3/9/2014

Convection Heat Transfer

ME 303

Course Teacher:
Dr. Mohammad Arif Hasan Mamun
Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
BUET
Email: [email protected]

Detail Outline of Course:

Mechanism of convective heat transfer;

General methods for estimation of convective heat
transfer coefficient;

Heat and momentum transfer associated with laminar
and turbulent flow of fluids in forced convection;

Fully developed flows and boundary layer
developments in tubes/ducts over flat plates: empirical
equations;

Free convection from exterior surfaces of common
geometrics, such as cylinder, plate, sphere etc.

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Reference Books:

1. Principle of Heat Transfer

-Kreith
2. Heat Transfer
- M.N. Ozisik
3. Heat Transfer
-Halman
4. Heat Transfer
-Chapman
5. Fundamentals of Heat Transfer
-F.P. Incorpera & D.P. DeWitt
6. Heat and Mass Transfer: Fundamentals and Applications
-Y. A. Çengel
-A. J. Ghajar

Comparison of Conduction and Convection

Heat Transfer

Conduction and convection are similar:

both mechanisms require the presence of a material
medium.

But they are different in that convection requires the

presence of fluid motion.

Heat transfer through a solid is always by conduction, since

the molecules of a solid remain at relatively fixed positions.

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Heat transfer through a liquid or gas

can be by conduction or convection,
depending on the presence of any
bulk fluid motion.

Presence of bulk fluid motion-
Convection.

Absence of bulk fluid motion-
Conduction

Therefore, conduction in a fluid can
be viewed as the limiting case of
convection, corresponding to the case
of quiescent fluid.

Convection heat transfer is complicated by the fact that it

involves fluid motion as well as heat conduction.

The fluid motion enhances heat transfer, since it brings

hotter and cooler chunks of fluid into contact, initiating higher
rates of conduction at a greater number of sites in a fluid.

Therefore, the rate of heat transfer through a fluid is much

higher by convection than it is by conduction.

The higher the fluid velocity, the higher the rate of heat
transfer.

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Use of Forced Convection in our daily life:

To increase the rate of heat transfer from a hot object.

We turn on the fan on hot summer days to help our body
cool more effectively. The higher the fan speed, the better we
feel.

We stir our soup and blow on a hot slice of pizza to make
them cool faster.

The air on windy winter days feels much colder than it
actually is.

The simplest solution to heating problems in electronics
packaging is to use a large enough fan.

Conduction in Fluid:

Consider steady heat transfer through
a fluid contained between two parallel
plates maintained at different
temperatures, as shown in Figure.

The temperatures of the fluid and the
plate will be the same at the points of
contact because of the continuity of
temperature.

Assuming no fluid motion, the energy of the hotter fluid

molecules near the hot plate will be transferred to the adjacent
cooler fluid molecules.

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This energy will then be transferred to the next layer of

the cooler fluid molecules. This energy will then be
transferred to the next layer of the cooler fluid, and so on,
until it is finally transferred to the other plate. This is what
happens during conduction through a fluid.

Now let us use a syringe to draw some fluid near the hot
plate and inject it near the cold plate repeatedly. You can
imagine that this will speed up the heat transfer process
considerably, since some energy is carried to the other
side as a result of fluid motion.

Influence of Fluid in Convection:

Consider the cooling of a hot

iron block with a fan blowing
air over its top surface, as
shown in Figure.

We know that heat will be transferred from the hot block to the
surrounding cooler air, and the block will eventually cool.

We also know that the block will cool faster if the fan is
switched to a higher speed.

Replacing air by water will enhance the convection heat
transfer even more.

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Convection Depends on:

Experimental data shows that convection heat transfer
strongly depends on the fluid properties

dynamic viscosity µ,

thermal conductivity k,

density ρ,

specific heat Cp

fluid velocity Ѵ.

It also depends on the geometry and the roughness of the

solid surface, in addition to the type of fluid flow (such as
being streamlined or turbulent).

The convection heat transfer relations are more complex

because of the dependence on so many variables.

