + 80 = 90g (mass remains the same)}

II. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS (PROUST'S LAW)

Discovered by: Joseph Proust (1799)​
Statement:​
A chemical compound always contains the same proportion of elements by mass, regardless of
the sample size.

Explanation:

●​ Water (H₂O) always contains 88.9% oxygen and 11.1% hydrogen by mass.
●​ If you analyze different samples of water (from different places), they will all have the
same composition.

Example:​
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) always has a ratio of:

mass of oxygen / mass of carbon = 32 / 12 = 2.67

III. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS (DALTON’S LAW)

Discovered by: John Dalton (1803)​
Statement:​
When two elements form multiple compounds, the masses of one element that combine with a
fixed mass of the other are in small whole number ratios.

Explanation:

●​ Carbon and oxygen form two different compounds:

○​ Carbon monoxide (CO)
○​ Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
●​ In CO, 1 g of C combines with 1.33 g of O
●​ In CO₂, 1 g of C combines with 2.67 g of O
●​ The ratio of oxygen in CO₂ to CO is 2:1 (a small whole number).

This supports the idea that atoms combine in fixed whole number ratios.

IV. AVOGADRO’S LAW

Discovered by: Amedeo Avogadro (1811)​
Statement:​
Equal volumes of gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain the same number of
molecules.

Explanation:

●​ If you take 1 liter of hydrogen gas (H₂) and 1 liter of oxygen gas (O₂) at the same
conditions, they both contain the same number of molecules.
●​ This is true for all gases, regardless of their identity.

Mathematical Form:

V∝n

Example:

●​ 2 liters of O₂ contains twice as many molecules as 1 liter of O₂ (at the same

conditions).
V. THE IDEAL GAS LAW
Derived from: Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Avogadro’s Laws​
Formula:

PV = nRT

●​ P = Pressure (atm)
●​ V = Volume (L)
●​ n = Number of moles
●​ R = Ideal gas constant (0.0821 L·atm/mol·K)
●​ T = Temperature (Kelvin)

Explanation:

●​ This equation describes how gases behave under different conditions.

●​ If we increase temperature, volume increases.
●​ If we increase pressure, volume decreases.

Example Calculation:​
Find the volume of 2 moles of gas at 1 atm and 300 K.

V = nRT / P = (2)(0.0821)(300) / 1 = 49.26 L

VI. BOYLE'S LAW (PRESSURE-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP)

Discovered by: Robert Boyle (1662)​
Statement:​
At constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure.

Formula:

P1V1 = P2V2

Explanation:

●​ If you increase pressure, volume decreases.

●​ If you decrease pressure, volume increases.
Example:​
A gas at 2.0 atm and 4.0 L expands to 8.0 L. What is the new pressure?

(2.0)(4.0) = P2(8.0)

P2 = 1.0 atm

VII. CHARLES'S LAW (TEMPERATURE-VOLUME

RELATIONSHIP)
Discovered by: Jacques Charles (1787)​
Statement:​
At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its temperature (in Kelvin).

Formula:

V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

Explanation:

●​ If you increase temperature, the gas expands.

●​ If you decrease temperature, the gas shrinks.

Example:​
A gas at 300 K has a volume of 2.0 L. If the temperature is increased to 600 K, what is the new
volume?

2.0 / 300 = V2 / 600

V2 = 4.0 L

VIII. DALTON'S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURES

Discovered by: John Dalton (1801)​
Statement:​
The total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.

Formula:
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + …

Explanation:

●​ In a container with multiple gases, each gas contributes to the total pressure based on
its amount.

Example:​
A container has O₂ at 2.0 atm and N₂ at 3.0 atm.

Ptotal = 2.0 + 3.0 = 5.0 atm

IX. HESS’S LAW (LAW OF HEAT SUMMATION)

Discovered by: Germain Hess (1840)​
Statement:​
The total enthalpy change of a reaction is the sum of the enthalpy changes of individual steps.

Explanation:

●​ If a reaction occurs in multiple steps, the overall heat change is the sum of each step’s
heat change.

Example:​
If A → B releases -100 kJ and B → C releases -50 kJ, then:

A → C = -100 + (-50) = -150 kJ

These laws explain how atoms, gases, and reactions behave in nature. Mastering them is
crucial for solving chemical equations, predicting reactions, and understanding physical
properties.
ENGINEERING
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI) Integration

AI is revolutionizing engineering by enhancing infrastructure resilience and sustainability.

Applications range from predicting potholes to designing more durable materials, leading to
smarter infrastructure solutions.

2. Advancements in Network Engineering

The future of network engineering is being transformed through innovations such as:

●​ AI and Machine Learning: These technologies drive automation, leading to more agile
and efficient networks.​

●​ Software-Defined Networking (SDN) and Network Function Virtualization (NFV):

Their integration with cloud infrastructures offers enhanced scalability and cost efficiency.​

3. Mechanical Engineering Trends

Mechanical engineering is embracing digital technologies across various stages, including:

●​ Design and Prototyping: Utilizing digital tools for more efficient processes.​

●​ Manufacturing and Maintenance: Incorporating robotics, real-time data, and AI to

develop smart factories capable of autonomous adjustments, reducing the need for
human intervention.​

4. Innovations in Construction and Materials

Recent engineering innovations include:

●​ Fiber Computers: Development of elastic fibers that function as autonomous

programmable computers, potentially enabling apparel to run applications and monitor
health conditions.​

●​ Bioinspired Lattice Designs: Inspired by deep-sea sponges, these designs offer

enhanced compressive strength and stiffness, opening new possibilities in construction
and safety applications.​

5. Industry Recognitions and Competitions

Engineering firms are continually pushing the boundaries of innovation. For instance, three New
York-based companies—Sono-Tek Corp., Vyir Inc., and TomPhyzx LLC—each received $60,000
grants from the Jeff Lawrence Innovation Fund. These grants, awarded through the New York
State Microelectronics Innovation Challenge, aim to promote advancements in the
microelectronics industry to enhance national defense.

