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 AI with Python

i
 AI with Python

About the Tutorial

Artificial intelligence is the intelligence demonstrated by machines, in contrast to the
intelligence displayed by humans.

This tutorial covers the basic concepts of various fields of artificial intelligence like Artificial
Neural Networks, Natural Language Processing, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Genetic
algorithms etc., and its implementation in Python.

Audience
This tutorial will be useful for graduates, post graduates, and research students who either
have an interest in this subject or have this subject as a part of their curriculum. The
reader can be a beginner or an advanced learner.

Prerequisites
We assume that the reader has basic knowledge about Artificial Intelligence and Python
programming. He/she should be aware about basic terminologies used in AI along with
some useful python packages like nltk, OpenCV, pandas, OpenAI Gym, etc.

Copyright & Disclaimer

 Copyright 2016 by Tutorials Point (I) Pvt. Ltd.

All the content and graphics published in this e-book are the property of Tutorials Point (I)
Pvt. Ltd. The user of this e-book is prohibited to reuse, retain, copy, distribute or republish
any contents or a part of contents of this e-book in any manner without written consent
of the publisher.

We strive to update the contents of our website and tutorials as timely and as precisely as
possible, however, the contents may contain inaccuracies or errors. Tutorials Point (I) Pvt.
Ltd. provides no guarantee regarding the accuracy, timeliness or completeness of our
website or its contents including this tutorial. If you discover any errors on our website or
in this tutorial, please notify us at [email protected]

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 AI with Python

Table of Contents
About the Tutorial ............................................................................................................................................ i

Audience ........................................................................................................................................................... i

Prerequisites ..................................................................................................................................................... i

Copyright & Disclaimer ..................................................................................................................................... i

Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................................ ii

1. AI with Python – Primer Concepts............................................................................................................. 1

Basic Concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI) ...................................................................................................... 1

The Necessity of Learning AI ........................................................................................................................... 1

What is Intelligence? ....................................................................................................................................... 2

What is Intelligence Composed Of? ................................................................................................................ 3

Learning − l ...................................................................................................................................................... 4

What’s Involved in AI ....................................................................................................................................... 6

Application of AI .............................................................................................................................................. 6

Cognitive Modeling: Simulating Human Thinking Procedure .......................................................................... 7

Agent & Environment ...................................................................................................................................... 8

2. AI with Python – Getting Started .............................................................................................................. 9

Why Python for AI ........................................................................................................................................... 9

Features of Python .......................................................................................................................................... 9

Installing Python ............................................................................................................................................ 10

Setting up PATH ............................................................................................................................................. 11

Running Python ............................................................................................................................................. 12

Script from the Command-line ...................................................................................................................... 13

Integrated Development Environment ......................................................................................................... 13

3. AI with Python – Machine Learning ........................................................................................................ 15

Types of Machine Learning (ML) ................................................................................................................... 15

Most Common Machine Learning Algorithms ............................................................................................... 16

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 AI with Python

4. AI with Python – Data Preparation ......................................................................................................... 20

Preprocessing the Data ................................................................................................................................. 20

Techniques for Data Preprocessing ............................................................................................................... 21

Labeling the Data ........................................................................................................................................... 23

5. AI with Python – Supervised Learning: Classification .............................................................................. 26

Steps for Building a Classifier in Python ........................................................................................................ 26

Building Classifier in Python .......................................................................................................................... 29

Logistic Regression ........................................................................................................................................ 34

Decision Tree Classifier .................................................................................................................................. 37

Random Forest Classifier ............................................................................................................................... 39

Performance of a classifier ............................................................................................................................ 40

Class Imbalance Problem ............................................................................................................................... 42

Ensemble Techniques .................................................................................................................................... 43

6. AI with Python – Supervised Learning: Regression .................................................................................. 44

Building Regressors in Python ....................................................................................................................... 44

7. AI with Python – Logic Programming ...................................................................................................... 49

How to Solve Problems with Logic Programming.......................................................................................... 49

Installing Useful Packages ............................................................................................................................. 50

Examples of Logic Programming ................................................................................................................... 50

Checking for Prime Numbers ......................................................................................................................... 51

Solving Puzzles ............................................................................................................................................... 52

8. AI with Python – Unsupervised Learning: Clustering ............................................................................... 55

What is Clustering? ........................................................................................................................................ 55

Algorithms for Clustering the Data ................................................................................................................ 55

Measuring the Clustering Performance ........................................................................................................ 61

Calculating Silhouette Score .......................................................................................................................... 61

Finding Nearest Neighbors ............................................................................................................................ 63

K-Nearest Neighbors Classifier ...................................................................................................................... 65

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 AI with Python

9. AI with Python – Natural Language Processing ....................................................................................... 69

Components of NLP ....................................................................................................................................... 69

Difficulties in NLU .......................................................................................................................................... 69

NLP Terminology ........................................................................................................................................... 70

Steps in NLP ................................................................................................................................................... 70

10. AI with Python – NLTK package .............................................................................................................. 72

Importing NLTK .............................................................................................................................................. 72

Downloading NLTK’s Data ............................................................................................................................. 72

Installing Other Necessary Packages ............................................................................................................. 73

Concept of Tokenization, Stemming, and Lemmatization ............................................................................. 73

Chunking: Dividing Data into Chunks ............................................................................................................ 75

Types of chunking .......................................................................................................................................... 76

Bag of Word (BoW) Model ............................................................................................................................ 77

Concept of the Statistics ................................................................................................................................ 78

Building a Bag of Words Model in NLTK ........................................................................................................ 79

Solving Problems ........................................................................................................................................... 79

Topic Modeling: Identifying Patterns in Text Data ........................................................................................ 84

Algorithms for Topic Modeling ...................................................................................................................... 84

11. AI with Python – Analyzing Time Series Data .......................................................................................... 86

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 86

Installing Useful Packages ............................................................................................................................. 86

Pandas: Handling, Slicing and Extracting Statistic from Time Series Data ..................................................... 87

Extracting Statistic from Time Series Data .................................................................................................... 91

Analyzing Sequential Data by Hidden Markov Model (HMM)....................................................................... 95

Example: Analysis of Stock Market data........................................................................................................ 96

12. AI with Python – Speech Recognition ...................................................................................................... 99

Building a Speech Recognizer ........................................................................................................................ 99

Visualizing Audio Signals - Reading from a File and Working on it .............................................................. 100
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 AI with Python

Characterizing the Audio Signal: Transforming to Frequency Domain ........................................................ 102

Generating Monotone Audio Signal ............................................................................................................ 104

Feature Extraction from Speech .................................................................................................................. 106

Recognition of Spoken Words ..................................................................................................................... 108

13. AI with Python – Heuristic Search ......................................................................................................... 111

Concept of Heuristic Search in AI ................................................................................................................ 111

Difference between Uninformed and Informed Search .............................................................................. 111

Real World Problem Solved by Constraint Satisfaction ............................................................................... 112

14. AI with Python – Gaming ...................................................................................................................... 115

Search Algorithms ....................................................................................................................................... 115

Combinational Search ................................................................................................................................. 115

Minimax Algorithm ...................................................................................................................................... 115

Alpha-Beta Pruning...................................................................................................................................... 116

Negamax Algorithm ..................................................................................................................................... 116

Building Bots to Play Games ........................................................................................................................ 116

A Bot to Play Last Coin Standing .................................................................................................................. 116

A Bot to Play Tic Tac Toe ............................................................................................................................. 119

15. AI with Python – Neural Networks ........................................................................................................ 122

What is Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) ................................................................................................... 122

Installing Useful Packages ........................................................................................................................... 122

Building Neural Networks ............................................................................................................................ 122

Perceptron based Classifier ......................................................................................................................... 123

Single - Layer Neural Networks ................................................................................................................... 124

Multi-Layer Neural Networks ...................................................................................................................... 127

16. AI with Python – Reinforcement Learning ............................................................................................. 131

Basics of Reinforcement Learning ............................................................................................................... 131

Building Blocks: Environment and Agent .................................................................................................... 131

Constructing an Environment with Python ................................................................................................. 133

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 AI with Python

Constructing a learning agent with Python ................................................................................................. 134

17. AI with Python – Genetic Algorithms .................................................................................................... 135

What are Genetic Algorithms? .................................................................................................................... 135

How to Use GA for Optimization Problems? ............................................................................................... 135

Installing Necessary Packages ..................................................................................................................... 136

Implementing Solutions using Genetic Algorithms ..................................................................................... 136

18. AI with Python – Computer Vision ........................................................................................................ 142

Computer Vision .......................................................................................................................................... 142

Computer Vision Vs Image Processing ........................................................................................................ 142

Installing Useful Packages ........................................................................................................................... 143

Reading, Writing and Displaying an Image .................................................................................................. 144

Color Space Conversion ............................................................................................................................... 145

Edge Detection ............................................................................................................................................ 147

Face Detection ............................................................................................................................................. 148

Eye Detection .............................................................................................................................................. 149

19. AI with Python – Deep Learning ............................................................................................................ 151

Machine Learning v/s Deep Learning .......................................................................................................... 151

Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) ......................................................................................................... 151

Installing Useful Python Packages ............................................................................................................... 152

Building Linear Regressor using ANN .......................................................................................................... 153

Image Classifier: An Application of Deep Learning ...................................................................................... 154

vi
 1. AI with Python – Primer Concepts
AI with Python

Since the invention of computers or machines, their capability to perform various tasks
has experienced an exponential growth. Humans have developed the power of computer
systems in terms of their diverse working domains, their increasing speed, and reducing
size with respect to time.