Convection is the most complex mechanism of heat transfer.

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Newton’s Law of Cooling:

The rate of convection heat transfer is observed to be
proportional to the temperature difference and is conveniently
expressed by Newton’s law of cooling as

h can be defined as the rate of heat transfer between a solid

surface and a fluid per unit surface area per unit temperature
difference.

h depends on the several of the mentioned variables, and thus is
difficult to determine

No-slip condition:
When a fluid is forced to flow
over a solid surface that is
nonporous (i.e., impermeable to
the fluid), it is observed that the
fluid in motion comes to a
complete stop at the surface and
assumes a zero velocity relative
to the surface.

That is, the fluid layer in direct contact with a solid surface
“sticks” to the surface and there is no slip. In fluid flow, this
phenomenon is known as the no-slip condition, and it is due to
the viscosity of the fluid.

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The no-slip condition is responsible for the development

of the velocity profile for flow.

Because of the friction between the fluid layers, the layer
that sticks to the wall slows the adjacent fluid layer, which
slows the next layer, and so on.

A consequence of the no-slip condition is that all velocity
profiles must have zero values at the points of contact
between a fluid and a solid.

The only exception to the no-slip condition occurs in
extremely rarified gases.

Implication of the no-slip conditions:

An implication of the no-slip conditions is that heat

transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer adjacent
to the surface is by pure conduction, since the fluid layer
is motionless, and can be expressed as

where T represents the temperature distribution in the

fluid and is the temperature gradient at the
surface.

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This heat is then convected away from the surface as a

result of fluid motion.

Convection heat transfer from a solid surface to a fluid

is merely the conduction heat transfer from the solid
surface to the fluid layer adjacent to the surface.

Therefore, we can equate the heat conduction and Heat

convection equations for the heat flux to obtain h, when
the temperature distribution within the fluid is known.

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The convection heat transfer coefficient, in general,

varies along the flow (or x-) direction.

The average or mean convection heat transfer

coefficient for a surface in such cases is determined by
properly averaging the local convection heat transfer
coefficients over the entire surface.

Nusselt Number, Nu

It is a Dimensionless Number.

Nusselt number is defined as

where k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid and Lc is the

characteristic length.

Nusselt number is considered as the dimensionless heat
transfer coefficient.

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Physical Significance of Nusselt Number, Nu

Consider a fluid layer of thickness L and temperature

difference ∆T = T2 - T1, as shown in Figure.

Heat transfer through the fluid

layer will be by convection when the
fluid involves some motion and by
conduction when the fluid layer is
motionless.

Heat flux (the rate of heat transfer per unit time per unit surface
area) in either case will be

Taking their ratio gives

which is the Nusselt number.

Therefore, the Nusselt number represents the enhancement of
heat transfer through a fluid layer as a result of convection
relative to conduction across the same fluid layer.

The larger the Nusselt number, the more effective the
convection.

A Nusselt number of Nu = 1 for a fluid layer represents heat
transfer across the layer by pure conduction.

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CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS

Convection heat transfer is closely tied with fluid mechanics,

which is the science that deals with the behavior of fluids at
rest or in motion, and the interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries.

Viscous versus Inviscid Flow

When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a

friction force develops between them and the slower layer
tries to slow down the faster layer.

This internal resistance to flow is called the
viscosity, which is a measure of internal stickiness of
the fluid.

Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces between the
molecules in liquids, and by the molecular collisions in
gases.

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There is no fluid with zero viscosity, and thus all fluid

flows involve viscous effects to some degree.

Flows in which the effects of viscosity are significant
are called viscous flows.

The effects of viscosity are very small in some flows,
and neglecting those effects greatly simplifies the analysis
without much loss in accuracy. Such idealized flows of
zero-viscosity fluids are called frictionless or inviscid
flows.

Internal versus External Flow

A fluid flow is classified as being internal
and external, depending on whether the
fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel
or over a surface.

The flow of an unbounded fluid over a
surface such as a plate, a wire, or a pipe is
external flow. Example: air flow over an
exposed pipe.

