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34 views32 pagesData Processing and Computer Organisation - Rudiments of Computer Science (XI)
The document discusses the concept of data and its processing, explaining that data is raw information that, when processed, becomes meaningful information. It outlines the various types of information, qualities of effective information, and the data processing cycle, including input, processing, and output stages. Additionally, it describes different data processing systems and the essential features of computers required for data processing.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
34 views32 pagesData Processing and Computer Organisation - Rudiments of Computer Science (XI)
The document discusses the concept of data and its processing, explaining that data is raw information that, when processed, becomes meaningful information. It outlines the various types of information, qualities of effective information, and the data processing cycle, including input, processing, and output stages. Additionally, it describes different data processing systems and the essential features of computers required for data processing.
Uploaded by
Eshita DasCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 32
ry aig
Data Processing and Computer Organis:
ei
‘n our daily life we are constantly comin Jevision,
y 9 around various types of data from newspapers, te
research papers in scientific journals and magazines, the Internet etc. The word Data (singular datum) |
basically means a collection of facts or raw materials. Examples of data ae: | Data
+ Marks obtained in computer studies in a class
Daily temperatures recorded in a city over a period of time |
= Cricket scores |
= Customer names and addresses in a departmental store |
men this raw data is processed as per the requirement of a person or an organisation get a more
vegul and meaningful interpretation of the data which is called Information (though there is no
Such sharp distinction between the two, and can be often used interchangeably). The process of converting. information
fata to information is called Data Processing. It includes proper storage ‘lassification and calculations |
based on the form in which the data is required, or is useful a
studies of batting || GEE basically
or example cricket scores provide us with numerous cricket statistics ike, compartir | ‘
Foures, bowling figures, Individual scores ets. Distribution of black Roles Nee The scientists to predict the || means a collection.
fare of the universe from the mass distribdtion data. Infrared photographs of the solar corona are useful in | | of facts or raw
predicting solar activity, which in tugs used to predict climatic changes on earth. | materials:
|
Eo
Represent the raw material on which the computer Works
‘Data is the starting material of data processing.
Tre data ina system can be the information fom another Information processed Oy
Te de ctl, he number 02081871 canbe theta fr another Fey See date of bith 02-09-
Zhe for a system which processes this value to get the ay generated by a system can act as data for a system
ate of birt of a person as 02-09-3971 caleulating the present age of @ person
Frame of data: The value 15042009 by tel 's Example of information: When processed, the same value
meaningless and serves as the input raw data for 2 Can represent date (15-04-2009) or population of
‘System. country (15042009 persons)
“These represent the processed raw material or data,
Tnformation isthe end product of data processing,
‘one system can serve as the
‘The various qualities of information are:
Information must be meaningful and not vague in nature. Therefore the Information that sea
levels will rise by 1 meter for every degree rise in global average temperature, as an effect of global
warming is a better information than the fact that ‘ice will mett as a result of global warming’.
b. Contain Surprise Element: Information should have some surprise element i.e. should give some new
corns Stnerefore, te prediction that a particular year wil receive more than average rainfall is better
information than the information ‘sun rises in the east:
«c. Reinoree Existing Knowledge: The new information should reinforce or add to an already existin
Trafedige. Therefore te findings after the recent ourey of the spacecraft Chandrayan to the Moon fae
eat ne exiting knowledge that the Moon has water under its surface inthe form of ie.
Qualities of
a
Information
15 Part 1: Chapter 2
4. Rectify Misconceptions: Thi i rectify any previ
ys: The new information can also be used 12 Wy previous
information. For example the present accepted number of solar planets 25 8 1S & rectification over the
previously accepted number 9, after the planet Pluto was declared @ planetoid and not a planet.
fe. Brevity: Information should be brief and to the point and not be very elaborate ‘Thus information in the
form of a relation or graph (ike pie-chart or a bar-graph) is better than five pages of information.
f. Accurate: The information should have proper accuracy. Inaccurate information Is of 10 USS
9. Timely: Information should be relevant and timely and ‘should not be backdated.
Information at one level can be data for another level. For ‘example the data of birth information
02/09/1971 at one level may be treated as raw data at anather level to calculate the present age of a person,
levels as stated below:
Based on this fact, information can be classified into five different
with an international significance. Examples
12 + International information: These are information
Leveray | INelude information related to the weather pattem to determine the economic effects of global warming,
igatsvels ot prices of Rockin the nteatonl stock mare
importance. For example information
as a national
the management of natural
2. National Information: This type of information hi
ita income of the country,
related to the economy of the country, the per capi
resources etc. are various types of information of national interest.
3. Corporate Information: Such type of information is related to a business oF corporate body and
oro uc departments and individuals. It includes information related to @ company’s profit and
loss, the quarterly sales report of the company ete
4. Departmental Information: This type of information is related to @ particular department in an
eepnisation. For example the information related to the salary structures of different individuals of a
particular department forms such type of information.
5. Individual Information: Information related to an individual person. The personal record of an
Employee like the employee name, address, phone number, salary et form individual information.
Iphanumeric (ie. alphabets and digits). Numeric values
"aa whole numbers or integers (like -45, +80 etc.) or floating point numbers (like
34, +0.75E-3 etc.). Alphanumeric data can include names, addresses etc.
The computer stores single pieces of
ete, Several such related fields are
‘etc, fields of a particular student
By nature, data can be numeric (Le. numbers) or al
‘can be either sign
6.023x10 or 0.60236:
pata forms the raw material for a data processing system.
Promation in units called flelds or attributes like 1D, name, class,
Grouped together to form records. The data stored inthe 1D, name, cas,
gov pertool when taken together form the student record. Several similar records like all the student records
2 Sarbcular school form an entity set, Such a set of records whic form an entity set are taken togeter
in.a given file a special field called the record key or primary key (e.9. ID number
and stored as a file. Withit
of a student) is used to uniquely identify a particular record.
-The manner in which the above data Is stored and viewed/used is different. Based on the above fact we can
coaty data broadly into Physical Data type and Logical Data type as discussed below.
1. Physical Data: This indicates the process in which the raw data gets stored in the computer. The
uses various types of data structures (like linked lists, trees etc), records (lke fixed or variable
computer
physical and | fength records) and fle organisation methods (Ike serial, sequential, indexed or di
Copical Data | data in a physical media like a magnetic disk or magnetic tape etc. ed or direct files) to save the
2, Logloal Data: This indicates the logical Legea Recordet
arrangement of data as viewed by the user cage eet
or the application programmer. The main 5 |
‘components of logical data are entity, rm ji
Gttribute and relationships between the |
Stites. For example in 2 school, the various \ NY ci
entities involved are students, teachers,
jects taught, marks obtained in various
Siimations by students etc. The attrbutes ‘oglcal Records & the Physica tk
exariad con be the name, class, section, "sears whichstore nom toon necor
irl no. of students et. And the relationships involved can be the relati
teacher, that between students jonship betw. :
that ‘and marks etc Al these taken together form the iolen er a
P1-2-2 16 oe
Rudiments of Computer Science
Data Processing and Computer Organisation
Data processing by 9 computer involves
‘ght, and the total process scaled a Data Processing Grek ariPerentig:
8) Input uring this pose the raw data to be processed input int the computer system
by means of various input devices lke keyboard, mouse, scanner etc. and stored in
; red
various media like the hard disk, RAM etc. before itis processed. .
