An embedded system is a specialized computer system—a combination of a computer processor,

computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within a
larger mechanical or electronic system.[1][2] It is embedded as part of a complete device often
including electrical or electronic hardware and mechanical parts. Because an embedded system
typically controls physical operations of the machine that it is embedded within, it often has real-
time computing constraints. Embedded systems control many devices in common use.[3] In 2009, it
was estimated that ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors manufactured were used in
embedded systems.[4][needs update]

Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e. microprocessors with
integrated memory and peripheral interfaces), but ordinary microprocessors (using external chips
for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also common, especially in more complex systems.
In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from general purpose to those specialized
in a certain class of computations, or even custom designed for the application at hand. A common
standard class of dedicated processors is the digital signal processor (DSP).

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can optimize it to reduce
the size and cost of the product and increase its reliability and performance. Some embedded
systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Embedded systems range in size from portable personal devices such as digital watches and MP3
players to bigger machines like home appliances, industrial assembly lines, robots, transport
vehicles, traffic light controllers, and medical imaging systems. Often they constitute subsystems of
other machines like avionics in aircraft and astrionics in spacecraft. Large installations like factories,
pipelines, and electrical grids rely on multiple embedded systems networked together. Generalized
through software customization, embedded systems such as programmable logic controllers
frequently comprise their functional units.

Embedded systems range from those low in complexity, with a single microcontroller chip, to very
high with multiple units, peripherals and networks, which may reside in equipment racks or across
large geographical areas connected via long-distance communications lines.

History

Background

See also: Microprocessor chronology

The origins of the microprocessor and the microcontroller can be traced back to the MOS integrated
circuit, which is an integrated circuit chip fabricated from MOSFETs (metal–oxide–semiconductor
field-effect transistors) and was developed in the early 1960s. By 1964, MOS chips had reached
higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further
increased in complexity at a rate predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI)
with hundreds of transistors on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s. The application of MOS LSI chips
to computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a
complete computer processor system could be contained on several MOS LSI chips.[5]

The first multi-chip microprocessors, the Four-Phase Systems AL1 in 1969 and the Garrett AiResearch
MP944 in 1970, were developed with multiple MOS LSI chips. The first single-chip microprocessor
was the Intel 4004, released in 1971. It was developed by Federico Faggin, using his silicon-gate MOS
technology, along with Intel engineers Marcian Hoff and Stan Mazor, and Busicom engineer
Masatoshi Shima.[6]

Development

One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance Computer,
[citation needed] developed ca. 1965 by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation
Laboratory. At the project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest
item in the Apollo project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to
reduce the computer's size and weight.

An early mass-produced embedded system was the Autonetics D-17 guidance computer for the
Minuteman missile, released in 1961. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-
17 was replaced with a new computer that represented the first high-volume use of integrated
circuits.

Since these early applications in the 1960s, embedded systems have come down in price and there
has been a dramatic rise in processing power and functionality. An early microprocessor, the Intel
4004 (released in 1971), was designed for calculators and other small systems but still required
external memory and support chips. By the early 1980s, memory, input and output system
components had been integrated into the same chip as the processor forming a microcontroller.
Microcontrollers find applications where a general-purpose computer would be too costly. As the
cost of microprocessors and microcontrollers fell, the prevalence of embedded systems increased.

A comparatively low-cost microcontroller may be programmed to fulfill the same role as a large
number of separate components. With microcontrollers, it became feasible to replace, even in
consumer products, expensive knob-based analog components such as potentiometers and variable
capacitors with up/down buttons or knobs read out by a microprocessor. Although in this context an
embedded system is usually more complex than a traditional solution, most of the complexity is
contained within the microcontroller itself. Very few additional components may be needed and
most of the design effort is in the software. Software prototype and test can be quicker compared
with the design and construction of a new circuit not using an embedded processor.

Applications
Embedded Computer Sub-Assembly for Accupoll Electronic Voting Machine[7]

Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, industrial, automotive, home appliances,
medical, telecommunication, commercial, aerospace and military applications.

Telecommunications systems employ numerous embedded systems from telephone switches for the
network to cell phones at the end user. Computer networking uses dedicated routers and network
bridges to route data.

Consumer electronics include MP3 players, television sets, mobile phones, video game consoles,
digital cameras, GPS receivers, and printers. Household appliances, such as microwave ovens,
washing machines and dishwashers, include embedded systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and
features. Advanced heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems use networked
thermostats to more accurately and efficiently control temperature that can change by time of day
and season. Home automation uses wired and wireless networking that can be used to control
lights, climate, security, audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for
sensing and controlling.