The flow in a pipe or duct is internal flow
if the fluid is completely bounded by solid
surfaces. Example: Water flow in a pipe.

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Open Channel Flow

The flow of liquids in a pipe is called open-channel

flow if the pipe is partially filled with the liquid and there
is a free surface.

The flow of water in rivers and irrigation ditches are
examples of such flows.

Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

A fluid flow is classified as being compressible or
incompressible, depending on the density variation of the
fluid during flow.

The densities of liquids are essentially constant, and thus
the flow of liquids is typically incompressible.

Therefore, liquids are usually classified as incompressible
substances.

A pressure of 210 atm, for example, will cause the density
of liquid water at 1 atm to change by just 1 percent.

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Gases, on the other hand, are highly compressible. A pressure

change of just 0.01 atm, for example, will cause a change of 1
percent in the density of atmospheric air.

However, gas flows can be treated as incompressible if the
density changes are under about 5 percent, which is usually the case
when the flow velocity is less than 30 percent of the velocity of
sound in that gas (i.e., the Mach number of flow is less than 0.3).

The velocity of sound in air at room temperature is 346 m/s.
Therefore, the compressibility effects of air can be neglected at
speeds under 100 m/s.

Note that the flow of a gas is not necessarily a compressible flow.

Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

Some flows are smooth and orderly while others are rather
chaotic.

The highly ordered fluid motion characterized by smooth
streamlines is called laminar.

The flow of high-viscosity fluids such as oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.

The highly disordered fluid motion that typically occurs at high
velocities characterized by velocity fluctuations is called turbulent.

The flow of low-viscosity fluids such as air at high velocities is
typically turbulent.

The flow regime greatly influences the heat transfer rates and the
required power for pumping.

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Natural (or Unforced) versus Forced Flow

A fluid flow is said to be natural or forced, depending

on how the fluid motion is initiated.

In forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or

in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan.

In natural flows, any fluid motion is due to a natural

means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself
as the rise of the warmer (and thus lighter) fluid and the
fall of cooler (and thus denser) fluid.

This thermosiphoning effect

is commonly used to replace
pumps in solar water heating
systems by placing the water
tank sufficiently above the
solar collectors

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One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

A flow field is best characterized by the velocity

distribution, and thus a flow is said to be one-, two-, or
three-dimensional if the flow velocity Ѵ varies in one,
two, or three primary dimensions, respectively.

A typical fluid flow involves a three- dimensional
geometry and the velocity may vary in all three
dimensions.

The variation of velocity in certain direction can be

small relative to the variation in other directions, and can
be ignored with negligible error. In such cases, the flow
can be modeled conveniently as being one- or two-
dimensional, which is easier to analyze.

When the entrance effects are disregarded, fluid flow in
a circular pipe is one-dimensional since the velocity
varies in the radial r direction but not in the angular - or
axial z-directions

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VELOCITY BOUNDARY LAYER

Consider the parallel flow of a fluid over a flat plate, as shown

in Figure.

The x-coordinate is measured along the plate surface from the
leading edge of the plate in the direction of the flow, and y is
measured from the surface in the normal direction.

The fluid approaches the plate in the x-direction with a

uniform upstream velocity of Ѵ, which is practically identical
to the free-stream velocity u∞ over the plate away from the
surface.

we can consider the fluid to consist of adjacent layers piled
on top of each other.

The velocity of the particles in the first fluid layer adjacent
to the plate becomes zero because of the no-slip condition.

This motionless layer slows down the particles of the
neighboring fluid layer as a result of friction between the
particles of these two adjoining fluid layers at different
velocities.

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This fluid layer then slows down the molecules of the

next layer, and so on.

Thus, the presence of the plate is felt up to some normal
distance from the plate beyond which the free-stream
velocity u∞ remains essentially unchanged.

As a result, the x-component of the fluid velocity, u,
will vary from 0 at y = 0 to nearly u∞ at y = δ.

The region of the flow above the plate bounded by

in which the effects of the viscous shearing forces caused
by fluid viscosity are felt is called the velocity boundary
layer.

The boundary layer thickness, δ , is typically defined as
the distance y from the surface at which u =0.99 u∞

The hypothetical line of u =0.99 u∞ divides the flow over a
plate into two regions:

the boundary layer region, in which the viscous effects and
the velocity changes are significant, and

the inviscid flow region, in which the frictional effects are
negligible and the velocity remains essentially constant.

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Surface Shear Stress:

Consider the flow of a fluid over the surface of a plate.
The fluid layer in contact with the surface will try to drag
the plate along via friction, exerting a friction force on it.

Likewise, a faster fluid layer will try to drag the
adjacent slower layer and exert a friction force because of
the friction between the two layers.

Friction force per unit area is called shear stress, and is
denoted by τ.

Experimental studies indicate that the shear stress for

most fluids is proportional to the velocity gradient, and
the shear stress at the wall surface is as

where the constant of proportionality µ is called the

dynamic viscosity of the fluid, whose unit is kg/m.s (or
equivalently, N.s/m2, or Pa.s, or poise = 0.1 Pa.s).

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The fluids that that obey the linear relationship above are
called Newtonian fluids.

Most common fluids such as water, air, gasoline, and oils
are Newtonian fluids.

Blood and liquid plastics are examples of non-Newtonian
fluids.

In fluid flow and heat transfer studies, the ratio of

dynamic viscosity to density appears frequently.

For convenience, this ratio is given the name kinematic
Viscosity and is expressed as ν.

Two common units of kinematic viscosity are m2/s and
stoke (1 stoke = 1 cm2/s = 0.0001 m2/s).

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The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to

flow, and it is a strong function of temperature.

The viscosities of liquids decrease with temperature,
whereas the viscosities of gases increase with temperature

The viscosities of some

fluids at 20°C are listed in
Table.

Note that the viscosities
of different fluids differ by
several orders of magnitude.

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The determination of the surface shear stress τs from

previous equation is not practical since it requires a
knowledge of the flow velocity profile.

A more practical approach in external flow is to relate τs to
the upstream velocity Ѵ as

where Cf is the dimensionless friction coefficient, whose

value in most cases is determined experimentally, and ρ is the
density of the fluid.

The friction coefficient, in general, will vary with

location along the surface.

Once the average friction coefficient over a given
surface is available, the friction force over the entire
surface is determined from

where As is the surface area

The friction coefficient is an important parameter in

heat transfer studies since it is directly related to the heat
transfer coefficient and the power requirements of the
pump or fan.

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THERMAL BOUNDARY LAYER

A thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at a
specified temperature flows over a surface that is at a
different temperature, as shown in figure.

Consider the flow of a fluid at a uniform temperature of T∞

over an isothermal flat plate at temperature Ts.

The fluid particles in the layer adjacent to the surface will

reach thermal equilibrium with the plate and assume the surface
temperature Ts.

These fluid particles will then exchange energy with the
particles in the adjoining-fluid layer, and so on.

As a result, a temperature profile will develop in the flow
field that ranges from Ts at the surface to T∞ sufficiently far
from the surface.

The flow region over the surface in which the temperature
variation in the direction normal to the surface is significant is
the thermal boundary layer.

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The thickness of the thermal boundary layer δt at any

location along the surface is defined as the distance from the
surface at which the temperature difference T- Ts equals
0.99(T∞- Ts).

Note that for the special case of Ts =0, we have T = 0.99T∞
at the outer edge of the thermal boundary layer, which is
analogous to u = 0.99u ∞ for the velocity boundary layer.

The thickness of the thermal boundary layer increases in the
flow direction, since the effects of heat transfer are felt at
greater distances from the surface further down stream.

The convection heat transfer rate anywhere along the surface

is directly related to the temperature gradient at that location.

Therefore, the shape of the temperature profile in the thermal
boundary layer dictates the convection heat transfer between a
solid surface and the fluid flowing over it.

In flow over a heated (or cooled) surface, both velocity and
thermal boundary layers will develop simultaneously.

Noting that the fluid velocity will have a strong influence on
the temperature profile, the development of the velocity
boundary layer relative to the thermal boundary layer will have
a strong effect on the convection heat transfer.

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Prandtl Number

The relative thickness of the velocity and the thermal
boundary layers is best described by the dimensionless
parameter Prandtl number, defined as

It is named after Ludwig Prandtl, who introduced the concept

of boundary layer in 1904 and made significant contributions to
boundary layer theory.

The Prandtl numbers of fluids range from less than 0.01 for
liquid metals to more than 100,000 for heavy oils (Table).

Note that the Prandtl number is
in the order of 10 for water.

The Prandtl numbers of gases
are about 1, which indicates that
both momentum and heat
dissipate through the fluid at about
the same rate.

Heat diffuses very quickly in liquid metals (Pr «1) and very
slowly in oils (Pr »1) relative to momentum. Consequently the
thermal boundary layer is much thicker for liquid metals and
much thinner for oils relative to the velocity boundary layer.

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LAMINAR AND TURBULENT FLOWS

The cigarette smoke rises in a smooth plume for the first few
centimeters and then starts fluctuating randomly in all directions.

A careful inspection of flow in a pipe reveals that the fluid

flow is streamlined at low velocities but turns chaotic asthe
velocity is increased above a critical value, as shown in Figure.

The flow regime in the first case is said to be laminar,
characterized by smooth streamlines and highly-ordered motion,
and turbulent in the second case, where it is characterized by
velocity fluctuations and highly-disordered motion.

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The transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not occur

suddenly; rather, it occurs over some region in which the flow
fluctuates between laminar and turbulent flows before it
becomes fully turbulent.

the velocity profile is approximately parabolic in laminar flow

and becomes flatter in turbulent flow, with a sharp drop near the
surface.

The turbulent boundary layer can be considered to consist of
three layers.

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The very thin layer next to the wall where the viscous effects
are dominant is the laminar sublayer. The velocity profile in this
layer is nearly linear, and the flow is streamlined.

Next to the laminar sublayer is the buffer layer, in which the
turbulent effects are significant but not dominant of the
diffusion effects, and

Next to it is the turbulent layer, in which the turbulent effects
dominate.

The intense mixing of the fluid in turbulent flow as a result of

rapid fluctuations enhances heat and momentum transfer between
fluid particles, which increases the friction force on the surface and
the convection heat transfer rate.

It also causes the boundary layer to enlarge. Both the friction and
heat transfer coefficients reach maximum values when the flow
becomes fully turbulent.

So it will come as no surprise that a special effort is made in the
design of heat transfer coefficients associated with turbulent flow.

The enhancement in heat transfer in turbulent flow does not come
for free. It may be necessary to use a larger pump to overcome the
larger friction forces accompanying the higher heat transfer rate.

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Reynolds Number

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the
surface geometry, surface roughness, free-stream velocity, surface
temperature, and type of fluid, among other things.

The flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of the inertia
forces to viscous forces in the fluid. This ratio is called the
Reynolds number, which is a dimensionless quantity, and is
expressed as:

Where Ѵ is the upstream velocity (equivalent to the free-stream

velocity u∞ for a flat plate), Lc is the characteristic length of the
geometry, and ν=µ/ρ is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

For a flat plate, the characteristic length is the distance x from

the leading edge.

At large Reynolds numbers, the inertia forces, which are
proportional to the density and the velocity of the fluid, are
large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces
cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid.
Thus the flow is turbulent.

At small Reynolds numbers the viscous forces are large
enough to overcome the inertia forces and to keep the fluid “in
line.” Thus the flow is laminar.

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The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is

called the critical Reynolds number.

The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for
different geometries.

For flow over a flat plate, the generally accepted value of the
critical Reynolds number is Recr = Ѵxcr/ν = u∞ xcr/ν = 5 * 105,
where xcr is the distance from the leading edge of the plate at
which transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs.

The value of Recr may change substantially, however,
depending on the level of turbulence in the free stream.

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