2) Process: This processing
) Process: This phase sed to actualy mdty or proces the data to get the dested Data process
formation. Tis hase can pan vv us peas he || bg a computer
2), Record: This involves transfer and storing ofthe input data for use during the processing. [wolves ines
Process, and
) Duplicate: This involves making co put ee i
pies of the input data for mutiple uses. For example, Gupication of
the bil against a purchase may be equred forthe customer nd the eal. ona | output and the
} (eet one
) Verify: The recorded data is checked for any errors before it is processed. a Data
3) Classy: The put data may need ob cassie ra varns aers fo ope precesi =r i
example the student data can be classified into various classes and sections. | ial.
e) Sort: Processinc ir \-
ert akg ri tc rin a insite Per ang |
f) Merge: Often two or more sets of data may need to be merged ‘together. For ‘example data from
Beas as Fees eee inci ee it dani ee
h) Search: This operation is used to look for particular information from the total data set. |
3) Output: The processed data needs to be output and returned back to the user. ‘This output can either be
displayed to the user, taken in a printed form, or can be stored for further processing.
|
Various data processing systems have evolved over the years to process data, Some ofthese includes | a
1. Management information System (MIS): This involves data processing related to the intemal working of) o\a
aaa ery fer proper business management. it deals with solving business related issues like product | Processing
Costing, creating business strategies, managing human resources etc. systems
2. Decision Support System (OSS): This is a computerised data processing system that supports @ MIS |
er eats wit business decision-making actives. A propery-designed DSS Is an interactive sofware:
soced system which helps decison makers In an organisation to compile useful information from various |
ease and personal knowledge. The information so generated is used to identify business problems and
‘make decisions to solve them. |
4, Electronic Data Processing System (EDPS): Computers are used to process data electronically, The |
process is fast and accurate and the data can be stored and retrieved later
4, Transaction Processing System (TPS): Such a system is used to process data during a transaction in
dombase system A transaction program is used to maintain data consistency during a transaction. Foe
fexample during an electronic payment the amount must be both withdrawn from one account and added
Te the other, In case a complete transaction cannot take place, the partially executed transaction must De
‘rolled back’ to the original state,
In the previous section we had seen that @ modem day person processes data by using various data Computer
processing systems, the backbone of which is an electronic computing machine or computer. Let us now System
discuss the various features that a computer should have in general to process data
1. Solve all types of arithmetic and logical calculations: The computer must be able to carry out all
thoes of enthmetc operations ike addtion, subtraction, mutipicatin and division and at the same time Sas remorse |
0 iogical comparisons between various values. The Arithmetic and Logic Unt (ALU) of a modern day leading computer
computer does this job. be cane
2. Must have a storage unit: The computer should have @ memory unit to store various types of | Manufacturer
Information, This formation can be the raw data to process, the instructions to process this data and the | "ottlett Packard
processed data itself. In a computer the RAM and the hard disk serve this purpose of storir 1 (HP), was first
‘temporarily or permanently ing data | Sarina garage
in 1939
P4-2-3 . Part 1: Chapter 2
i i il not be able
3. ‘The computer must have inputloutput devices: Unless we input data to a computer we wi
Q to process it. For this we need special input devices. Similarly the processed data should be avaiable to
/ The basic physical the user. This is done through the output devices in a computer. Keyboards, mouse étc. serve as input
building blocks of devices and DU, printers etc. work as output devices. o
computer are | 4. The computer must be able to decide: The computer must be able to decide on the course of action it
should take based on various conditions. For example if the computer has to print a number as an even
number or as an odd number based on the value of the number, then it should be able to take that
decision. It should be able to decide upon the condition and print the appropriate result. This decision
making capability is what separates a computer from a ca Iculator. The control unit (CU) of the
computer is responsible for carrying out this function
A sence of .
/ Nese et Nun ine abv ccusirs we hve sen tt or im proce we cure oqJagut ere 2 pmcessog
to a computer to || device, memory, and fin wvice. These form the basic building blocks of a computer and are
eeite collectively known as computer_hardware. Hardware consists mainly of the CPU, memory modules,
‘hardware work, | input/output devices like keyboard, VDU, etc. and storage devices like hard disks ete.
‘im a language that) | However computer hardware cannot do anything on its own and it has to be instructed to do any desired job.
the computer |
| ywence of instructions needs to be given to the computer in a language that the computer
pied Traerstands to make the hardware werk, Such ast of insrucions is known as software. softwere basically
consists of programs, which tell the computer what to do and how to do the processing, Programs usually
|) contain a set of instructions in coded form, written to serve a specific job or purpose. Without the software
7 the computer would be a dumb terminal
There can be two different types of software based on how these are stored. In case a part of the software is
ee permanent stored in a-compite ned on toe manery, then sich sofware scaled! mare
jrmware basicaly keeps information related to the computer system.
Apart from the computer hardware and software, there is a third entity without which the computer will not
run, It is called livews fare.-It basicaly consists of people wi Sangh
ho work with th r
a consists of programmers, operators, system analysts, end users and others. re computer and
A stated earlier, the hardware of a computer ic. the physical components of
tn case software is| into five basic parts as shown in the next page. ‘8 computer can be subdivided
bale,
See ee [[linpat [Output Devices
read only type
‘then
The above hardware is
connected to each
other in a logical
manner to carry out the
process of input, output,
processing and’ storage
of data. Block
diagram-1, shows how
these different parts are
generally connected
together in a computer.
‘Control Unit (CU)
+
‘Control Une
(cu)
+
Animate 8
ogie Unit
Arithmetic & Logie Unit (ALU)
aa]
Input devices like Block Diagram-t of a Ge, :
ES hrc, mouse, ner Computer
The computer scanner ec, nou the daa trom the user and send them to the m
mouse, tunit (the RAM), The central processing unit lemory
‘windowing PHI! from the memory. The control unit o ink (CPU) then fetches the date Block Diagram;
lta Au) an ees eae eee ancien cae tA MME Gre
paring and Mie either stored in storage devices lke the hard ane 22K. the memeny
Pexwork cord were ddsk and cb Rome Unit. Next the
Sioned the monitor, printer, or speaker. The communteation OF Ts passed to te Processed data is
Serox Corp. Palo || responsible for carrying information from one part tat Nhe the data adcrent OUtPUE devices ike
‘no, Cafornia
In case the npt/ouput devices dirt
used to dese the woking of suc a trea pps Mh
YPuter,
block diagram-2 can be
PL24 8
* and control bus are Rudiments of Computer Science
Tnput Devices help to interact with the cor pt
smputer and accept data and instructions fi the
Depending upon the various types of data entered like textual oa inages, audio and video ata
‘now discuss the various types of input devices available.
+ Keyboard
oo
‘The most common input device is the Keyboard
winch fs usualy connected tothe computer Using 9
PS/2 oF an USB port. It resembles a mechanical
where the alphabets are placed in the
QWERTY format along with the numerals 0 to 9
‘and punctuation symbols. It is used to enter
textual data.
‘The number of keys on a keyboard varies from the
original standard of 101 keys to the 104-keys as in Windows keyboards. These keys can De
the following sets based on their functions:
ta Prot
1d computer organisation
user.
te, let US
divided into
that xy. the Keyboard prints n lowercase, but when we kep the SH Key
‘Gnd then press the ‘A’ key, then the upper case A gets printed
“These contain the Break, ESC,
Lock Keys “There is another st of keys onthe Keyboard which have an ON and an OFF state, The Caps
— Tek, Num Lock and Seroll Lock are examples of such Keys |
Mavgalion Keys | These incude the 4 arrow keys, Page up, Page down, End & Home evs.
ait Keys Teed to edt portion ofa file and indude Enter, Back Space, Inert, Delete, and Tab Keys
‘Function keys “These Indude the Fi, F2, .. FL2 keys and are used to perform some speial work as spactiea
Program running onthe computer opens when you press the FI. key |
ifimedia Koya | Nowadays mutimedia Keyboards come wth some spec button wich cn Pe used to ‘enable
owegble sound, open a particular home page, open the explorer ee
Print Screen and similar keys
‘keyboard has it own processor and circuitry to carry information ‘o afi from the processor. The major part
Ane onary ig the key-matrix. Its a grid of conducting lines placed beneath the keys and used to detect
$key press. DepeTiding upon The technology used, a Keyboard can be mechanical or capacitive in nature.
‘The internal working mechanism ofa common mechanical Keyboard is discussed below:
+ "When a key Is pressed on the Keyboard, it pushes a rubber dome Normal kay
eneath the key. A conductive contact on the underside of the dome
touches a pair of conducting lines on the circuit below.
Pressed key
_ This closes the contact between the lines, causing @ change in the >= | =
current flowing through the lines.
‘and the keyboard chip
corresponding ASCII value.
ee
AA special signal called a scanning signal detects this change of current Contacts open | Contacts closed
Sean code signal that corresponds to the key pressed.