A branch of Computer Science named Artificial Intelligence pursues creating the

computers or machines as intelligent as human beings.

Basic Concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI)

According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John McCarthy, it is “The science and
engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs”.

Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a computer-controlled robot, or a

software think intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent humans think. AI is
accomplished by studying how human brain thinks and how humans learn, decide, and
work while trying to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this study as a basis
of developing intelligent software and systems.

While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the curiosity of human, lead him to
wonder, “Can a machine think and behave like humans do?”

Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of creating similar intelligence in
machines that we find and regard high in humans.

The Necessity of Learning AI

As we know that AI pursues creating the machines as intelligent as human beings. There
are numerous reasons for us to study AI. The reasons are as follows:

AI can learn through data

In our daily life, we deal with huge amount of data and human brain cannot keep track of
so much data. That is why we need to automate the things. For doing automation, we
need to study AI because it can learn from data and can do the repetitive tasks with
accuracy and without tiredness.

AI can teach itself

It is very necessary that a system should teach itself because the data itself keeps
changing and the knowledge which is derived from such data must be updated constantly.
We can use AI to fulfill this purpose because an AI enabled system can teach itself.

AI can respond in real time

Artificial intelligence with the help of neural networks can analyze the data more deeply.
Due to this capability, AI can think and respond to the situations which are based on the
conditions in real time.

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 AI with Python

AI achieves accuracy
With the help of deep neural networks, AI can achieve tremendous accuracy. AI helps in
the field of medicine to diagnose diseases such as cancer from the MRIs of patients.

AI can organize data to get most out of it

The data is an intellectual property for the systems which are using self-learning
algorithms. We need AI to index and organize the data in a way that it always gives the
best results.

Understanding Intelligence
With AI, smart systems can be built. We need to understand the concept of intelligence so
that our brain can construct another intelligence system like itself.

What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to calculate, reason, perceive relationships and analogies, learn
from experience, store and retrieve information from memory, solve problems,
comprehend complex ideas, use natural language fluently, classify, generalize, and adapt
new situations.

Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental psychologist, Intelligence
comes in multifold:

Intelligence Description Example

The ability to speak, recognize, and

use mechanisms of phonology
Linguistic intelligence Narrators, Orators
(speech sounds), syntax (grammar),
and semantics (meaning).

The ability to create, communicate

Musicians,
with, and understand meanings
Musical intelligence Singers,
made of sound, understanding of
Composers
pitch, rhythm.

The ability to use and understand

relationships in the absence of action
Logical-mathematical Mathematicians,
or objects. It is also the ability to
intelligence Scientists
understand complex and abstract
ideas.

The ability to perceive visual or Map readers,

Spatial intelligence spatial information, change it, and Astronauts,
re-create visual images without Physicists
reference to the objects, construct 3D

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 AI with Python

images, and to move and rotate

them.

The ability to use complete or part of

the body to solve problems or fashion
Bodily-Kinesthetic
products, control over fine and coarse Players, Dancers
intelligence
motor skills, and manipulate the
objects.

The ability to distinguish among one’s

Intra-personal intelligence own feelings, intentions, and Gautam Buddhha
motivations.

The ability to recognize and make Mass

Interpersonal intelligence distinctions among other people’s Communicators,
feelings, beliefs, and intentions. Interviewers

You can say a machine or a system is artificially intelligent when it is equipped with at
least one or all intelligences in it.

What is Intelligence Composed Of?

The intelligence is intangible. It is composed of −

 Reasoning
 Learning
 Problem Solving
 Perception
 Linguistic Intelligence

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 AI with Python

Let us go through all the components briefly −

Reasoning
It is the set of processes that enable us to provide basis for judgement, making decisions,
and prediction. There are broadly two types −

Inductive Reasoning Deductive

Reasoning

It starts with a general

statement and
It conducts specific observations to makes broad general examines the
statements. possibilities to reach a
specific, logical
conclusion.

Even if all of the premises are true in a statement, inductive If something is true of
reasoning allows for the conclusion to be false. a class of things in
general, it is also true
for all members of that
class.

Example − "All women

of age above 60 years
Example − "Nita is a teacher. Nita is studious. Therefore, All are grandmothers.
teachers are studious." Shalini is 65 years.
Therefore, Shalini is a
grandmother."

Learning − l
The ability of learning is possessed by humans, particular species of animals, and AI-
enabled systems. Learning is categorized as follows −

Auditory Learning
It is learning by listening and hearing. For example, students listening to recorded audio
lectures.

Episodic Learning
To learn by remembering sequences of events that one has witnessed or experienced. This
is linear and orderly.

Motor Learning
It is learning by precise movement of muscles. For example, picking objects, writing, etc.

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 AI with Python

Observational Learning
To learn by watching and imitating others. For example, child tries to learn by mimicking
her parent.

Perceptual Learning
It is learning to recognize stimuli that one has seen before. For example, identifying and
classifying objects and situations.

Relational Learning
It involves learning to differentiate among various stimuli on the basis of relational
properties, rather than absolute properties. For Example, Adding ‘little less’ salt at the
time of cooking potatoes that came up salty last time, when cooked with adding say a
tablespoon of salt.

 Spatial Learning − It is learning through visual stimuli such as images, colors,

maps, etc. For example, A person can create roadmap in mind before actually
following the road.

 Stimulus-Response Learning − It is learning to perform a particular behavior

when a certain stimulus is present. For example, a dog raises its ear on hearing
doorbell.

Problem Solving
It is the process in which one perceives and tries to arrive at a desired solution from a
present situation by taking some path, which is blocked by known or unknown hurdles.

Problem solving also includes decision making, which is the process of selecting the best
suitable alternative out of multiple alternatives to reach the desired goal.

Perception
It is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information.

Perception presumes sensing. In humans, perception is aided by sensory organs. In the

domain of AI, perception mechanism puts the data acquired by the sensors together in a
meaningful manner.

Linguistic Intelligence
It is one’s ability to use, comprehend, speak, and write the verbal and written language.
It is important in interpersonal communication.

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 AI with Python

What’s Involved in AI
Artificial intelligence is a vast area of study. This field of study helps in finding solutions to
real world problems.

Let us now see the different fields of study within AI:

Machine Learning
It is one of the most popular fields of AI. The basic concept of this filed is to make the
machine learning from data as the human beings can learn from his/her experience. It
contains learning models on the basis of which the predictions can be made on unknown
data.

Logic
It is another important field of study in which mathematical logic is used to execute the
computer programs. It contains rules and facts to perform pattern matching, semantic
analysis, etc.

Searching
This field of study is basically used in games like chess, tic-tac-toe. Search algorithms give
the optimal solution after searching the whole search space.

Artificial neural networks

This is a network of efficient computing systems the central theme of which is borrowed
from the analogy of biological neural networks. ANN can be used in robotics, speech
recognition, speech processing, etc.

Genetic Algorithm
Genetic algorithms help in solving problems with the assistance of more than one program.
The result would be based on selecting the fittest.

Knowledge Representation
It is the field of study with the help of which we can represent the facts in a way the
machine that is understandable to the machine. The more efficiently knowledge is
represented; the more system would be intelligent.

Application of AI
In this section, we will see the different fields supported by AI:

Gaming
AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess, poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where
machine can think of large number of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.

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 AI with Python

Natural Language Processing

It is possible to interact with the computer that understands natural language spoken by
humans.

Expert Systems
There are some applications which integrate machine, software, and special information
to impart reasoning and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.

Vision Systems
These systems understand, interpret, and comprehend visual input on the computer. For
example,

 A spying aeroplane takes photographs, which are used to figure out spatial
information or map of the areas.

 Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.

 Police use computer software that can recognize the face of criminal with the stored
portrait made by forensic artist.

Speech Recognition
Some intelligent systems are capable of hearing and comprehending the language in terms
of sentences and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle different accents,
slang words, noise in the background, change in human’s noise due to cold, etc.

Handwriting Recognition
The handwriting recognition software reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen
by a stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into editable text.

Intelligent Robots
Robots are able to perform the tasks given by a human. They have sensors to detect
physical data from the real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound,
bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple sensors and huge memory,
to exhibit intelligence. In addition, they are capable of learning from their mistakes and
they can adapt to the new environment.