Transportation systems from flight to automobiles increasingly use embedded systems. New
airplanes contain advanced avionics such as inertial guidance systems and GPS receivers that also
have considerable safety requirements. Spacecraft rely on astrionics systems for trajectory
correction. Various electric motors — brushless DC motors, induction motors and DC motors — use
electronic motor controllers. Automobiles, electric vehicles, and hybrid vehicles increasingly use
embedded systems to maximize efficiency and reduce pollution. Other automotive safety systems
using embedded systems include anti-lock braking system (ABS), electronic stability control
(ESC/ESP), traction control (TCS) and automatic four-wheel drive.

Medical equipment uses embedded systems for monitoring, and various medical imaging (positron
emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), computed
tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for non-invasive internal inspections.
Embedded systems within medical equipment are often powered by industrial computers.[8]

Embedded systems are used for safety-critical systems in aerospace and defense industries. Unless
connected to wired or wireless networks via on-chip 3G cellular or other methods for IoT monitoring
and control purposes, these systems can be isolated from hacking and thus be more secure.[citation
needed] For fire safety, the systems can be designed to have a greater ability to handle higher
temperatures and continue to operate. In dealing with security, the embedded systems can be self-
sufficient and be able to deal with cut electrical and communication systems.

Miniature wireless devices called motes are networked wireless sensors. Wireless sensor networking
makes use of miniaturization made possible by advanced integrated circuit (IC) design to couple full
wireless subsystems to sophisticated sensors, enabling people and companies to measure a myriad
of things in the physical world and act on this information through monitoring and control systems.
These motes are completely self-contained and will typically run off a battery source for years before
the batteries need to be changed or charged.

Characteristics

Embedded systems are designed to perform a specific task, in contrast with general-purpose
computers designed for multiple tasks. Some have real-time performance constraints that must be
met, for reasons such as safety and usability; others may have low or no performance requirements,
allowing the system hardware to be simplified to reduce costs.

Embedded systems are not always standalone devices. Many embedded systems are a small part
within a larger device that serves a more general purpose. For example, the Gibson Robot Guitar
features an embedded system for tuning the strings, but the overall purpose of the Robot Guitar is
to play music.[9] Similarly, an embedded system in an automobile provides a specific function as a
subsystem of the car itself.

e-con Systems eSOM270 & eSOM300 Computer on Modules

The program instructions written for embedded systems are referred to as firmware, and are stored
in read-only memory or flash memory chips. They run with limited computer hardware resources:
little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or screen.

User interfaces

Embedded system text user interface using MicroVGA[nb 1]

Embedded systems range from no user interface at all, in systems dedicated to one task, to complex
graphical user interfaces that resemble modern computer desktop operating systems. Simple
embedded devices use buttons, light-emitting diodes (LED), graphic or character liquid-crystal
displays (LCD) with a simple menu system. More sophisticated devices that use a graphical screen
with touch sensing or screen-edge soft keys provide flexibility while minimizing space used: the
meaning of the buttons can change with the screen, and selection involves the natural behavior of
pointing at what is desired.

Some systems provide user interface remotely with the help of a serial (e.g. RS-232) or network (e.g.
Ethernet) connection. This approach extends the capabilities of the embedded system, avoids the
cost of a display, simplifies the board support package (BSP) and allows designers to build a rich user
interface on the PC. A good example of this is the combination of an embedded HTTP server running
on an embedded device (such as an IP camera or a network router). The user interface is displayed in
a web browser on a PC connected to the device.
Processors in embedded systems

Examples of properties of typical embedded computers when compared with general-purpose

Numerous microcontrollers have been developed for embedded systems use. General-purpose
microprocessors are also used in embedded systems, but generally, require more support circuitry
than microcontrollers.

Ready-made computer boards

PC/104 and PC/104+ are examples of standards for ready-made computer boards intended for small,
low-volume embedded and ruggedized systems. These are mostly x86-based and often physically
small compared to a standard PC, although still quite large compared to most simple (8/16-bit)
embedded systems. They may use DOS, FreeBSD, Linux, NetBSD, OpenHarmony or an embedded
real-time operating system (RTOS) such as MicroC/OS-II, QNX or VxWorks.

In certain applications, where small size or power efficiency are not primary concerns, the
components used may be compatible with those used in general-purpose x86 personal computers.
Boards such as the VIA EPIA range help to bridge the gap by being PC-compatible but highly
integrated, physically smaller or have other attributes making them attractive to embedded
engineers. The advantage of this approach is that low-cost commodity components may be used
along with the same software development tools used for general software development. Systems
built in this way are still regarded as embedded since they are integrated into larger devices and
fulfill a single role. Examples of devices that may adopt this approach are automated teller machines
(ATM) and arcade machines, which contain code specific to the application.

However, most ready-made embedded systems boards are not PC-centered and do not use the ISA
or PCI busses. When a system-on-a-chip processor is involved, there may be little benefit to having a
standardized bus connecting discrete components, and the environment for both hardware and
software tools may be very different.