+ The scan code generated Is then sent to the computer's basic input output
Fe ead cable, The BIOS Inside the computer reeves the scan code ane a
lecodes it into a
19
|
(the B10) via
The computer then decides what action to take on the bass of the key pressed,
P4-2-5,
“The 18M ThinkPad’s
On a QWERTY
Thee eh 7 there pemefr eater ecuen || cy
withdraw when you
‘open and close the
the only country
that can be typed
using only one row
of keys
a
Working
mechani
Keyboard
|
| iter
enables a standard-
= « \ sized key
Used to type the alphabets A to Zin ower and ur Eee
Used to type the digs from 0109 re ‘smaller sized IaptoP
Hee ard | Used to ype various puncatons (ie, 77! ez. ard amine Me 8 * +96 Orr for more
‘Symbol Keys LL], blank key (spacebar) etc. comfortable typing
‘Modifier Keys aoeanare a bt of Keys which when pressed along with some cer Kes, my the function of ria ators dl
em that Key. These include the Shift key, Alt key, and the Ctrl key: For ‘example when we press tae eee] \ Scanner
Part 4: Chapter 2
(Mouse
After the keyboard, the mouse is the next most useful input
which is used to point and select any item on 2 Graphical Use
looks a bit ike a mouse and can be moved along a surface. It consi
bbe clicked to do various functions. The user can simply point to o|
| select them by clicking the mouse button. =
‘A mouse can be wired, or wireless. Wired mouse can be connected through aan aa oom
connected through basically a PS/2 or an USB port. Wireless mouse USE SU m TUL TeOay to
communicate with the computer. These use a Bluetooth transmitter to send sre, Hhithe compere
by a Bluetooth transmitter, The transmitter is attached as a small dongle to an USB port I puter.
Generally nowe comes ree buttons, along with a scroll wheel. Each button has its
Sere erat wa ease sence men ay had
then an item is opened. The rightmost button when pressed shows @ drop-down ew sa wheel
can be rotated upwards or downwards to scroll through a long document or a webpage. The scroll wheel
when pressed acts as the middle button. The middle key also has some specific features. Like in Linux
Te sad dk sees ee uc athe clan
When the mouse is moved, a graphic
arrow head called the mouse pointer
moves on the screen. Using this pointer,
any object on the screen can be pointed,
Clicked and selected. Once selected, an
item can be dragged and dropped from
‘one place to another, or can be opened.
fevice. It is a point and click input devicg
Interface (GUD). It is a small object which
its of one or more buttons which cay
tions and icons on a GUI screen ang
‘One Button, Two Button, Three Button and Scroll Mouse
Based on the way a mouse determines its position on a surface, we have broadly two types of mouse, a
mechanical mouse and an optical mouse. A mechanical mouse uses a ball-and-roller arrangement to
determine the position of the mouse pointer. An optical mouse on the other hand uses an LED light source
and a sensor to scan the surface where the mouse is placed and determine the position of the mouse pointer
on the screen. Modern optical mouse use invisible IR Laser light as the light source. These are more accurate
than the LED mouse and can be used over any surface.
* Scanner
‘A scanner is an input device which can be used to input images and di
digital format in the computer. The different types of scanners are: ee Seren
1. Flatbed scanners: In these types of scanners the document
rd rn ee ses ne edo
is moved with a rotating belt. The picture onthe right shows such» esse
2. Sheet-fed scanners: These scanners have an immobile .
SEs
the paper document is fed into a roller which ros the paper meats 2S
whole document travel under the fed scarier head nd makes the aca
3. Handheld scanners: Similar to flatbed scanners
to be moved manually on the document In order te scar tead Needs
der to scan it. Th =
scanner typically does not provide good ima 's ype of
useful for quickly capturing text or image, o* “UaltY: However, it can be
4, Drum scanners: These are used by the publshin
highly detailed images. These use the photomulipher tase
image. The document to be scanned is mounted one y(0-c2>tUe the
AA sensor in the centre of the cylinder spits light which i aaes, Vlinder,
document into three beams. Each beam is sent thrargs flected from the
sensor, where the ight s changed into an electrical signay COU filter to a
‘The flatbed scanner Is the most wide
Tra es el te on eng
‘across the document. As the lamp iluminates tre i MuTnates the The
lens. The lens focuses the image on a Page, iment. The
19 Industry and can scan,
thee ided on the glass plate
Special sensor caleg (at OM the documes need then moves
\s reflected off onto a
wed! Device (CCD) array, The CCD
1-2-6 20 . Rudiments of Computer Science
Data Processing and Computer Organisation
converts the light signal to electri
corvette Hon sna to etc pulses, The Igh is then converted to aw egal data ont sent to the
+ Barcode Reader
— $
‘A barcode reader is used to |
A tate eos, Horan cot oe nn ie labels, 1t is used In | garcode
ne produ TD, pree, name of he manufacurey ee. pnt on We lobels "he barcode usually contains | Reader
dark bars of varii
pedal scanner. The barcode is
a designed based on
eae OSes sae oe na
Tee Tent ae euyae w®
Ene product details. The code numbers are also
written under each bar symbol which can be used in the ‘event of a machine failure.
Be ase lrcle stam we eee. Taae Ye Ul
able. ni ret (UPC) used in the US,
Two pas of bcos ena Ter te Unter Prats ae)
+ Touch Screen
‘a touch screen is a special display screen where the user can enter data PY
Quching the sereen at specific locations. It isa display which can detect 1e
presence and location of a touch within the display area, It as developed in the
eeend half of the 1960s and is widely used in applications Ike Personal
Digital Assistant (PDA), mobile phones, interactive ralway or arines ‘enquiry
systems, bank ATMS etc.
Using a touch screen, the user can directly interact with what displayed on
Hana Ren, rather than indirectly with a mouse. It allows one to ne his finger or hand
ie intermediate device like a stylus that needs to beheld Inthe rand.
Various types tke resistive, capacitive, or infra red touch sca available. The resistive touch screen
‘cresently the most widely used and affordable ouch Seen Technology type as it is not affected by heat,
dust or water.
+ Light Pen
A lighEpen Is a point and draw input device which allows the user to point to
‘bjects displayed on a CRT screen. These are ‘also used for computer aided design
Spolcatons, where the user can directly draw ‘on the screen with the help of a
ight pen. tl similar toa touch screen but has & ‘greater accuracy:
Itis basically @ light-sensitive device that uses © photoelectric cell an
pen shaped case. It needs to be used al0%0 with the comp
ord directly pointed to the screen to select my
pen has a fi
‘The pen works by sensing the li
pulses and sends them to the processor. 7 ysing this light signal the (xy) poston of the en is found out ona CRT
by the processor. The signal then mye ‘that is triggering the photocell on the light pen and
ay
proper action is taken. a, s |
ye ry
Optical Mark Recognition (aso called Optical Mare eading or OMR) Is the process of detecting data fron
precrinted document-forms marked BY WAM ‘one of the most familar applications of optical mark
ré&ognition Is OMR answer sheets in multiple choice question examinations.
A special nd of shettorm is used for this Putte ‘The user has to input information by darker
aera rnarked on ths pre-printed sheet usd § HB pencil (picture of @ sample OMR form dar ening
‘Fintrerie sheet Is then automaticaly read PY 2 canning machine which shines a beam of light onto the
A isa
1d an optical lens mounted in @poin
tes CRT monitor, The pen Is held by the hand | ba ad
wi tems of cons oF directly craw graphics on the screen. The ch ellos the
Peterte uton, which can be use to sick onions from the screen by clicking on It es ee
egal rom te CRT monor sen, converts the ht Mo Sees chjects cisplayed
+ Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
Optical Mark
Reade
a PA1-2-7 Part: Chapter 2
om
ee ‘The contrasting reflectivity from the marked and unmarked
the blank Used to detect the marked areas as they reflect less light than
lank areas of the paper.
Rgsktop OMR software is avaiable which aons a user to crate forms in 2
With CCeSSOF aT print it on a laser printer. The OMR software then wor
‘common desktop image scanner to process the filled forms.
OPS Process Of OM is however not sultable for gathering large amounts
= te is also the possibility of missing data during oe ey
rocess. However for all practical IR provides a fast, accural
1 collect and input data, SHS OHR
——==
8 18BOO| ° BGG)
2809| 1 BO
22800 8 @8O0,
ee * Optical Character Reader (OCR)
Optical Optical Character sed to optically S20 Me Th e moge St
Reader | in the computer's memory as a bitmap image consisting of a grid of dots. The character ition
ccf. 0ftware of the scanner then converts the ary of dots to equivalent ASCH Fk ae.
F interpret as letters, numbers or special characters. Inteligent systems with high recegrinion Retwracy for
Bes basically most fonts are now available. Some systems are even capable of reproducing oe
fused to optically | approximates the original scanned page.
The advantages of using OCR technology are given below.
+ Reduced Storage Area: The storage area required by a text files several times smaller than that ofan
image file.
+ Word Processing: Since the scanned document is
ff the document can be easily done.
'* Quick Data Evaluation: One can use OCR to evaluate and tabulate large amount of data quickly by
scanning specially marked sheets as in specially marked entry forms.
ie | + Magnetic Ink Character Reader (MICR)
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition or MICR technology is used mainly by banking systems for faster
processing of large volumes of cheques. Banks that use MICR use a special type of cheque. The bank’s
identification code, cheque number and account number are pre-printed using a special magnetic ink that
contains particles of iron oxide. Magnetic printing is used so that characters can be easily read, even when
they have been overwritten with other marks.
The characters are also of special font, The major MICR fonts used =z
around the world are E-13B and CMC-7. Almost all Indian, US, Canadian 12 4 23456 7890)
land UK cheques now include MICR characters atthe bottom of the paper in
the E-138 font (shown to the right)
When a customer deposits a cheque with the bank, a MICR reader is used to recognise the magnetic
ink characters automatically and carry out the transaction. When the cheques enter the reading unit, they
pass through a magnetic field, which magnetises the particles of ink. Read heads then examine these
characters by examining their shapes. The special shapes of the MICR font ensure that each letter
produces a unique field for the character recognition system to provide a reliable result.
converted and saved as a text file, word processing
Reader
Differences between OGR and MICR
Used for reading any typeof printed text material Used in banks fr reading special information from cheques
Difference biw
ek & MICR | | The fons scanned usualy can be of varity of shapes The fonts scanned
| 138 fone.
‘The ink in the text document scanned can be of any The nk used in Mi
rh type. of iron one ICR 8 magnetic ink made using parties
Should be of a pre-defined shape like the Rudiments of Computer Science
Data Processing and Computer Organisation
ne Camera
Web cameras or simply web
cams are input devi
cies = put devices used for video capturi r
IC Ae a ern te ee eee
corte ore meutcreg liars ah baa eh aon Oe
‘Web cams |
web cos con, be sed as webacreible cameras, oes |
‘messaging text chat services such as AOL Instant “~~
Messenger. Increased vic —_
ideo quality in modern web cams has helped PC users worlwide to do one f2-00
AOL Instant Messenget |
five video communication over
the’ internet. Programs lke Yahoo
Snes Se oe aaceee anne la
7 web cms are als wed to rove ews come
aa ae to lo preven ar ae br srt poses mata | a
+ Punched Card Readers and Tape Readers
readers were used during the early. sss
days of computing to input data that were punched in (ha
sercial types of paper cards and ribbons. These
machines are obsolete Now.
card readers are electromechanical_devices. that, are
2 to read the information punched into @ card. The
hole in the card is converted to
presence or absence of @
bresetical signal representing a binary ‘0 or 2 "Ect,
Gard (picture shown above) usualy consists of 12 rews: ‘and 80 columns an
card (oiommonly used code to encode data Into the cords the Hollerith Code,
is punched in each column of the card.
‘Tne punching machine contains 2 hopper where ihe blank cards ae frst stacked. The operator then use= = |
keyboard to enter the data which is then ‘punched into the card by proper electromechanical mechanisT¥s.
ete ecard, the card is moved over a row of 8 arepal brushes. Ifa hole is present, a contact)
sed by the computer to interpret a0" or 2
0
Prege by the brush. This produces a signal that cen be
card readers and tape
fe and 79%" fond. |
1d are 3¥4" wid
where a single character |
information punched on a paper tape. Uke
here mechanical sensing pins are
used to input
and absence of
Punched tape readers were
“card readers, these are ‘electro-mechanical devices w!
Ga tp read the character punched in each I
spunch or a-hole In.the tape is used £0
2 Pn or soto electric cels to detec 2 hole In he =P
sree weap onary
Fsnge characteris punched as 2 pater of Roles in each lateral line. When a key In the tape
punch keyboard is pressed, the binary tn diag symbol of the characteris punched ino Ue >! and the
Pars then advances tothe next ine. Many ope punches are able to read from a perforated tape and then
eesuce » printed copy ofthe code n the tP
ete Input Devices
re a variety of input devices available presently. They consist of Trackballs,
Digital Cameras, etc. |
Apart
Graphic Tablets, Joysticks, Microphones,
i i as a pointing device in laptop computers. A laptop computer can
ig similar to a mouse and used
go have a touch pad devi the user can move his finger to move a
pointer on the screen
ice over which
pointer similar to @ mouse
A graphic tablet or simply a tablet, (picture shown on the right) an nut device
err draw anything using 2 spec Pe id the image is dire
transferred to the computer display and can be sa |
is another type of input device mainly used in computer games and -
timation software to input a move, These work as navigation devices and can have special butt.
various actions required in @ computer g2™e- rons to input
hed into a tape a line at a time.
23
P1-2-9 »
Part: Chapter 2
ice or music into the computer with the help
Microphones can be used to directly input audio signals like voi sc t
of specific software. Digital cameras can be used to take an image in a digital format and cirecty
an image.
‘Transfer to 2 computer as a digital image file. This saves the need to print and scan
|
| Ti fnion of an output Deve so present rcs cao the use, Die yes of OP ev
are avaiable forth purpose These le vars tes of eo ay ns ike CRT and
| monitors, vaous types of printers Ike Jot mati, Ink, and se Printers, SPea : se
| is discussed below.
+ Video Display Units
| A visual display unit (VOU) or commonly @ video monitor is the most widely
| used output device. 1t is made of a display sereen and electronic circuitry
that displays a picture corresponding to the video signal sent by the computer.
However it does not produce a permanent record of the output. There are
| two main technologies used to manufacture a VDU, namely CRT (picture on the
right) and LED type displays, as described below.
Bp | crtMonitor
’ | The basic components of a Cathode Ray Tube — Senn
CRT Monitor | (CRT) monitor are the electron gun, foctssing Electron 8
Se | systems, horizontal and. verteal” defection Verto Deaton
systems, and a phosphor coated screen. The
| phosphor material is arranged into an array of
| millions of tiny cells, usually called dots
| A.colour monitor has three electron guns
that correspond tothe priniary colours red, a pepe
| teen and blue and emit streams of electrons Ft hb ae eh)
| very close to'each other causing the beams to
overlap. The human eye views the three
‘overlapping dots created by the electron
| beams as a single dot. A cluster of 3 dots
for the colours red, green and blue together form a pixel. It is the small unit of a picture
eee gran Oars pe ey eR tt 2 te eet
guns. The resolution of a screen depends on how close the pixels are vlacca
Each electron beam scans across the top ofthe monitor from left to right
After
ofthe screen, the beam is blanked and moved back tothe left edge ata poetion sight beet ree
Ring Phosphor screen"
Working of a CRT Monitor
A display adapter within the computer Is sed to generate the vj
ideo fc
processed bye dedenned rocessor in the display adapter and the iy one image to be displayed is
Information, In high resolution colour monitor @ ity ar. Used per piney i converted to pixel
Iria colour nor be rsa Sots) Breen (BBs), and bie (apes) net PET Pixel to represent diferent
million colours can be produced. US Using 24 bits a total of 271=16.8
One can operate @ VDU ether in text mode oF in graphi
| with 80 characters per line. Thus such screen an “spay ate Won't Mode a monitor displays 25 lines
capacity, a display adapter can be a Monochrome Dispay aan, 7000 cha ding on the ese
ideo Graphics Array (VGA), Super Video Graphics Aroy Rseeet (MDA), Colour Gr
| EN Array (SVGA) oF Exten aphics Adapter (CGA),
0. Colour
Be 40D Monitor Srss4 Graphics array (XGA),
Another type of dpa isthe fat panel display i
LCD Monitor crystal cies guts crystals and hence cal Ligue Cryer Sea ‘ypes of
lower power consum,
than 3” in depth and hence occupy ree ees, 2d ar thin innate ee
these monitors is @ narrower viewing angie! cama he less
S display
P1-2-10 24 : ‘Rudiments of Computer Science
Data Processing and computer organisation
nan LOD display, the image f
ea ent of UHR polarisers ‘and electrodes sr en exystal between A
arrange treed by pasng ight em a gh source (ke gu eval btn ee
property of the crystal By passing From a fh sure (th LED) theugh te td aa and by chaning |
rece ore es in’ ot ECTS Tama rough the electrodes. |
Tae a er nenged roe and clu ects ue and aetve matrix cD NPS 2
Second type uses a matrix of Chester and to contol the pes on the ST
rows ad columns ore Se re pes TFT ECD NS prighter|
|
dnd costlier and are also ee computers.
ferences between GRT and LED monitors
Cee
Uses cathode a oe
ray tube to generate an image eased |e
| montors
Power consumption i OW,
Displays are always fat
Brightness in ess
Viewing angle Is less
“These displays are thin nat
More expensive than CRT dspiayS
[enero Sh
Displays are either rounded or flat ~t
‘Brightness in more
[venng angie Bere
[pase deplays are bulky in nature and occupy more SPECS
‘ess expensive than LCD displays
‘as displays for laptops
re and occupy less SPO
lay Units
unit has the following Features: | Features of
a. Paging: Using paging the monitor switch to the next or previous page When requested. ieee
b. Scrolling: Using scroling the data/image can be moved tine-by-iine in an upward OF downward |
direction. In some applications (eg. Excel) 2 page can be scrolled in & horizontal direction also. |
c. Screen Position Contr of the cursor on the screen, the user is able to enter |
information at that point.
4. Reverse Video Effect:
Blinking: To draw the attention
“To highlight some data, IE
{. Brightness Control:
general any video display
‘ol: Based on the positon
“This is used to highlight 2 portion ofthe display screen in reverse colour
ofthe user the soreen cursor DINKS it reverse video.
can be displayed in increased brightness,
Z,
\
a permanent copy of the |
+, Printers
used to produce
impact and non-impact printers.
Unlike a VOU, 2 printer Is an output device which can be
‘output. There con be two: broad classifications of printers ~
Impact Ty inters
ver, te Image is produced ef paper by some eletromechanca impact device he
ster, Various types of Impact printers include Dot Matrix Printers, || ===
Tn an impact type print is
cof a mechanical
us le te etc, as described below.
| Dot Matrix
MA printers, Daisy Wheel Printers
instead of printing @
| Printer
1, Dot Matrix Printer (OP): If
radier at Once, Tnters use @ roUP
pins of very small rad to strike the Ink 1
Le ee de a: te pat of
arr image can be formed Dy proper hae
dots. The pin hammer asso is
tmoved back and forth DY 4 re print a character, den by
tthe ink ribbon 2nd 2 ’9 result a character gets printed on the paper. A roller
|
electromagnet the pint
tinues printing. Usually 2 it
next line and contin’ jsually a pin fdas oat of
moves the paper 10 ee in mati Mh Mnumber of dots creates finer
Mg Jobs and can print fOr very See
nga long time without any break. |
ribbon
25
A214 1B) 2 00
sy Wheel Printer: These are character printers where
ised in the printing
Daisy Whee!
Printer
a
Line Printer
inkjet Printer
art 4: Chapter 2
a special type of
p led a Daisy Wheel contains the set of characters us
Procarca (re, Characters. are embossed on small metal plats, Car A
mounted on the spokes of a wheel (see diagram to the right). During Pats,
On ee rotates at a hgh speed and an electro-mechanial hammer strikes
On, the appropriate character when it comes under te Marre The
Spamtcter is struck against an ink ribbon which drives out the ink from the
ribbon and makes an impression of the character's shape onthe pare By changing the wheel, one can
Leiba Seenioe tierce: me is fast and go ae basi text. Tecan
s character fowever it print rime ar
cannot be used to print images. — , “4
3. Line Printer: This type of im Jete line of text at a time
is pact printer is used to print a complete line ata ve
high speed. These printers have a ‘Rammer for each Pojumn of the page which strike on an ink ribbon at
the same time and a line is printed at once. These are much faster than those which print one character
at a time. However these are costly and heavy as many sets ‘of hammers are needed for printing. Two
main types of line printers as described below:
a. Drum Printer: Such a printer contains a cylindrical drum winose
length is same as the length of a printed line. The drum has 132
parallel tracks and along each track all the characters of the
character set are embossed. The 64 character set Is the most
‘common one. The printer ribbon and the printing paper are
sandwiched between the drum and a set of 132 hammers, each
corresponding to a particular character. The drum rotates at a high
character in a track comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes of
impression from the drum is printed on the paper. In a single rotation of the di
are activated and the whole line gets printed
rum
7) RE
| SRRMAAAAAARARA |
Cae SaaS
Ribbon
speed and when the appropriate
in the paper and the character
frum all 132 hammers
b. Chain Printer: In such a printer, the printing
characters are chained together to form a
loop. Using 2 motor-gear assembly, the chain is
speed. An ink ribbon
rotated horizontally at high si
and paper is mounted in front of the characters on
the chain. A set of hammers, equal to the number
of printing positions on a line are placed touching
the paper. When the appropri
the character impression from the chain is trans
can print from 5 to 40 lines per second.
Non-Impact Type Printers
In a non-impact type printer, the image Is produced on paper without the need for any impact
hammer or ink ribbon. These can be used to print both character and image printouts and produce much
Jess noise during printing. The printing quality of these printers is also far better than impact type printers
tess Pan produce both black & white and colour printouts. Moreover non-Impact pritters are usually faster
than the impact ones. But the major disadvantage is that these cannot be used to produce multiple
Copies of the same document at the same time,
Two main non-impact printers include Inkjet Printers and Laser Printers as described below.
inter; An inkjet printer Is 2 non-Impact printer. It prints by ejecting
voicoscopic drops of ink through tiny Ink nozzles in the print head, Each
sancte can be heated up selectively in a few micro-seconds using resistive
ozting effect. On heating, the Ink droplet in the inktank of the ink
eesridge expands and Is ejected out from the nozzle onto the paper. This
Mak drop forms a tiny dot of ink on the paper. Several such dots combine to
produce a particular character or image, The cartridge assembly moves
Sideways as it keeps ejecting Ink droplets on the positions where it is
“A roller automatically rolls in the paper so that the printer can print ese
ins
the next line
jate character comes under a hammer, the hammer strikes the paper and
‘sferred to the paper through the ink ribbon. The printer
1. Inkjet Pri
P1-2-12 26 of Computer Sl
oe Data Processing and Computer Organisation
‘As tiny dots of ink combine to produce a pattern, to quale Per
dee charcters of ay shape sd cee A eh or even 2400 dts Pet
inch. Depending upon the number of nk ones init 2 Rosistor a
used, an inkjet printer can produce both one
monochrome and colour output. A colour inkjet
printer usually contains 4 different ink cartridges or
ink tanks namely Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and
Black (collectively called CMYK). By proper
‘combination of these 4 different colour dots, all other
colours can be created on the paper. These printers
are cheap to buy and can print at speeds of 5 to 8 pages per minute. However Inkjet Pri
slower than laser printers and are not suitable for bulk volume printouts.
2 Aaier Printer: These non-impact type printers use dry ink (called toner) to
Brin text or images on paper. A laser beam is used to charge portions of 2
roller drum coated with a special photo-conducting material. The charge
pattem laid down on the drum depends on the content ofthe document to De
printed. AS the paper is rolled over the drum, dry ink is then deposited onto
the paper based on the static charge on the drum. The ink is then bonded
conto the paper using heat.
Colour laser printers have four diferent drum and toner assemblies
corresponding to the basic colours cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. Laser Fs a |
printers are costly but can print at high speeds of 8 to 15 pages per minute and are suitable for bul
arta ebro tent and images, The output of laser pate sao beter than that ofan ink Panter
2nd is permanent in nature. |
a
Plotter
working of
inkjet Printer
inters are |
|e
Laser Printer
yt: snr a itp a
“printing on larger papers or continuous paper rolls. These are
{Usually uSéd Tor printing engineering drawings lke building plans,
‘mechanical drawings, assembly drawings etc. A plotter can print in
both black white and colour and can either have a set of
lotting pens filled with the ‘colours cyan, magenta, yellow and black
in case of a colour plotter. Depending upon the working one can have
a drum plotter (picture on the right) where the paper is rolled over a
drum and a flat-bed plotter where the plotting pens plot on a flat
surface over which the paper is placed.
Comparisons between VDU and Printer |
ere encrypts, oth | Out ce wtih con pinto graphic, orbath__| Comparison
Sean either atk an whe om clow. | Apirercan ob beck and whe one | | Dw YOU anc
‘Colour VOUS have three different assemblies for the "A colour printer has four different colour cartridges, cyan, Printer,
sear eos red ran and oe Agent, Ylow and Back,
seectpdkstrpanry anise ox a cnpaer | asthe oats salon pape, is pamanetand | |
eae payed on a CRT/LC areen | canbe sed le.
a a ereaccosnes ae rauret rave] Accesories he paper, wirBbon onwards ae | |
wou. SS |
7. way nt ried wat any men eini aoa
Various types of VOUS include CRTLand LCD monitors. | Various types include Dot Matrix, Inkjet, Laser printers
fences between Impact and Non-Impact Printers
ned Non-Impact Printers &
Print head is operated electromechanically. Print head does not have an electromechanical device
"They print by hammering a set of metal pins oF “These print by deposting i comoaeon
by arr These pint by depoting mk rps or dy powder Wie | bi impact
and Non.
impact Printer
7
2 P4-2-43, Part 1: Chapter 2
[einen
eed
|
no impact mechanism fs there these cannot be
Can be used to produce mute copies by ing ation | As no impact mecnien § iy
Generel adie arate OB. on roa both character GAS and apes
n produce outputs of diferent colours.
Usually produce output of a single colour. ‘These can produce outputs ‘colours.
‘Since these use electromechanical devices these are |The absence of electromechanical parts makes these
nosy to operate. rch less nosy to operate |
These printers are Slower than nowimpact printers. | These ae faster than impact printers |
pitas
9. Dot Mai, Day Wheel piers Eg, Inkjet, Lase
| + Surér output Devices
‘ther output devices include speakers, computer output microflms (COM), CAD-CAM machines etc. The
| processed” eucio cutput Trem: 2 connie co be head tough & speaker system or 2 headphone
Microfilm technology can be used to directly get miniature outputs from computers on fims. Due to large
| data compression ratio, huge volumes of data can be stored on microfims and can be viewed using a
Projector. CAD-CAM (Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing) technology can directly
convert the drawing instructions in a computer to a set of electrical signals which can be used to drive
| mechanisms to automatically manufacture products.
YY sca data, both the data to process and the instructions to process them need to be stored in the
computer. All Computer data and instructions can be stored in special locations of the computer called
the computer memory. Depending upon the type of storage, two basic types of memories are Primary
| Memory and Secondary Memory.
1. Primary Memory: The primary memory is the main memory of the computer and a computer cannot
‘un without it. Two types of primary memory are Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory
fmery | (ROM). RAM is a volatile memory that is ued to temporarily store instructions and data that ore
Memory | Reader aurng’a program execution. TEs the working memory of the CPU and stores temporary data, but
the contents are erased if the power is switched off. Whereas ROM is a non-volatile memory’ that
stores instructions that are required by the computer during start-up. The computer reads the instructions
Permanently stored in the ROM every time power is on,
Gr 2. Secondary Memory: However to store large volumes of data permanently we need a secondary
Storage device. The secondary meiTory is a permanent memory, where the Tests Jf data procesaro
eelfomoe, ae stored rom the RAM for future use, Unlike @ RAM, one can store both programs and data permanently
‘memory | in a secondary storage. In case permanent storage of data Is not required, secondary memory’
secondary mer
| Pecomes optional. Therefore a computer may run without permanent storage, but it cannot work
without primary memory. Magnetic storage media like hard disk, optical media like CD's, DVD's and
semiconductor flash are examples of secondary storage.
oes
Usually volatile memory Is a non-volatile memory
Data is lost in case power is switched off Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off
It s the working memory of the computer It s used for storage of data in the computer
‘A computer cannot run without primary memory
Examples are RAM and ROM
ee
‘A computer may run without secondary memory
Examples are hard disk, CD-ROM, DVD, Flash drive
Primary memory of the comy
The arrangement of 8 such cells forms a m
to the memory in groups of several bytes,
P1-2-14 28 Rudiments of Computer Solence
Data Processing and Computer Organisation
During @ Read operation, the data stored in the memory cells gets transferred to the data lines. During.a
‘Write operation, the data is transferred from the data lines to the memory cells. Whereas a read operation
is a non-destructive one and retains the previous data, the write operation Is a destructive operation
whereby the previous data is lost after a write operation,
Earlier Magnetic Ferrite Core Memories were used to design primary memory. During the 1970s |
‘Semiconductor Memory replaced these and is presently used to construct both RAM and ROM.
xe BetFonly Memory (ROM) _ a
ROM of Read Only Memory is a non-volatile permanent memory, the contents of which can be only read.
but cannot be altered. Each computer has the ROM BIOS, which permanently stores the basic information
needed by the computer during start-up after power is switched on. This is also called Firmware.
‘There are various types of ROMs available. A common feature for all these is their ability to retain data _/ e
and programs forever, even during a power failure. As described below, different types of ROMs are {GIy is a non-
distinguished by the methods used to write new data to them and the number of times they can be | volatile
rewritten,
| Road only
| memory rom
|| permanent
memory used
1 are the first semiconductor ROMS that contained @ pre-programmed set of data or | ™£M2ry
“ecto mae mes
PROM (Programmable ROM): It is purchased in an un-programmed state. Special equipment called a “Firmware in a
ee eer aa ee para eh
applying an ||
electrical charge to the input pins of the chip. Once a PROM has been programmed fh this way, its
contents are pe t.
3. EPROM (Erasable_and Programmable ROM): I is programmed in exactly the same manner as 2
Spt dat ret eee cae
EPROM itis exposed to @ strong source of ultraviolet light. By doing this the entire chip ts reset to its } Present ROM
initial un-programmed state. (It is also sometimes called an UVEPROM). SeTECH |
4, EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM): Internally, they are similar to EPROMs, | with flash memory
‘bat instead of Using UV light, the erase operation is done electrically. Any byte within an EEPROM can _ that enables
be erased and rewritten without the need to reprogram the whole chip, as in an EPROM. (Itis pronounced | yparading te
as E? PROM). ware
Comparison Chart for ROMs
on Writat e oa &
ROM (Read Only Memory) No__| Inexpensive Fast a
PROM (Programmable ROM) Oniyonce_ | Moderate Fast Comparison
|EPROM (Erasable and Programmable ROM) Many times | Moderate Fast jones
Fast tread, dow t
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable ROM) | Many times | Expensive a |
+ Random Access Memory (RAM)
Prograins are loaded Into the main memory and run from there, Data Is also loaded into the memory for |g roi
faster access. The type of memory in which all these operations are done is known as the Random Access a.
Memory or RAM. It's so called because the amount of te required to access data stored in the RAM isthe | vs ssy (aay
‘same; independent of the location of the data in the RAM. That is, the | J
data can be randomly accessed vith the same access time, Whereas | i
@ write operation on a RAM is destructive, a read operation is non- |
destructive. However @ RAM is volatile in nature and requires a | | Iisa vole
egular supply of power to refresh its contents. In the absence of ——— “| || primary memory
‘any refreshing supply or when the computer is switched off, the content of the RAM is lost. These are |
avaliable as IC packages commonly called memory sticks in $12MB, 1GB, or 268 modul |
——
Depending upon its retentive power, @ RAM can be broadly classified into a
8s described in the next page.
29 1-215 DRAM
o
ora |
ee
>mparison biw
RAM & SRAM |
SWS; [0 10 be retires at regular intervas of time to retain
Les data dota
commerciaty | Packing denaiy high. acing denshy ow.
oaeee pa Cost per bit is ow. Cost pr it is hgh
was introduced in >|) | Speed sof the order of 80 nanoseconds Speed sof the order of 20 nanoseconds
‘October 1970 Used to make main working memory of computer Used to make cache memory ofa computer
'@ capacitor and the el I charge
| lower cost,
RAM
tic RAM (SRAM): Unlike a DRAM, Si
ic RAM (DRAM): A Dynamic RAM cells a volatile memory
ge needs to be periodicall
ll
that usually consists of 9 transi
ly refreshed to retain tS date
‘A DRAM cll has a very short data etme of about 4 milseconds. To retain the data for 9 longer time
the DRAM chip is refreshed at regular intervals of time before the data is lost: AS the mer
Reeds to be recharged at regular intervals of time, such a RAM is called a dynamic RAM,
i high bit densi
possible to fabricate a large number of these cells in a small area, resulting in a ity
to their low price and high packing deni, these are used for the bulk manufacturing ne
Ye form of IC chips of 512MB, 1GB, 2GB, 4GB capacity.
{sa type of RAM which can retain its contents as long as
“Blectrical power is applied to es like DRAM if power Is Switched of, its contents will be
lost forever, These are made using special memory elements called memory latch. Since these RAM do not
require periodic refreshing of the existing data, these are called static RAM and are much faster than
IMOrY cel
Itis
ang
Dynamic RAM. However these memories have lower packing densities and hence are costly,
Therefore SRAM is used in applications, where faster memories are required (as in cache memories), but
are used in smaller quantities like 512KB, 1MB, or 2MB.
Comparison between DRAM and SRAM
Pu
It is a volatile memory.
SRAM.
It is ao @ volatile memory.
Basic memory cell consists of a transistor and capacitor.
Basic memory call consists of Several transistors only.
"No need to refresh at regular intervals of time to retain ts
Difference b/w
RAM & ROM
wo sagt
ahve Wa is
called RAM disk
P
Cache Memory |
ot
Full form is Random Access Memory,
Difference between RAM and ROM
Ful form is Read Only Memory.
Tis a form of temporary memory where the memory
Content is lost if power is switched off
Its usually used to form the working memory of the
‘computer.
Its @ form of permanent or non-volatile memory where
the contents are stored permanentiy
Its usually used to form the BIOS chip of the computer.
‘One can both read and write data to a RAM
development in multimedia and game technology, the
2 present day general computer (as of 2014) has 2
|| newer and better RAM types over the years,
|| Various types of RAM packages that have been developed over the
EDO RAM (Extended Data Out RAM), SRAM (Static RAM), SDRAM
‘Apart from the computing power, the other most important thing that has added to the speed and
‘computer is its RAM content. During the 70's, a RAM content of 64KB was considered high. However with
(One can only tead data from a ROM
tee
Jer of a
requirement for RAM has gone up. Compared to 64KB,
GB to 4 GB of RAM. That means an increase of 1
million times in RAM capacity over the past 30 years! All this has been possible with the introduction of
years include DRAM (Dynamic RAM),
(Synchronous DRAM), RDRAM (Rambus
| DRAM), DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM), DDR2 SDRAM (Double Data Rate 2 SORAM), etc
\x Bache Memory
Cache memory Is also a type of volatile memory like RAM but is much faster than RAM. It is basically
made using static RAM technology and hence the
Of the RAM. It is thus used to temporarily store active
in between the CPU and the main memory i.e. the
access time of cache memory is much faster than that
data and instructions during processing and functions
RAM.
‘As mast programs contain a number of iterative loops (such as while and for), if an instruction is executed
there is a likelihood of the same instruction
being executed again soon. Similarly while working with tables,
records or arrays of data, the processor works with the same set of data over a short period of time. This type
P1-2-16 30 Rudiments of Computer Science
Data Processing and Computer Organisation
of instruction and data that is needed ntly Is
; frequently is stored in the cache memory of a computer for
‘When a program is running, and the CPU wants to read an instruction or data, it first checks if the same is
available in the cache. If its found, itis delivered to the CPU. Otherwise a block of memory including the |
requested Information is fetched from the main memory. This block of instructions is then copied to the | a type of vol
‘cache memory and delivered to the CPU. During execution of the program it is likely that there will soon be || memory, Bue
references to cures words in the block recently stored in the cache. Thus the next time the CPU attempts to | much faster
read @ word it is very likely that it will find the same in the cache. This saves the time to again access the |
data from the main memory.
|
Ae Te eo aan mere than one cache memory For erie the Pentum group of |
processors have two different caches referred to as the Li and L2 cache. The Li cache is embedded into |
the processor chip while the L2 cache is located outside the processor chip. |
+ Buffer Memory \
ia
The term buffer memory ina computer is used to refer to an area of the memory that is used for |p. ra, ylemon
temporary storage of data, while itis being moved from one place to another. Buffers are typically used | ¥
when there is a difference between the rate at which data is received and the rate at which it can |
be processed. Usually the data is temporarily stored in a buffer as itis retrieved from an input device (such, |
‘as a keyboard) or just before it is sent to an output device (such as printer/speakers),
Barer memoria
Buffers can be created in a fixed memory location in hardware. However, a majority of buffers are
|@ computer
implemented in software, which typically uses the faster RAM to store temporary data. This is helpful as || 4s#4 for
the access time of RAM is much faster compared to herd disk Gres, |e
‘Among the various applications of buffers, these are used by printers to store the processed data from | 4
while itis being
the computer. It is then supplied to the printer as per the speed of the printer. Another example of buffer Use | moved from on
is in streaming online multimedia content. Without the use of a buffer, one would ether have to walt || plaes to another
for the entire file to load to the local machine before playing it, or have playbacks with breaks and jumps (EST I STEN
created by millisecond (or longer) delays in the incoming data stream. |
* Memory Registers \
‘Apart from cache memory, the processor contains several special high speed memory registers located | \emory
inside the Control Unit and the ALU. These are used to store the current instruction and data, address of | Reistors
the Tiext instruction fo execute and the immediate result of any calculation done by the ALU. A register can be
8, 16, 32 oF 64 bits in size. This is sometimes called the word size. The processor directly communicates |
with these memory registers to access data and instructions and hence, more is the word size, faster the
data can be processed by the CPU.
Names and functions of some important registers are given below:
+ Memory Address Register (MAR): Used to hold the address of the current memory location
a
a Names of
+ Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction that is being executed | some special
+ Program Counter (PC): Holds the address ofthe next instruction to be executed |reaisters
* Input / Output Registers: These are used to communicate with the input/output devices |
+ Accumulator (ACC): It is used to store the result of any arithmetic operation in the ALU
+ Memory Buffer Register (MBR): This is a buffer register used by the CPU to st.
transferred to or from an immediate storage (like RAM).
fata whichis being |
Data can enter or leave @ register either serially or in parallel. Thus there are four categories of registers |
depending upon the way the data enters and leaves a register. These are Serial-In-Serial-Out (SISO), |
Parallel-Out (S1PO), Paraile-In-Serial-Out (PESO), and Paralle-In-Parallel-Out (PIPO)..
‘The processor is the brain of the computer and is involved in doing all the calculations that take place | ric
whenever any data is processed. To execute a program, the processor should have the following | Processing
Properties as described in the next page. JUnit
31 1-247 Control Unit
(cu)
&
ALU
_ where the actual
“caleulations take
t
Part 1: Chapter 2
Te should read and ym and to the memory.
yram and data) from a
. write information (prog ,
+ Te should recognise and perform a series of simple ‘commands to carry out the programs.
puter ut instructions
+ Tt should co-ordinate between diferent parts ofthe computer t0 cory
is known as 2
For personal computers the main processor nothesboard
microprocessor (or ip) which isa single chip mounted on the aera
may be replaced by
For larger computers, & single microprocessor may be FeAl Mh Soy
Paraliel processors which work together and fence increaae NC
Processing power of the computer, These are collectively
Central Processing Unit or CPU.
Nie cis ne rae any cpa
components, namely the Control Unit (CU) and the Arit during processing: —
contains a set of memory registers to temporarily store instruction an dat,
° hardware. It uses these instructions to process data,
Each processor has its own instruction st but nto ts haroware uss tess TICS data
The Instructions to cary out to pros data are en t the computer eA 8 Aare The
execution of each instruction is done in three steps. These are the Fetch, Decade, ond Execut
‘operations. The ‘fetch’ operation is used to load the instruction and to the me e
the instruction, The ‘execute’ operation is finally
| computer. The ‘decode’ operation is then used to decode the instruction Tn a doo is ten elt
Used to follow the decoded instruction and process the data accordingly. The processes
‘back in memory, to be used as required.
+ The Contro! Unit (CU)
During data processing, the Control Unit carries out the following functions:
* Control supervision: The Controt Unit acts lke a supervisory unit in the CPU and is responsible for
issuing control instructions to carry out diferent functions of the CPU.
* Activate memory locations: To read the data and instruction from the main memory, the CU issues
Control signals to activate those memory locations. Data and instructions are then transferred from the
‘main memory to special purpose registers in the Control Unit.
Decode instructions: The decoder present inside the CU is used to decode an instruction and send
‘appropriate signals to the ALU to process the data
Generate write signal: The processed data needs to be transferred from the temporary memory
registers in the CU to the main memory, The control unit issues a write signal to write the processed data
to different memory locations in the main memory.
* Control Coordination: The control unit is responsible for coordination between the memory and different
input/output devices. As an example, the control unit may load two numbers into the registers in the ALU
| and tell the ALU to add the two numbers orto check ifthe numbers are equal.
‘of two basic
aehmnetic and Logic Unit (ALU). The CPU algy
| * The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) is the place where the actual
| execution of the instructions takes place during data processing. It is
responsible for carrying out arithmetic operations (like addition, subtraction,
etc.) and different logical operations (like checking equality, >, <, AND, OR,
etc.), To carry out these arithmetic and logical operations, the ALU contains
‘Some special purpose registers, an adder and a comparator circuit.
During @ calculation, data is first moved from the main memory (RAM) to
temporary storage registers In the ALU. The data present in the storage | Accumulator Registers (ACC)
register and in the Accumulator are then transferred either to the Adder
circuit or to the Comparator circuit for necessary calculations or Bleck Diagram of an ALU
‘comparison. After an operation the result is stored back in the Accumulator. Finally the
the Accumulator to the main memory through the storage registers, ee
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit therefore carries out the following functions:
* Fetch data: The ALU fetches the data that needs to be processed and
‘memory registers for processing. eB stores them into temporary
P1-2-18 32 ‘Rudiments of Computer Science
Data Processing and Computer Organisation
* Garry out caloulations: Based on the control signals generated by the Control Unit, the ALU carries out
various operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication or division etc,
+ Compare data: Other than doing calculations, the ALU can also compare two sets of data lke check for
«equality or in-equality based on the control signals generated by the Control Unit.
* Logical operation: Logical operations like logical AND, OR, NOT etc, are carried out by the ALU. |
+ Store processed data: The processed data Is transferred from the Accumulator to the proper storage |
locations as per the control signals generated by the control unit.
+ Microprocessor &
Free ton (ULSD teernechl are integrated on a single integrated circuit (IC) using ultra large scale |e
integration (ULSI) technology, then itis called @ microprocessor. In a microprocessor trilions of transistors MicroProoe
{hat are used to form the different components of a CPU are packed into a single chip. By packing all
the parts of the CPU within a single chip increases the processing power of the processor. ‘The fist 4-bit
microprocessors were used for making electronic calculators during the early 1970s.
Hance sae, anesthe frst to be developed. The bit number indicates the number of bits the | Ruppatimmmms
Fer ecoprecceea ct time, Thus an 8b microprocessor can process 8 bts at atime. The world’s Rist Nene
&bit microprocessor was Intel's 4004 microprocessor introduced in 1971. It was followed by the 8008 | tes 4004,
microprocessor in 1972. first microprocessor,
| was designed for |
Introduced in early 1973, National Semiconductor's IMP-16 was the first 16-bit | oar
‘microprocessor. This was followed by Intel’s 8088, which was used in the first IBM }
PC. It was the first member of the Intel 80-x86 family (60186, 80286, 80386, 80486) that
was used in most modern PCs.
The worlds fist 32 bit microprocessor, the BELLMAC-32A, vas developed at the AT&T Bell Labs in Me
1982. Intel introduced its 32 bit processor the 80386 during 1985. It became the predominant processor | When the
architecture for desktop and laptop computers at that time, AMD’S Athlon and Intel's Pentium 4 are best || functions of a
‘examples of other 32 bit processors. CPU are
AMD's AMDG4 microprocessor introduced in 2003 and Intefs 64-bit architecture the Intel 64 led to the | itegrated on a
beginning of 64-bit computing. Both versions can run both 32-bit applications as well as new 64-bit *
software without any performance penalty. | cire
Multiple core processors were the next development in processor technology. For
imple a dual core processor is basically two microprocessors built into one IC package, |
This effectively multiplies the performance of the processor as compared to a single core
processor. AMD's Athlon X2, Intel's Pentium D, Centrino Duo, Xeon and Core 2 Duo, Core
13,15, 17 processors are examples of multi-core processors. "
ey
&
RAM is a volatile type of memory and nothing can be permanently stored in it, to save our data files Storag
Permanently, we require secondary memory devices. In these storage devices the cost per byte of | Dev
Storage is much less compared to primary memory. For example, whereas a 2 GB RAM costs around
Rs, 1200)-, a 2 TB hard disk drive costs around Rs. 6000/- (as on 2014). Various types of common storage
devices are discussed below.
lagnetic Hard Disks Mi first hard drive
> Pat RWW Arm
Magnetic hard disks are the most common type of direct access storage : acm | was created in. |
devices (DASD) used to store data digitally. In a hard disk, data is recorded fa on ae
pettianienty on one oF multiple circular disks called platters. The disk is hold ur 58 ot
‘made of a non-magnetic material like an aluminium alloy over which a thin film a
of a ferromagnetic material is applied. Data is recorded by magnetising the Early hard ves |
ferromagnetic material. He se cocacky |
To read or write data onto the disk, a motor spins the disk at a very high | | Rs.50,000/-, |
‘Speed of around 7200 rounds per minute. A read-write head mounted on an | Hard Disk | heres a pen dive |
‘arm is used to write data onto the disk or read data from the disk. A motor ony ee a |
Positions the arm containing the read/write head on the disk from where the data isto be read or written, ee eg
|
33 P4-2-19 a, *
jown a magnetic pattern representing bi; ine
read-write head senses the magnet pag’ thd
on
Part 1: Chapter 2
de
wring writing data, the read-write head lays:
‘Tren te ogni sk, When reading from the disk, the
the disk and converts them back to binary"0's and "t's.
fed by a process
Magnetic. uter system only after they are prepar fe
formatting. Darts rata pattarn dau on the disk which dies the sutace’of exch art
ta_|/ number of fnvsble concent ogcal circles called tacks. There can be fom few hundred to ae
“ Pamonerty on ‘thousand tracks on a single disk surface. The tracks are oo rane with te cutermost 2
ware nost star from 000. In a multiple platter disk pack ameter
cr ae, loestad on the siferet surfaces of diferent platters form a cylinder. Thus the total number of cylinders ing
disk pack is same a the numberof racks ona single ie ofa sk, Each track fs again further subdiyiges
me into smaller sections called sectors. Disk drives are designed to read/write whole sectors at a time,
‘Typically there ace 4-32 sectors per track and 512-4096 bytes per sector. Some operating systems jg,
Windows combine several sectors to form clusters,
There can be two types of hard drives based on the type of
read/write heads provided. In a fixed head type disk, there
are individual heads provided for each track of the disk. While in
8 moving head type-disk there is only one read/write head
| Provided for each surface of the disk
Several factors determine the time required to access the data
during @ read/write operation. The disk access time is the
Interval between the time a computer makes a request for
{ransfer of data from the disk to the primary memory, ad the time this operation is completed. To locate
the data on the disk, the dsk address of the particular data block needs fo Be given. AS the disk addrese ic
| Oven by its surface number, track number, and the sector number, the read/write head needs to: be
| estioned based on the above parameters, Based on these, the disk access time depends upon:
| + Seek Time: The tne required to position the read/write head from the ‘current cylinder or track to
Seek Time | ME desired cylinder or track is called the Seek Tine. THe seek time varies, depending upon the
| position of the read/write head when a data requests made. The average seok ine toh order of
| 10-20 millisecond depending upon the make or model,
i | * Eateney: Once the cylinder/track is selected and the read/write head is activated the time required to
Latency | Pasition the desired sector under the read/write head is caled Latency or
stency | varies depending upon the initial positon ofthe sector with respect to the read/wrt
* Data Transfer Rate: Once the read/write head is postoned, the rate at wich the data is read
trritten onto the disk is called the Transfer Rate or Black Transfer Time, It state copressed in
thousands of bytes per second, The transfer rate depends on the rotation) speed of the disk. More the
speed more data will get transferred per unit time. :
Thus the Access Time is the sum of the Seek Time, Latency, and
needed to locate and transfer a disk block is of the order of 2 eel and
latency are much higher than the block transfer rate.
The gap between the head and the platter is
very small and of the order of several nano-
| metres (10° m) only, Due to this extremely close
- a spacing, even a small dust particle can lead to a
f hard disk crash. To avoid this, the disks are
ie time required } nowadays stored in an airtight box using a
to position the} technology called Winchester technology and the
required sector | disk is called a Winchester disk. oad ip
read/ oe A typical modern hard disk can store between 500 to 2 TB of
‘stalled | data and rotate at 5,400 to 10,000 rpm with an average data
transfer rate of 70MB/sec or higher. As of 2014, the highest’
capacity hard disk available Is 2 TB, Removable external
hard disks are also available for backup.
Time. The access time
ese, the seek time and
peter ard dak metro
etait Damar
P1-2-20 34 - ‘Rudiments of Computer Science
Data Processing and Computer Organisation
Mégnetic Floppy Disks
Another type of direct access storai
\