6. Optical Industry Trends

The optical industry is undergoing significant transformations, with six key trends shaping its
future in 2025:

●​ Reshaping Lenses: Innovations like Transitions GEN S lenses offer ultra-responsive

light adaptation, enhancing vision quality.​

●​ Eyewear Meets Wearables: Smart glasses, such as Ray-Ban Meta, integrate

functionalities like real-time language translation and hands-free communication.​

●​ Hearing and Vision Integration: Technologies like Nuance Audio Hearing Aid Software
combine hearing solutions with stylish smart glasses, addressing med-tech challenges.​

●​ Personalized 'Phygital' Experiences: The fusion of physical and digital experiences,

using AI and augmented reality, caters to modern consumer demands.​

●​ Colorful Future of Eyewear: Products like Transitions Color Touch lenses blend fashion
with functionality, offering adaptive color-infused lenses.​

●​ Celebrating Excellence: The Transitions Innovation Awards recognize significant

strides in the optical industry, highlighting innovations that drive the future of eyewear.​

7. Engineering Firm Innovations

Leading engineering firms have showcased notable innovations over the past year, including:

●​ Alternative Fuel Sources: Designing industrial facilities for hydrogen fuel.​

●​ Sustainable Practices: Implementing eco-friendly designs and construction methods.​

●​ Technological Enhancements: Adopting advanced software and tools to improve

efficiency and project outcomes.​

8. Engineering Education and Workforce Development

Educational institutions and organizations are emphasizing:

 ●​ STEM Education: Promoting science, technology, engineering, and mathematics to
prepare the future workforce.​

●​ Diversity and Inclusion: Encouraging diverse participation in engineering fields to

foster innovation.​

●​ Continuous Learning: Offering professional development opportunities to keep

engineers updated with evolving technologies.​

9. Sustainability and Green Engineering

There's a growing focus on:

●​ Renewable Energy: Developing technologies for solar, wind, and other renewable
sources.​

●​ Energy Efficiency: Innovating to reduce energy consumption in various systems.​

●​ Environmental Protection: Engineering solutions to minimize pollution and protect

ecosystems.​

10. Global Engineering Collaborations

International partnerships are fostering:

●​ Research and Development: Collaborative projects addressing global challenges.​

●​ Standardization: Harmonizing engineering standards across countries for seamless

integration.​

●​ Knowledge Exchange: Sharing expertise and technologies to accelerate innovation.​

These developments underscore the dynamic nature of engineering, highlighting the sector's
commitment to integrating advanced technologies and innovative solutions across various
disciplines.
General Mathematics: Comprehensive
Overview
General Mathematics covers a wide range of fundamental mathematical concepts, including
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, statistics, probability, and financial mathematics. Below is a
structured explanation of key topics in General Mathematics.

1. Number Systems and Properties

A. Types of Numbers

1.​ Natural Numbers (N) – Counting numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, …}

2.​ Whole Numbers (W) – Natural numbers including 0 {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
3.​ Integers (Z) – Whole numbers and their negatives {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
4.​ Rational Numbers (Q) – Numbers that can be expressed as a fraction (e.g., 1/2, -3/4,
0.25)
5.​ Irrational Numbers (I) – Cannot be expressed as fractions (e.g., √2, π)
6.​ Real Numbers (R) – Combination of rational and irrational numbers

B. Properties of Real Numbers

1.​ Commutative Property – a + b = b + a, a × b = b × a

2.​ Associative Property – (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
3.​ Distributive Property – a(b + c) = ab + ac
4.​ Identity Property – a + 0 = a, a × 1 = a
5.​ Inverse Property – a + (-a) = 0, a × (1/a) = 1
4. Geometry and Trigonometry
A. Basic Geometric Concepts

●​ Lines, angles, and shapes

●​ Triangle properties (sum of angles = 180°)
●​ Circles, chords, tangents

B. Trigonometric Ratios
 1.​ Sine (sin θ) = Opposite / Hypotenuse
2.​ Cosine (cos θ) = Adjacent / Hypotenuse
3.​ Tangent (tan θ) = Opposite / Adjacent

5. Probability and Statistics

B. Descriptive Statistics

1.​ Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode

2.​ Measures of Dispersion: Variance, Standard Deviation
3.​ Normal Distribution and Z-Scores
6. Financial Mathematics
A. Simple and Compound Interest

B. Present and Future Value

●​ Present Value (PV): Determines how much money needs to be invested today to reach
a future amount.
●​ Future Value (FV): Predicts how much an investment will grow over time.

7. Matrices and Determinants

A. Operations on Matrices

1.​ Addition and Subtraction: Element-wise addition

2.​ Multiplication: Row-by-column multiplication
3.​ Determinants and Inverses

B. Applications of Matrices

1.​ Solving systems of linear equations

2.​ Transformations in geometry
3.​ Graph theory applications
Trigonometric Identities
Trigonometric identities are fundamental equations involving trigonometric functions that are
true for all values within their domains. They are essential in solving equations, simplifying
expressions, and proving mathematical relationships.

1. Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

2. Co-Function Identities

3. Even-Odd Identities
These determine the symmetry of trigonometric functions:
7. Product-to-Sum and Sum-to-Product Identities
These are useful in simplifying expressions and solving integrals: