Data Collection

Methods in
Research
AREEJ FAEQ
 Out line
Introduction to data collection.
Definition of data collection.
The methods of collecting data for research.
Strategy of data collection .
Attribute's of Data collection.
Qualitative & Quantitative data collection .
strategies used in quantitative & qualitative data collection .
Type of the study research
Primary & Secondary data
Advantage's &disadvantage's/ limitation for each source
Summary

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 Objective :
after this lecture we will able
to
 Identify the meaning of data collection.
Identify the methods of collecting data for research.
 Detect the strategy of data collection .
 Defined the characteristic's of data collection in
Qualitative & Quantitative data collection .
 Describe strategies used in quantitative & qualitative data
collection .
 Distinguish the differs type of study research
 Identified Primary & Secondary data
 Detect Advantage's &disadvantage's/ limitation for each
source 3
 Data collection:
Introduction
After a researcher defines the things, phenomena, or
variables to be studied, a problem and hypothesis are
formulated.
The next step is for the researcher to determine how the
variables or things being studies must be measured,
observed, or recorded

Appropriate data collection is essential to the validity of a

study
 Data collection: definition

 Data collection is a term used to describe a process of

preparing and collecting data,
 The purpose of data collection is to obtain information to
keep on record, to make decisions about important issues,
and to pass information to others.
 Primarily, data are collected to provide information
regarding a specific topic.
The method of collecting
data for research:
1. Interviews.
2. Focus groups.
3. Observation.
4. Self Study.
5. Ethnography.
6. Action Research
Data collection strategy
Pre collection activity: agree on goals, target data, definitions
methods

Collection: data collection

Presenting findings: usually involves some form of sorting

analysis and or presentation
Attribute's of Data collection
Qualitative
◦ typically involves qualitative data, i.e., data obtained through
methods such interviews, on-site observations, and focus
groups that is in narrative rather than numerical form

Quantitative
◦use numerical and statistical processes to answer specific
questions. Statistics are used in a variety of ways to support
inquiry or program assessment/evaluation.
Qualitative data collection
They tend to be open-ended and have less structured protocols
(researchers may change the data collection strategy by adding,
refining, or dropping techniques or informants)
They rely more heavily on interactive interviews; respondents
may be interviewed several times to follow up on a particular
issue, clarify concepts or check the reliability of data.
Qualitative data collection
Findings are not generalizable to any specific population

Data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of time.

The researcher needs to record any potentially useful data

The qualitative methods most
commonly used in evaluation can
be classified in:
In-depth interview :semi-structured interviews are those in-depth
interviews where the respondents have to answer preset open-
ended questions and thus are widely employed by different
healthcare professionals in their research (Jamshed, 2014).
observation methods :by collecting the data through observation
and record field notes as well as to involve themselves with study
participants (Jamshed, 2014).

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most commonly used in
evaluation can be classified
in:
 Document review:( Document analysis) is a form of qualitative
research in which documents are interpreted by the researcher to give
voice and meaning around an assessment topic (Bowen, 2009).

Analysing documents incorporates coding content into themes similar

to how focus group or interview transcripts are analysed (Bowen,2009).

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Quantitative data collection
They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare,
and generalize.
Participants may be randomly assigned to different
treatments.
Collect data on participant and situational characteristics in
order to statistically control for their influence on the
dependent, or outcome, variable.
Quantitative data collection
◦To generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to
select participants.
 Typical quantitative data gathering
strategies include:
Experiments/clinical trials.

Observing and recording well-defined events (counting the number

of patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.

Questionnaires

Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (face-to face

and telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).

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Methods of Data collection:
type of the study
Census: A census is a study that obtains data from every member of a population.

In most studies, a census is not practical, because of the cost and/or time required.

Sample survey: A sample survey is a study that obtains data from a subset of a

population, in order to estimate population attributes. A well-designed sample

survey can provide very precise estimates of population parameters - quicker,

cheaper, and with less manpower than a census.

 type of the
study/Experiment.
An experiment is a controlled study in which the researcher attempts to

understand cause-and-effect relationships. The study is "controlled" in the

sense that the researcher controls

(1)how subjects are assigned to groups and

(2)which treatments each group receives.

Methods of Data collection:
type of the study/Observational
study.
Like experiments, observational studies attempt to understand cause-

and-effect relationships. However, unlike experiments, the researcher

is not able to control

(1) how subjects are assigned to groups and/or

(2) which treatments each group receives.

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 Methods of Data collection:type of the
study

Causal inference: Cause-and-effect relationships can be tested out when subjects

are randomly assigned to groups.

Therefore, experiments, which allow the researcher to control assignment

of subjects to treatment groups, are the best method for investigating causal

relationships.
 Generalizability.

Generalizability refers to the appropriateness of applying findings from a

study to a larger population.

Generalizability requires random selection.( If participants in a study are

randomly selected from a larger population, it is appropriate to generalize
study results to the larger population; if not, it is not appropriate to
generalize).

Observational studies do not feature random selection; so it is not

appropriate to generalize from the results of an observational study to a
larger population.
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 Where do data come
from?
◦Secondary data
◦ data someone else has collected
◦Primary data
◦ data you collect
Secondary Data: Sources
Country health departments
Vital Statistics – birth, death certificates
Hospital, clinic, school nurse records
Private and foundation databases
City and county governments
International and national agency statistics -
Census, etc.
 Secondary Data:
Limitations
When was it collected? For how long?

Maybe out of date for what you want to analyze.

May not have been collected long enough for detecting trends.

Is the dataset complete?

There may be missing information on some observations

Unless such missing information is caught and corrected for, the analysis will be

biased.
Secondary Data:
Limitations
Are there confounding problems?
◦ Sample selection bias?
◦ Source choice bias?
◦ In time series, did some observations drop out over time?

Are the data consistent/reliable?

◦ Did variables drop out over time?
◦ Did variables change in definition over time?

Is the information exactly what you need?

◦ In some cases, may have to use “proxy variables” – variables that may
approximate something you really wanted to measure.
◦ Are they reliable?
◦ Is there correlation to what you actually want to measure?
 Secondary Data –
Advantages
No need to reinvent the wheel.
◦ If someone has found the data, take advantage of it.
It will save money.
◦ Even if you have to pay for access, often it is cheaper in terms of money than
collecting your own data.
It will save time.
◦ Primary data collection is very time consuming.
It may be very accurate.
◦ When especially a government agency has collected the data.
It has great exploratory value
◦ Exploring research questions and formulating hypothesis to test.
Primary Data – Resources
 Surveys
 Focus groups
 Questionnaires
 Diaries
 Personal interviews
 Biophysiologic Measures (in vivo/in vitro)
 Experiments and observational study
QUESTIONNAIRES
Advantages:

Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed with a wide geographic coverage

Can cover a large number of people or organisations.

Relatively cheap.

Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.

Possible anonymity of respondent.

No interviewer bias.

Disadvantages:
1. Design problems. 6. Require a return deadline.

2. Questions have to be relatively 7. Several reminders may be

simple. required.

8. International validity
3. Historically low response rate
(although inducements may help). 9. Not possible to give assistance
if required.
4. Time delay whilst waiting for
responses to be returned. 10. Problems with incomplete
questionnaires.
5. Respondent
Personal Interviews
(structured; semi structured; unstructured)
Advantages:
Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.
Good response rate.
Complete and immediate.
Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
Can investigate motives and feelings.
Can use recording equipment.
If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
Used to pilot other methods.
 Disadvantages:
Need to set up interviews, time consuming and geographic limitations.

Can be expensive.

Normally need a set of questions.

Respondent bias – tendency to please or impress, create false personal

image, or end interview quickly.

Embarrassment possible if personal questions.

If many interviewers, training required.

Phone
interviews
Advantages:
Relatively cheap and quick.
Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organisations.
Wide geographic coverage.
High response rate.
Help can be given to the respondent.
Can tape answers.
Disadvantages:
Questionnaire required.
Not everyone has a telephone.
Repeat calls are inevitable – average 2.5 calls to get someone.
Time is wasted.
Respondent has little time to think.
Cannot use visual aids.
Can cause irritation.
Good telephone manner is required.
Primary Data - Limitations
Do you have the time and money for:
◦ Designing your collection instrument?
◦ Selecting your population or sample?
◦ Administration of the instrument?
◦ Entry/collection of data?
Uniqueness
◦ May not be able to compare to other populations
Researcher error
◦ Sample bias
◦ Other confounding factors
Data collection is essential for study validity

Medical clinical and experimental research is mostly based on

quantitative method of data collection

 Will the data my answer research question

If that data exist in secondary form, then use them to the extent you
can, keeping in mind limitations.

But if it does not, and you are able to fund primary collection, then it
is the method of choice.
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References
Jamshed, S. (2014). Qualitative research method-interviewing and
observation. Journal of basic and clinical pharmacy, 5(4), 87.
Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research
method. Qualitative research journal, 9(2), 27-40.
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2010). Essentials of nursing research:
Appraising evidence for nursing practice. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.