Cognitive Modeling: Simulating Human Thinking Procedure

Cognitive modeling is basically the field of study within computer science that deals with
the study and simulating the thinking process of human beings. The main task of AI is to
make machine think like human. The most important feature of human thinking process
is problem solving. That is why more or less cognitive modeling tries to understand how
humans can solve the problems. After that this model can be used for various AI
applications such as machine learning, robotics, natural language processing, etc.
Following is the diagram of different thinking levels of human brain:

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 AI with Python

Cognitive

Behaviora
l

Physical

Kinematic

Geometri
c

Agent & Environment

In this section, we will focus on the agent and environment and how these help in Artificial
Intelligence.

Agent
An agent is anything that can perceive its environment through sensors and acts upon
that environment through effectors.

 A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin
parallel to the sensors, and other organs such as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.

 A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors, and
various motors and actuators for effectors.

 A software agent has encoded bit strings as its programs and actions.

Environment
Some programs operate in an entirely artificial environment confined to keyboard
input, database, computer file systems and character output on a screen.

In contrast, some software agents (software robots or softbots) exist in rich, unlimited
softbots domains. The simulator has a very detailed, complex environment. The
software agent needs to choose from a long array of actions in real time. A softbot is
designed to scan the online preferences of the customer and shows interesting items to
the customer works in the real as well as an artificial environment.

8
 2. AI with Python – Getting StartedAI with Python

In this chapter, we will learn how to get started with Python. We will also understand how
Python helps for Artificial Intelligence.

Why Python for AI

Artificial intelligence is considered to be the trending technology of the future. Already
there are a number of applications made on it. Due to this, many companies and
researchers are taking interest in it. But the main question that arises here is that in which
programming language can these AI applications be developed? There are various
programming languages like Lisp, Prolog, C++, Java and Python, which can be used for
developing applications of AI. Among them, Python programming language gains a huge
popularity and the reasons are as follows:

Simple syntax & less coding

Python involves very less coding and simple syntax among other programming languages
which can be used for developing AI applications. Due to this feature, the testing can be
easier and we can focus more on programming.

Inbuilt libraries for AI projects

A major advantage for using Python for AI is that it comes with inbuilt libraries. Python
has libraries for almost all kinds of AI projects. For example, NumPy, SciPy, matplotlib,
nltk, SimpleAI are some the important inbuilt libraries of Python.

 Open source: Python is an open source programming language. This makes it

widely popular in the community.

 Can be used for broad range of programming: Python can be used for a broad
range of programming tasks like small shell script to enterprise web applications.
This is another reason Python is suitable for AI projects.

Features of Python
Python is a high-level, interpreted, interactive and object-oriented scripting language.
Python is designed to be highly readable. It uses English keywords frequently where as
other languages use punctuation, and it has fewer syntactical constructions than other
languages. Python's features include the following −

 Easy-to-learn − Python has few keywords, simple structure, and a clearly defined
syntax. This allows the student to pick up the language quickly.

 Easy-to-read − Python code is more clearly defined and visible to the eyes.

 Easy-to-maintain − Python's source code is fairly easy-to-maintain.

 A broad standard library − Python's bulk of the library is very portable and cross-
platform compatible on UNIX, Windows, and Macintosh.

9
 AI with Python

 Interactive Mode − Python has support for an interactive mode which allows
interactive testing and debugging of snippets of code.

 Portable − Python can run on a wide variety of hardware platforms and has the
same interface on all platforms.

 Extendable − We can add low-level modules to the Python interpreter. These

modules enable programmers to add to or customize their tools to be more
efficient.

 Databases − Python provides interfaces to all major commercial databases.

 GUI Programming − Python supports GUI applications that can be created and
ported to many system calls, libraries and windows systems, such as Windows MFC,
Macintosh, and the X Window system of Unix.

 Scalable − Python provides a better structure and support for large programs than
shell scripting.

Important features of Python

Let us now consider the following important features of Python:

 It supports functional and structured programming methods as well as OOP.

 It can be used as a scripting language or can be compiled to byte-code for building

large applications.

 It provides very high-level dynamic data types and supports dynamic type
checking.

 It supports automatic garbage collection.

 It can be easily integrated with C, C++, COM, ActiveX, CORBA, and Java.

Installing Python
Python distribution is available for a large number of platforms. You need to download only
the binary code applicable for your platform and install Python.

If the binary code for your platform is not available, you need a C compiler to compile the
source code manually. Compiling the source code offers more flexibility in terms of choice
of features that you require in your installation.

Here is a quick overview of installing Python on various platforms −

Unix and Linux Installation

Follow these steps to install Python on Unix/Linux machine.

 Open a Web browser and go to https://www.python.org/downloads/.

 Follow the link to download zipped source code available for Unix/Linux.

 Download and extract files.

 Editing the Modules/Setup file if you want to customize some options.

 run ./configure script

10
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 “The great majority of our experiments were made on dogs under
curari with artificial respiration, but several were under morphia;
with rabbits there is no particular difficulty in dispensing with all
narcotics.”—Virchow’s Archiv.

Colasanti, Joseph. M.D. Univ. Rome.

Author of “Researches on Uric Acid,” Atti della R. Accademia di
Roma, 1881; “Action of Oxygenated Water in Poisoning Dogs;” “Zur
Kenntniss der Physiologischen Wirkungen des Curaregiftes,” Pflüger’s
Archiv., Vol. XVI., pp. 157-8, &c.
Made experiments with curare at the Physiological Institute at
Bonn. “… For these experiments we used middle-sized dogs, with
well developed muscles and little fat. The method of preparing them
for the desired experiments was as follows:—The dog was fastened
on to the vivisection table. The abdomen was opened by a long cut
in the linea alba from the sternum to the symphysis oss. pub.; to the
right and left of the linea alba the muscles of the skin and abdomen
were cut across and separated, so as to leave space for the
preparation of the aorta abdominalis and the vena cava ascendens.
Both these vessels were dissected out of their sheaths, and the
threads required for binding the canula passed under the artery.
While the animal bleeds to death a canula, which is intended to
supply defibrinised blood, is fixed into the aorta.…”—“Zur Kenntniss
der Physiologischen Wirkungen des Curaregiftes.”—Pflüger’s Archiv.,
Vol. XVI., pp. 157-8.

Colin, Gabriel Constant. B. at Mollars, Haute Saône,

1825. Prof. Veterinary College, Alfort. Mem. Acad. of Med., Paris.
Author of “Expériences sur la secretion pancréatique chez les
grands ruminants,” 1851; “Traité de physiologie comparée des
animaux,” 1854-56; “Recherches sur une maladie vermineuse des
moutons, due à la présence d’une linguitale dans les ganglions
mésentériques,” 1861. Contrib. a number of articles to the “Receuil
de Méd. Vétérinaire;” “les Annales des Sciences Naturelles,” “Les
Comptes Rendus de l’Acad. des Sciences, &c.”
“The following are experiments practised by Messrs. Boulay and
Colin:—Starve a horse, make an open wound in the æsophagus, and
inject thirty grains of alcoholic extract of nux vomica, or from three
to four grains of strychnine. At the end of a quarter of an hour the
horse will die in characteristic convulsions.”—Traité de Physiologie,
Béclard, p. 155.

Cornil, André Victor, 6, Rue de Seine, Paris. B. 1837. M.D.

Paris, 1865, Prof. of Path. Med. Faculty; Physician to the Hospital de
Lourcine.
Author of “Manuel d’histologie pathologique,” 1869-72; “Leçons
élémentaires d’hygiène,” 1872; Editor (chief) of “Journal des
Connaisances Médicales.” Joint author with M. Ranvier of “Manuel
d’Histologie Pathologique.”

Corona, Augusto (Prof.) Director of Sassari University.

Corrado (Commandatore), Rome. Professor of Physiological

Pathology Hospital of San Spirito.

Couty (Mons.), Rio Janeiro.

Coyne, Paul, M.D., Paris. Formerly Resident Hospital

Physician. Prof. Med. Faculty, Lille. Director of the Laboratory of
Histology of the Hospital La Charité, Paris.
 Author of “Recherches sur l’Anatomie normale de la muqueuse des
larynx et sur l’anatomie pathologique des complications laryngeés de
la rougeole,” Paris, 1874. Contrib. to Gaz. Med. de Paris.

Cryan, Robert, 54, Rutland Square West, Dublin. F.K.Q.C.P.

Irel., 1873; L. 1849; L.M. 1861; L.R.C.S.T. 1847 (Richm. Hosp.,
Carm. Sch. Dub. and Univ. Glasg.); Phys. St. Vincent’s Hosp.; Prof.
Anat. and Physiol. Cath. Univ.; M.R.T.A. Mem. Med. Soc., Coll. Phys.
Irel., Surg. Soc. Irel. and Path. and Obst. Socs. Dub.; late Lect. on
Anat. and Physiol. Carm. Sch.
Author of various Contributions to Path. Soc. Dub.; Dub. Quart.
Journ., and Med. Press and Circular.
Held a License for Vivisection at the Physiological Laboratory of
Catholic University, Dublin, in 1878, and Certificate for Illustrations of
Lectures.

Cunningham, Daniel John, University, Edinburgh. M.D.

Edin. (Gold Medal), 1876; M.B. and C.M. (1st Class Honours) 1874,
Edin.; F.R.S., Edin.; Senior Demonstrator of Anat. (late Asst. and
Junior Demonst. of Anat.), Univ. Edin.; Lect. on Physiol. Roy. Vet.
Coll., Edin.
Author of “Dissector’s Guide,” Parts I. and II. Contrib. several
Articles to Journ. Anat. and Physiology, etc.
Held License for Vivisection at the Veterinary College, Clyde Street,
Edinburgh, in 1878, 1879, 1880, 1881, and 1882. Certificates for
Illustrations to Lectures in 1879, 1880, 1881, 1882. No experiments
in 1878, 1880, and 1882.

Curci (Signor).
Engaged with Chirone in experiments on pirotoxine and
cinchonidine.—Archiv. Ital.
 Currie, Andrew Stark, Royal Infirmary, Edinburgh. M.B.
Edin., 1874; M.R.C.S., Eng., 1874.
Held License for Vivisection at Glasgow University Physiological
Laboratory, 1878.

Cyon, Elias de, 99, Boulevard Haussmann, Paris. Prof.

Physiology Univ. St. Petersburg; Mem. Acad. of Med. St. Petersburg.
Author of “Die Lehre von der Tabes dorsualis kritisch und
experimentelle erläutert,” Berlin, 1867; “Principes d’électrothérapie,”
Paris, 1867; “Methodik der physiologischen Experimente und
Vivisectionen, mit Atlas,” Giessen, Leipsig, 1876; “Recherches
expérimentales sur les fonctions des canaux semi-circulaires et sur
leur rôle dans la formation de la notion de l’espace,” Paris, 1878;
Bibl. de l’École des Hautes Études, section des Sciences Nat., Vol.
XVIII., Art. 1—(Experiments on pigeons, dogs, rabbits, and lampreys
made in the laboratory of Claude Bernard.)
Experimented in his private Laboratory at St. Petersburg in 1874;
also in Ludwig’s Laboratory at Leipsig; in his own Laboratory, and
that of Claude Bernard, at Paris. To observe the action excited by
barometrical pressure upon the organism, he placed animals in the
iron cylinder invented by Paul Bert, but improved upon the latter in
such a way that the arteries of the animal were brought into
communication with a manometer placed outside, and the nerves of
the animal could be acted upon by an electric current.
… “The effect of such a division of the semi-circular canals is
appalling. It is impossible to convey any exact idea of the unceasing
movements of the pigeon; it can neither stand, nor lie down, nor fly,
nor perform any systematic movements whatever, nor retain for an
instant even any position in which it may be placed.…. To keep alive
pigeons which have been thus operated upon I have wrapped them
in a napkin, so as to prevent even oscillations of the head. Thus
pinioned I placed them in a hammock, specially constructed for
pigeons having had the semi-circular canals severed.
Notwithstanding these precautions, it has frequently happened that I
have found the pigeons dead in a corner of the laboratory.… So
violent were the muscular contractions, that though enfolded in a
napkin, the pigeons still managed to throw themselves out of the
hammock, and roll on to the ground till fatal injuries to the brain
ended their sufferings.”—“Functions des canaux,” etc.; Bibl. de
l’École des Hautes Études, Section des Sciences Naturelles, Vol.
XVIII., pp. 45-46.
“The medical man who speaks with horror of the torture of
animals in physiological experiments, will do well to remember how
often he has prescribed most repulsive, and not always safe
treatment for a patient, in order to obtain some insight into how it
was likely to act. Many a surgical operation is performed, less for the
benefit of the patient than for the service of science; and the utility
of the knowledge aimed at thereby is often much more trifling than
that attained by Vivisection of an animal.”—Methodik, p. 8.
“The true vivisector must approach a difficult vivisection with the
same joyful excitement, with the same delight, with which a surgeon
undertakes a difficult operation, from which he expects extraordinary
consequences. He who shrinks from cutting into a living animal, he
who approaches a vivisection as a disagreeable necessity, may very
likely be able to repeat one or two vivisections, but will never
become an artist in vivisection. He who cannot follow some fine
nerve-thread, scarcely visible to the naked eye, into the depths, if
possible sometimes tracing it to a new branching, with joyful
alertness for hours at a time; he who feels no enjoyment when at
last, parted from its surroundings and isolated, he can subject that
nerve to electrical stimulation; or when, in some deep cavity, guided
only by the sense of touch of his finger-ends, he ligatures and
divides an invisible vessel—to such a one there is wanting that which
is most necessary for a successful vivisector. The pleasure of
triumphing over difficulties held hitherto insuperable is always one of
the highest delights of the vivisector. And the sensation of the
physiologist, when from a gruesome wound, full of blood and
mangled tissue, he draws forth some delicate nerve-branch, and
calls back to life a function which was already extinguished—this
sensation has much in common with that which inspires a sculptor,
when he shapes forth fair living forms from a shapeless mass of
marble.”—Methodik, 1876, p. 15.
“The description given by Cyon of the method of operation
(Methodik, p. 510) is as follows: ‘The rabbit is firmly fastened to the
ordinary vivisecting table by means of Czermak’s holder. Then the
rabbit’s head is held by the left hand, so that the thumb of that hand
rests on the condyle of the lower jaw. This is used as a point d’appui
for the insertion of the knife.… To reach the hollow of the temple the
instrument must be guided forward and upward, thus avoiding the
hard portion of the temporal bone and leading the knife directly into
the cranial cavity.… The trigeminus then comes under the knife. Now
holding the head of the animal very firmly, the blade of the knife is
directed backwards and downwards, and pressed hard in this
direction against the base of the skull. The nerve is then generally
cut behind the Gasserian ganglion, which is announced by a violent
cry of agony (einen heftigen Schmerzensschrei) of the animal.’”
“When I published my treatise on physiological methods and the
art of vivisection four years ago, several of my colleagues of the
English Universities entreated me not to announce my work in any of
the English newspapers, as they feared that public opinion might be
still more aroused.”—Letter to the Gaulois, December, 1881.

Czermak, Johann Nepomuk. B. at Prague in Bohemia,

1828; Med. and Chir. Doct.; formerly Prof. Univs. Cracow and Pesth;
Prof. Univ. Prague, 1860; Prof. Physiol. Univ. Jena, 1865; Prof. Univ.
Leipsig, 1870; founded Physiological Laboratories in each of the
above Universities; inventor of the laryngoscope, and also of several
instruments for securing animals during vivisection.
Author of “Beschreibung einiger Vorrichtungen zu physiologischen
Zwecken,” Vienna, 1865; “Nachweis der Erscheinung der
sogenannten Pulsverspätung beim Frosche, und das Verfahren der
selbe wahrzunehmen,” Vienna, 1865; “Populäre physiologische
vorträge gehalten im akademischen Rosensaale zu Jena,” 1867-
1869; “Die Physiologie als allgemeines Bildungselement,” Leipsig,
1870; “Ueber Schopenhauer’s Theorie der Farbe,” Vienna, 1870;
“Der electrische Doppelhebel,” Leipsig, 1871; “Ueber das Herz u. den
Einfluss des Nervensystems auf dasselbe,” Leipsig, 1871; “Nachweiss
echter hypnotischen Erscheinungen bei Thieren,” Vienna, 1873;
“Ueber das Ohr und das Hören;” “Ueber das physiologische Privat-
Laboratorium an der Universität Leipsig,” Leipsig, 1873.

Dareste, Camille, 37, Rue de Fleurus, Paris. M.D. Paris,

1847; Prof. Nat. Hist., Lyceum of Versailles; Prof. Zool., Fac. Sci. Lille,
1864; Direct. of Lab. of Teratology Med. Fac., Paris.
Author of “Recherches sur la production artificielle des
monstruosités ou Essais de tératogénie expérimentale,” 1877 (with
maps). M. Dareste has made a special study of Animal Monstrosities,
and articles by him on this subject have appeared in several
journals, including the “Comptes Rendus of the Académie des
Sciences.”

Dastre (Prof.), Paris. D. Sc.; Prof. Nat. Hist. Lycée Louis le

Grand; Prof. (Suppléant) of Physiol. Fac. Sci.; Prof. of Physiol., La
Sorbonne, Paris.
Has translated from the English “Des lésions des nerfs et leurs
conséquences,” by Dr. Weir-Mitchell; Edited “Chaleur Animale,” by
Claude Bernard.

Davidson, Alex. Dyce, 224, Union Street, Aberdeen. M.A.

Aberd., 1863; M.D. 1870; M.B. and C.M. (both with highest
Honours), 1866; M.R.C.S. Eng., 1866; (Univ. Aberd. and Paris); Lect.
on Opth. Surg. and Ophthalmoscopy Univ. Aberd.; Opth. Surg. Roy.
Infirm. Aberdeen; Surg. Aberd. Opth. Inst. Blind Asyl., and Female
Orphan Inst.; Professor of Materia Medica Univ. Aberdeen; Phys.
Hosp. for Incurables. Contrib. several Papers, etc., to Annales
d’Oculietique and other journals.
Held License for Vivisection unrestricted as to place in 1878, also
in 1881-82-83. Certificate for Experiments without Anæsthetics in
1878; Certificates for Illustrations of Lectures in 1881-82-83.

Davison, James, 45, Sandy’s Terrace, South Circular Road,

Dublin. M.D. Qu. Univ. Ireland, 1869 (Belfast and Dublin).
Held License for Vivisection at Physiological Room, Royal College
of Surgeons, Ireland, and 45, Sandy’s Terrace, Dublin, 1881, and at
the Laboratory, Drimatergh House, Queen’s County, 1883.

Deahna, Dr. A. Prof. Physiol. at Freiburg, in Bresgau; Phys.

on Staff of Saxon Sanitary Corps, 1879.
Joint author (with Dr. Joh. Latschenberger) of “Beiträge zur Lehre
von der reflectorischen Erregung der Gefässemuskeln,” Pflüger’s
Archiv, Vol. XII., p. 157.
Experiments on rabbits, dogs, and cats. The animals were all
curarised, and had various nerves cut and excited by electricity.

De Paoli, Giovanni. Prof. Genoa University.

Descoust (Dr.), 16, Rue Hérold, Paris. Prof, of Pract. Med.

Jurisp. Med. Faculty.

Desfossez (Dr.), Boulogne-sur-Seine. Phys. Hosp.

Ophthalmology.
 Desgranges (Dr.), 55, Place de la République, Lyons. Prof. of
Surgery Med. Faculty.

Dittmar, Carl. M.D. 1867, Phys. at Hildesheim; Mem. of

Acad. of Sci. of Saxony.
Author of “Ueber die Lage der sogenannten
Gefässnervencentrums in der Medulla oblongata;” “Ein neuer
Beweiss für die Reizbarkeit der centripetalen Fasern des
Rückenmarks” (Ber. der. Sächs. Gessellschaft d. Wiss., 1870).

Donders, Frans-Cornelius. B. 1818. Studied at the

Military Medical School of Utrecht. Was Military Surgeon at the
Hospital of Hague. Professor of Physiol., Histol., and Ophthalmol. at
the University of Utrecht, 1847. In 1863 received from his
Government a grant of money for the construction of a modern
Physiological Laboratory, which was inaugurated 1867. Corr. Mem.
Academy of Medicine, Paris, 1873, and Institute of France, 1879.
Author of “Lehre von den Augenbewegungen,” 1847; “Onder
Zockingen gedaan in het physiologisch laboratorium,” etc., Utrecht,
1849, 1857, 1867, etc.; and of several articles in Graefe’s “Archiv. für
Ophthalmologie.”
“MM. Snellon and Donders took a rabbit, cut the nerve on the
right side of the cervical region, made a wound in each ear, and
inserted a fragment of glass into the sore, which was then sewn up.
At the end of six days a tumour was set up in the left ear. At the end
of twelve days the wound on the right ear was opened by tearing its
borders.… In the other ear meanwhile the swelling had considerably
increased, and a vast purulent abscess was formed in its interior.…
Here are some more curious results. Cut the right nerve in the neck
of a rabbit, and when the vessels of the globe of the eye are dilated
pour concentrated acetic acid on both eyes. The sight is instantly
violently distressed; the epithelium being cauterised soon becomes
detached, … and at the end of four weeks the pupil of the eye can
no longer be seen.”—Traité de Physiologie, Béclard, 1862, p. 1,019.

Dowdeswell, George Francis, Physiol. Lab. New

Museum, Oxford. M.A., F.C.S., F.R.S., &c.
Contrib. “On the structural changes which are produced in the
liver under the influence of the Salts of Vanadium,” “Journal of
Physiology,” Vol. I., Nos. 4 & 5, p. 257.
Held License for Vivisection at Brown Institution, and University
College Physiological Laboratory in 1878-79-80; also at Cambridge
University Physiological Laboratory, besides former places in 1881-
82-83. Certificates for Experiments without Anæsthetics in 1878 and
1879; Certificate Dispensing with obligation to kill in 1880;
Certificates for Experiments without anæsthetics, and for
Experiments on Cats, Dogs, Horses, Mules, and Asses in 1881-83,
and Certificates for Illustrations of Lectures, and for Experiments on
Cats, Dogs, Horses, Mules, or Asses in 1882. No Experiments
returned in 1878, 1879, and 1880. No Experiments on Horses,
Mules, or Asses.

Du Bois Reymond, Emil. B. Berlin, 1818. Studied

Geology at Bonn; Anatomy and Physiology at Berlin under J. Müller;
Ph. D. 1843 (Bonn and Berlin); Prof. Physiol. Univ. Berlin (successor
to J. Müller), 1858; Mem. and Perpetual Sec. of Imp. Acad. of
Science, Berlin, 1867.
Author of “Untersuchungen ueber thierische Elektricität,” Berlin,
1848, etc.; “Ueber Thierische Bewegung,” Berlin, 1851; “Ueber die
Grenzen des Naturerkennens,” Leipsig, 1872; “Abhandlungen über
allgemeine Muskel und Nervenphysik,” 1877; “Der physiologische
Unterricht sonst und jetzt,” Berlin, 1878; “Culturgeschichte und
Naturwissenschaft,” Leipsig, 1878. Since 1857, co-editor, with
Reichart, of Müller’s Archives of Anatomy.
 In 1841 he experimented on animal electricity, and published the
results in “Poggendorf’s Annals” (1843).
It was Du Bois Reymond who said: “Standing on the loftiest
summit of Doubt, the man of science bravely disdains to fill the
yawning desert around him with phantoms of his imagination. He
looks without terror into the merciless machinery of Nature, utterly
devoid as it is of any spark of Deity.”—Dr. Nordwall’s Address to
Scandinavian League, 1883.

Du Castel (Dr.), 14, Rue de Bellechasse, Paris. Phys. Hospital,

Teuon.

Durham, Arthur Edward, 82, Brook Street, W. F.R.C.S.

Eng. (Exam.), 1860; M. 1858 (Guy’s) 1st M.B. 1857; Prizem. 1854,
Univ. Lond.; F.L.S., F.Z.S.; Fell. Roy. Med. Chir. Soc.; Chairm. Bd. of
Exam. R.C.S. Eng.; Mem. Path. Clin. and Hunt. Socs.; Surg. and
Lect. on Surg.; late Lect. on Anat. and Lect. on Use of Microscope,
Guy’s Hosp.; Con. Surg. St. Alban’s Hosp. and Disp.; late Demonst.
of Anat., Lect. on Nat. Philos., and Surg. Regist. Guy’s Hosp.; late
Pres. Quekett Micros. Club.
Late Editor Guy’s Hosp. Reps.; Author of “Sleeping and Dreaming,”
an Essay on Physiological Science; “The Physiology of Sleep,” etc.
“… It occurred to me that the artificial exposure of the brains of
living animals might afford opportunity for more definite observation
and further inquiry. With this idea I made numerous experiments
and observations.… It was suggested to me that the perforation of
the skull placed its contents in an unusual condition with regard to
atmospheric pressure, and that thus an unnatural state of the
circulation might be induced.… To obviate this and other possible
objections, I replaced the portions of bone removed by accurately
fitting watch glasses, and rendered the junction of their edges with
the bone air-tight, by means of inspissated Canada balsam.… I
satisfied myself of the accuracy of these observations by repeated
experiments upon different animals. My experiments upon dogs
were the most satisfactory; those upon rabbits least so.”—From
“Physiology of Sleep” Guy’s Hospital Reports, Vol. VI., 1860, p. 153,
&c.
“The method employed by Donders and Ehrmann was the same
as that employed by Durham in the experiments he made upon
animals to verify the observations of Blumenbach, Caldwell, and
others, on human patients.”… “The results obtained by physiological
experimentation, to prove that sleep is accompanied by cerebral
congestion, according to some, and according to others by cerebral
anemia, are not more valuable than the results of clinical
observation. Firstly, the animals upon which the experiments have
been made have been wounded more or less severely, and thereby
both excitement and pain have been caused; all have, therefore,
necessarily been placed under pathological conditions. It is
impossible to wound the head and open the skull without causing a
severe shock to the system of the animals, and a more or less
violent irritation of the brain; that is to say, not without producing a
certain amount of pain. And we know the influence that pain can
have, not only on the functions of the great organic apparatus
(circulation, respiration, animal heat), but also on the anatomical
and physiological state of the nerve centres. Another influence
which, according to our idea, very considerably diminishes the value
of the results of physiological investigation, is that sleep has always
been produced by narcotics and anæsthetics in the animals
submitted to experimental observations.”… “We conclude from this
study that the real state of cerebral circulation, during natural sleep,
does not seem to have been arrived at, notwithstanding the great
number of observations and experiments lately made on this
interesting subject.”—Dr. Marvaud, Gazette Médicale de Paris, 1878
(p. 81-2).

Eckhard, C. M.D. Prof. Univ., Giessen.

 Author of “Beiträge zur Anatomie und Physiologie,” Giessen; “Die
Bildung und Prüfung des Arztes;” “Experimental physiologie des
Nervensystems;” “Lehrbuch der Anatomie des Menschen.”
“It is known that there is no unity of opinion amongst the
observers of the phenomena which occur during artificial respiration
in animals poisoned by strychnine, and that furthermore those who
agree about the facts insist upon giving these different
meanings.”—“Ueber den Strychnintetanus während der Künstlichen
Respiration,” “Beiträge,” p. 37.
“Expansion of the walls of the chest and abdomen by injection of
gas into the lungs. First I cut away so much of the larynx through
the open mouth of a frog that the animal can no longer close it at
will. Then I sew the under jaw firmly to the upper jaw. I stop up the
one nostril by forcing into it a short thick piece of wire. Then a
similarly short and thick canula which is in communication with the
gasometer is fixed into the other nostril. As soon as the frog shows
symptoms of strychnine cramps, its lungs are set in communication
with the gasometer by opening the tap; a side offshoot of the tube
leads to the hdrg. manometer.”—“Strychnine, &c.” p. 48.

Eichhorst, Hermann. M.D.; Prof. Clin. Med., Univ. of

Göttingen.
Author of “Handbuch der speciellen Pathologie und Therapie für
practishe Aertzte und Studirende;” “Die trophischen Beziehungen der
Nervi vagi zum Herzmuskel,” in Centralbl. f. d. Med. Wiss., 1879;
“Lehrbuch der Physikalischen Untersuchungs-Methoden innerer
Krankheiten,” Brunswick, 1881; “Ueber Nervendegeneration und
Nervenregeneration,” Archiv. für path. Anat., Vol. LIX., 1874, p. 7.
Made experiments on birds.

Ellenberger (Prof.) Prosector Veterinary Sch., Berlin.

 “Professor Ellenberger, of Dresden, cut through the facial nerves of
five old and emaciated horses. In the fifth it is stated ‘that it showed
signs of considerable pain during the operation.’ The others were
apparently so exhausted that even this operation made little
impression on them. Claude Bernard once made the same operation
on a horse, and gave as the result that the nostrils are no more
capable of opening, and thus the animals die of suffocation, since
they breathe only through the nostrils. This explanation has been
hitherto accepted but is now disputed by Ellenberger, who maintains
that there is no danger for animals so operated on if kept quiet, but
only if they exert themselves, and he recommends if paralysis of
these nerves occurs, as is not unfrequently the case, that one shall
leave the cure to natural means.”—Archiv. f. Thierheilkunde, vii., 4.

Emery, C. Prof. of Zoo., Univ. Bologna.

Joint editor, with A. Mosso, of “Archives italiennes de Biologie,”
Paris, 1882, &c.
Studies on the kidneys of fishes.

Engelhardt, Gustav (Dr.) Prof. at Nuremberg.

Author of “Beiträge zur Lehre von den Bewegungen der Iris,” in
“Untersuchungen aus dem Physiologischen Laboratorium in
Wurzburg,” 1869, p. 308.
Experiments on the eyes of rabbits.

Engelmann, Theodor W. Prof. at Utrecht.

Author of “Physiologie des Ureters,” “Beiträge zur Physiologie des
Protoplasma,” Pflüger’s Archiv, Vol. II., “Beiträge zur allgemeinen
Muskel und Nerven Physiologie,” Pflüger’s Archiv, Vol. III.; “Zur
Anatomie und Physiologie der Flimmerzellen,” Pflüger’s Archiv, Vol.
XXIII., 1880; “Ueber Reizung Contractilen Protoplasmas durch
plötzliche Beleuchtung,” Onderzack, Physiol. Lab. Utrecht, 1880;
“Ueber die Bewegungen der Oscillarien und Diatomeen,” Ibid;
“Ueber Degeneration von Nervensfasern, Ein Beitrag zur cellular
physiologie,” Pflüger, Vol. XIII., p. 474.
Experiments with electricity on the exposed ureters of rabbits; also
on curarized frogs.

Ercolani, Count Giovanbattista. B. at Bologna, 1819.

Prof. at the Veterinary Institute of the University of Bologna.
Perpetual Secretary of the Academy of Sciences of the Institute.
Member of many learned Societies, and of the Institute of France.
Exiled from Florence for political causes he repaired to Turin, where
he devoted himself to scientific studies and experiments, Director of
the Veterinary School of San Salvario. Rector of the Univ. of Bologna
from 1868 to 1871, &c., &c. Mem. Inst. of Rome, and of Acad. of
Berlin and St. Petersburg.
Author of “Sulla Transformazione degli Elementi Istologico Nell’
Organismo Animale,” Bologna, 1864; “Metamorfosi delle Piante,”
Bologna, 1878, &c., &c.

Erichsen, John Eric, 6, Cavendish Place, W. F.R.C.S., Eng.

(Exam.), 1845, and Mem. Council (Univ. College); F.R.S.; Mem.
various Socs. home and foreign; Surg. Extraordinary to H.M. the
Queen; Emerit. Prof. of Surg. and Clinical Surg., Univ. Coll.; Cons.
Surg., Univ. Coll. Hosp.; late Exam. in Surg., Univ. Lond., Roy. Coll.
Phys., Lond. Roy. Coll. Surg., and Univ. Durham; late Pres. R.C.S.,
Eng., and Roy. Med. and Chir. Soc.
Author of “Science and Art of Surgery,” 8th Edit.; “Pathology and
Treatment of Asphyxia,” 2nd Edit. for which the Roy. Humane Soc.
awarded the Fothergill Gold Medal, value 50 guineas; “A Practical
Treatise on the Diseases of the Scalp;” “Observations on Aneurism,
&c.” (Sydney Society); “Railway Injuries of the Nervous System,”
1868; “Hospitalism and the Causes of Death after Operations and
Surgical Injuries,” 1874; “Concussion of the Spine,” 2nd Edit., 1882.
Contrib. various papers on surgical subjects to Lancet, Med. and
Chir. Trans., Med. Gaz., and Edin. Med. Surg. Journal.
“‘Experiment 9. Three mongrel terriers, A, B, C, were properly
secured.… One of the jugular veins of the centre dog was then
exposed, and a ligature was passed under it, so that it might be
punctured so as to avoid the occurrence of plethora and apoplexy
when the carotid arteries of the two lateral dogs were connected
with the corresponding vessels of the central one.… The central dog
began to struggle.… The lateral dogs were both alive, but evidently
enfeebled by loss of blood.’”—Edinburgh Medical and Surgical
Journal, Vol. LXIII., Art. 1, “An experimental Inquiry into the
Pathology and Treatment of Asphyxia,” by John E. Erichsen.

Esbach, Dr., 6, Place de Valois, Paris. Lab. Hosp. de Necker.

Ewart, J. Cossar, Univ., Edin. M.D. Edin. (Gold Medal),

1878; M.B. and C.M. (Honours), 1874; F.R.C.S. Edin., 1878; Regius
Prof. of Nat. Hist. Univ. Edin.; Director Scott. Zool. Station; formerly
Demonstrator of Anat. Univ. Edin.: Conserv. Mus. Univ. Coll. London,
and Lecturer on Anat., Edin. Sch. of Med.
Author of “Manual of Pract. Anat.,” Part 1, 1879. Contrib. Journ.
Anat. and Physiol. Proc. Roy. Soc., etc., etc.
Held License for Vivisection at Aberdeen University; Physiological
Laboratory, and Materia Medica Department, Marischal College, in
1881 and 1882. Certificates for Experiments without Anæsthetics
1881 and 1882. No Experiments returned in 1882.

Exner, Sigismund. Asst. Prof. at the Physiol. Inst. Vienna.

 Author of “Zur Lehre von den Gehörsempfindungen,” Pflüger’s
Archiv, Vol. XIII., p. 228.

Falchi (Dr.) Chef de Clinique Ophthalmogique, Turin.

Very numerous experiments, injecting tubercular matter into the
eyes of animals.

Fano, J., M.D., Free Prof. and Asst. in Physiol. Univ. Florence.
Author of “Recherches expérimentales sur un nouveau centre
automatique dans le tractus bulbo spinal,” “Arch. Ital. de Biol.,” 1883,
Vol. III., p. 365.
Experiments on turtles, toads, and fishes.
“On turtles alone I have made more than fifty experiments. The
experiments on fishes I have only just commenced, and they do not
allow me to draw from them any valid conclusions on the subject.
My attempts to extend my researches to the superior vertebrates—
that is to say, to mammals and birds—are limited to two experiments
on unweaned puppies and one experiment on a pigeon.”—Arch. Ital.
de Biol., Vol. III., 1833, p. 367.

Fayrer, Sir Joseph, K.C.S.I., 53, Wimpole Street,

Cavendish Square, W. M.D. Edin., 1859; F.R.C.P. Lond., 1872;
F.R.C.S. Edin., 1858; F.R.C.S. Eng., 1878; M. 1847; LL.D. Edin., 1878;
F.R.S. Lond. and Edin.; F.R.G.S. Lond.; Vice-Pres. Zool. Soc., Lond.;
Pres. Epidem. Soc. Lond.; Fell. Med. Soc. Lond.; Fell. Roy. Med Chir.
and Obst. Socs., etc.; Mem. (late Pres.) Asiat. Soc. Bengal; Fell.
Acad. Sci. Philadelph.; Hon. Phys. to H.M. the Queen and to H.R.H.
the Prince of Wales; Phys. to H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh; Phys. to
Sec. of State for India in Council; Pres. Med. Board, India Office;
Mem. Army Sanit. Commiss.; Mem. Senate Army Med. Sch., Netley;
late Prof. Med. Coll. and Sen. Surg. Med. Coll. Hosp. Calcutta; late
Pres. Med. Fac. Univ. Calcutta; Member of the Association for the
Advancement of Medicine by Research.
Author of “Clinical Surgery in India,” 1866; “Clinical and
Pathological Observations in India,” 1873; “On the Physiological
Action of the Poison of Najatripudians, and other Venomous Snakes
(conjointly with Dr. L. Brunton),” etc. etc.
Held a License for Vivisection at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital
Medical School, also unrestricted as to place, in 1878. Certificates for
Experiments without Anæsthetics and for Experiments on Cats,
Dogs, Horses, Mules, or Asses in 1878. No Experiments on Horses,
Mules or Asses.
“The experiments, of which this is a summary, were commenced
in October, 1867, and have been continued as regularly since, at
such intervals as time and other and more important avocations
permitted.… The living creatures experimented on have been the ox,
horse, goat, pig, dog, cat, civet, mongoose, rabbit, rat, fowls, kites,
herons, fish, innocent snakes, poisonous snakes, lizards, frogs,
toads, snails.”—“Summary of Experiments on Snake Poison,” by J.
Fayrer, M.D., C.S.I., Med. Times, April 1st, 1871, p. 374.
“After careful consideration, fully admitting that in permanganate
of potash we have an agent which can chemically neutralize snake-
poison, I do not see that more has been done than to draw attention
to a local remedy already well known as a chemical antidote, the
value of which depends on its efficient application to the
contaminated part (which Dr. Wall has pointed out is too uncertain to
be reliable). We are still, then, as far off an antidote as ever, and the
remarks made by me in 1868 are as applicable now as they were
then. They were as follows:—‘To conceive of an antidote, as that
term is usually understood, we must imagine a substance so subtle
as to follow, overtake, and neutralise the venom in the blood, and
that shall have the power of counteracting or neutralising the
poisonous or deadly influence it has exerted on the vital force. Such
a substance has still to be found, nor does our experience of drugs
give hopeful anticipations that we shall find it.’”—Sir J. Fayrer,
“Address to Medical Society of London,” British Medical Journal, Feb.
2, 1884.

Fede, Francesco. Prof. Naples University.

Fehleisen, F. M.D.; Private Lecturer Clinical Institute Berlin,

1877.
Author of “Die Aetiologie des Erysipels,” Berlin, 1883.
“The beautiful experiments of Fehleisen, on erysipelas, have
definitely established the fact that this disease is due to the growth
of micrococci in the lymphatic vessels of the skin. He succeeded in
cultivating these organisms in gelatinised meat-infusion, and
inducing the disease by the cultivated micrococcus in rabbits, and
also in man.”—British Medical Journal, Dec. 29th, 1883, p. 1208.

Feltz (Prof.) Nancy Med. Faculty; Prof. Path. Anat. and Physiol.
Med. Fac., Nancy.

Ferrari, Italo. Assist. Prof. at the Physiol. Lab. Univ., Parma.

Ferrier, David, 16, Upper Berkeley Street, Portman Square,

W. M.D. Edin., 1870; M.B. and C.M. (Highest Honours), 1868;
F.R.C.P. Lond., 1877; M. 1872; M.A. Aberd. (Double First), 1863;
LL.D. (Edin. and Heidelberg); F.R.S.; Corr. Mem. Soc. Clin., Paris;
Accad. Reale de Med., Turin; Lauréat de l’Institut de France, 1878;
Prof. Forensic Med. King’s Coll.; Asst. Phys. King’s Coll. Hosp.;
Marshall Hall Prizem., 1883; Prof. of For. Med. King’s Coll.; Phys. Nat.
Hosp. for Paralysed and Epileptic, etc.; Lecturer on Physiol. Middlx.
Hosp. Med. Sch. and Exam. For. Med. Univ. Edin. and Univ. Lond.
 Author of Gold Medal Thesis on “The Comparative Anatomy of the
Corpora Quadrigemina,” 1870; “Experimental Researches in Cerebral
Physiology and Pathology,” W. Rid. Med. Reps. 1873; “The
Localisation of Function in the Brain;” “Experiments on the Brain of
Monkeys,” (Croonian Lecture), Phil. Trans., Part II., 1875, etc., etc.
Joint Author of “Guy’s Forensic Medicine;” “The Functions of the
Brain;” Gulst. Lects. on Localisation of Cerebral Disease; Joint Editor
of “Brain,” and author of various Papers therein.
Held a License for Vivisection at King’s College Physiological
Laboratory, in 1882-83, with Certificate dispensing with obligation to
kill in same years.
Made experiments at Wakefield in regard to the examination of
various parts of the skull.—Ev. Roy. Com., p. 169.
(Q. 3326.) “I should allow everybody liberty to perform
experiments in his own private laboratory. A great many
experimenters live in the country, and have no access to a public
laboratory, and that would entirely prevent them from carrying on
research.—(3327.) Do you think that there are many such persons?
Yes.—(3328.) And who are practising in their own laboratories, and
unconnected with medical schools do you mean? I used to do so
when I lived in the country, in Suffolk, at Bury St. Edmunds. I
performed experiments there for my own purposes of research.”
…
(3331.) “Then you experiment at your own house as well as at
King’s College, do you? Yes; it would interfere with my professional
work if I were obliged to go such a distance from home to perform
my experiments.”—Ibid., p. 173.
(3245.) “Now with regard to original research, how would you
express yourself on that subject? I should say, that, wherever it is
possible to avoid the infliction of pain on animals subjected to
experiments, the means should be adopted either by chloroform or
ether, or opium or other anæsthetic; but that where the
administration of an anæsthetic would prejudice the object for which
the experiment was conceived, that the experiment is still justifiable,
notwithstanding the fact that it might inflict a certain amount of pain
on the animal.”—Ibid., p. 170.
“The interest attaching to the discussion was greatly enhanced by
the fact that Professor Ferrier was willing to exhibit two monkeys
which he had operated upon some months previously.… In striking
contrast to the dog were two monkeys exhibited by Professor Ferrier.
One of them had been operated upon in the middle of January, the
left motor area having been destroyed. There had resulted from the
operation right-sided hemiplegia” (paralysis of the right half of the
body) “with conjugate deviation of the eyes and head” (eyes and
head permanently twisted). “Facial paralysis was at first well
marked, but ceased after a fortnight. From the first there had been
paralysis of the right leg, though the animal was able to lift it up.
The arm it never had been able to use. Lately, rigidity of the muscles
of the paralyzed limb had been coming on. The other monkey, as a
consequence of paralysis of all auditory centres, was apparently
entirely unaffected by loud noises, as by the firing of percussion
caps in close proximity to the head.”—Lancet’s Report of the
Proceedings at the International Medical Congress, Oct. 8, 1881.
“Exper. IV., June 18th, 1873.—The right hemisphere of a monkey
had been partially exposed and experimented on for the purpose of
localising the region of electric stimulation. The part exposed
included the ascending parietal and postero-parietal convolutions,
the ascending frontal, and the posterior extremities of the three
frontal convolutions. After having been under experimentation for
eight hours, the animal recovered sufficiently to sit up and take food.
The wound was sewn up, and the animal placed in its cage.
“June 19th.—The animal is apparently as well as ever, eating and
drinking heartily, and as lively and intelligent as before. No change
was perceptible during the whole of this day.
“June 20th.—The wound was oozing, and the animal was less
active; but there was no diminution of sensation or voluntary
motion. It closely watched flies buzzing about, and frequently made
attempts to catch them. Towards the afternoon it began to suffer
from choreic spasms of the left angle of the mouth and of the left
hand. There was no loss of consciousness. The animal was
apparently annoyed by the spasmodic actions of its mouth, and
frequently endeavoured to still them by holding its mouth with the
other hand. Towards the close of the day the spasms frequently
repeated, became more intense, and exhibited an epileptic nature,
the convulsions on the left side of the body becoming general. This
state continued till.…
“June 23rd.—…
“June 24th.—Hemiplegia is complete on the left side, hand, foot,
and face. The animal moved by means of its left limbs, dragging the
right after it.
“The animal died from exhaustion on the 27th.”—Croonian
Lecture, “Experiments on the Brain of Monkeys,” Philos. Trans., 1875,
pp. 441-42.
“Exper. XVI., Feb. 5th, 1875.—This, though not successful as
regards the object intended, yet presents some interesting
phenomena. The left occipital lobe was exposed posteriorly, and
penetrated at the posterior extremity of the superior occipital fissure
by means of hot wires, which were directed with a view to follow the
inner aspect of the temporo-sphenoidal lobe. There was no
hæmorrhage from the sinus. During the operation, the animal was
observed to make sighing respiration. The operation was finished at
4.30 p.m. The animal lay in a state of stupor for more than an hour,
only making slight movements when disturbed, and then with its left
limbs.
“7 p.m.—The animal lies quiet, but indicates consciousness by
grunting discontentedly when moved. Struggles with its limbs,
chiefly the left, but occasionally with the right. On testing the
cutaneous sensibility with the hot iron, reaction was decisive over
the whole of the left side, but quite abolished in the right. The
animal occasionally opened its right eye, but the left remained
permanently closed. The animal passed into a state of coma, and
was found dead at 11.30 p.m. The following experiment is a
repetition of the last, and was only partially successful.”—Ibid., p.
464.
“These ganglia (corpora quadrigemina) were subjected to
experimentation in the following seven cases, viz., V., VI., VIII., IX.,
X., XII., XIII., with the results:—
“V. In this case the exploration was not sufficiently definite, as the
exact position of the electrodes was not observed, and death
occurred before a more careful exploration could be made. The
application of the electrodes to the ganglia on the left side, caused
the animal to utter various barking, howling, or screaming sounds of
an incongruous character. The head was drawn back and to the
right, and the right angle of the mouth was strongly retracted while
the stimulation was kept up. The tail was raised and the limbs were
thrown into contortions, but nothing further was ascertained as the
animal died from hæmorrhage.”—Ibid., p. 429.
“Experiments on the lower animals, even on apes, often lead to
conclusions seriously at variance with well-established facts of
clinical and pathological observation.… The decisive settlement of
such points must depend mainly on careful clinical and pathological
research.… Experiments have led to different views in different
hands.”—Ferrier (Functions of the Brain, Preface).
“Physiological experiments conducted in these regions are most
indefinite. The usual plan of investigation, viz., that of applying
stimuli to the brain substance, leads either to negative results, or, if
electrical stimulation is used, to results which, owing to the
unavoidable dispersal of the currents in numerous directions, are not
sufficiently localised to form the basis for trustworthy conclusions. In
place of exact observations after section and stimulation of different
regions, we have here the far less refined method of observation
after lesions—lesions induced in the most delicate and complicated
organ of the body by means so absurdly rough that, as Ludwig has
forcibly put it, they may be compared to injuries to a watch by
means of a pistol-shot. The results obtained in this way are
attributable to the most diverse causes; for, apart from the fact that
it is impossible to localise the lesion itself, the results may be due to
irritation of centres, paralysis of centres, stimulation of conducting
apparatus, or paralysis of conducting apparatus, without our being
able to say which. Hence the interpretation of even those
phenomena which are constant in their occurrence is always
uncertain. The third and best method of investigation which is
possible is the observation of cases of disease in which the exact
nature of the lesions is accurately ascertained after death.”—
Hermann’s Human Physiology, translated by Professor Gamgee,
London, 1878. (Chapter on the Functions of the Encephalon), p.
444.

Fick, Adolf. B. at Cassel, 1829. M.D., 1852, Extraordinary

Prof., 1856, and later, Prof. of Physiology in ordinary Univ. Zurich;
Prof. Physiol. at Wurzburg, 1868.
Author of “Die medicinische Physik,” Brunswick, 1857;
“Compendium der Physiologie des Menschen mit Einschluss der
Entwickelungageschichte,” Vienna, 1860; “Anatomie und Physiologie
der Sinne,” Lahr, 1862; and numerous papers on physiology which
have appeared under the title of “Arbeiten aus dem Physiologischen
Laboratorium der Würzburger Hochschule,” Wurzburg, 1874.
Made experiments on the influence of mechanical stimulation of
the cerebro-spinal organs described in “Arch. of Anat. Physiol.,
1867,” p. 198.

Filehne, Wilhelm, M.D. Prof. Extraordinary Univ. of

Erlangen.
Author of “Die Wirkungen des Amylnitrites,” Mueller’s Archives,
1879, Physiol. Abtheil; “Ueber Apnoë und die Wirkung eines
energischen Kohlensäurestromes auf die Schleimhäute des
Respirationsapparats und ueber den Einfluss beider auf verschiedene
Krampfformen,” Reichert u. du Bois Reymond, Archiv für Anat. u. s.
w. Jahrg. 1873, p. 361.
Made experiments in the Physiological Institute at Erlangen.

Fiori, Andrea, M.D. Assistant Prof. University, Modena.

Fleming, William James, 155, Bath Street, Glasgow.

M.D. Glasgow, 1879; M.B. 1872; F.F.P.S. Glasg., 1875; L. 1872;
(Univs. Glasg. and Edin.); Lect. on Physiol. Glasg. Roy. Infirm. School
of Med.; Ext. Disp. Surg. Roy. Infirm.; Exam. in Physiol. F.P.S. Glasg.
Contrib. “Behaviour of Carbolised Catgut inserted among Living
Tissues,” Lancet, 1876; “The Motions of the Brain” (with illust.
graphic tracings), Glasg. Med. Journ., 1877; “Physiology of the
Turkish Bath,” Journ. Anat. and Physiol., Vol. XIII.; “Pulse Dicrotism,”
Ibid., Vol. XV.
Held a License for Vivisection at Glasgow Royal Infirmary Medical
School in 1879-80-81-82-83. Certificates for Illustrations of Lectures
in 1879-80-81-82-83. Certificates Dispensing with obligation to Kill in
1880, Certificate for Experiments without Anæsthetics in 1882. No
Experiments returned in 1883.

Flint, Austin. B. Northampton, Mass., U.S., 1836; M.D., Jeff.

Med. Coll., 1857; Prof. Phys. Univ.; Buffalo, 1858; Professor of
Physiology and Microscopy, Bellevue Hosp.; Medical College, New
York, and Long Island College Hospital; Fell. New York Acad. of
Med.; Resident Mem. of Lyceum of Nat. Hist., New York, &c.
Author of “Physiology of Man,” 4 Vols., New York, 1866, etc.;
Essay on “The Excretory Function of the Liver,” which received the
French Inst. prize of 1,500 fr.; contrib. to “American Journ. of Med.
Science,” etc.
 “… For some years the author has been in the habit of employing
vivisections in public teachings.”—Preface to “Physiology of Man,”
Vol. I., p. 8.
“We have long been in the habit, in class demonstrations, of
removing the optic lobe on one side from a pigeon.… The
experiment of dividing the sympathetic in the neck, especially in
rabbits, is so easily performed that the phenomena observed by
Bernard and Brown-Séquard have been repeatedly verified. We have
often done this in class demonstrations.” “The cerebral lobes were
removed from a young pigeon in the usual way, an operation …
which we practice yearly as a class demonstration.” “Our own
experiments, which have been very numerous during the last fifteen
years, are simply repetitions of those of Flourens, and the results
have been the same without exception.” We have frequently
removed both kidneys from dogs and when the operation is carefully
performed the animals live from three to five days.“—Dr. Flint’s
Report to the Medical Congress, August, 1881.
“It is not desirable to administer an anæsthetic, and it is much
more satisfactory to divide the nerve without etherising the animal,
as the evidence of pain is an important guide in this delicate
operation.”—Text-Book, p. 641.
Speaking of an experiment by which an animal was caused to
vomit from a pig’s bladder which had been substituted for a
stomach, Dr. Flint says in his “Physiology of Man,” Vol II., p. 300:
—“These experiments were made simply for class demonstrations,
and have never before been published.”

Flourens, Jean Pierre Marie. B. at Thezan (Hérault),

1794, D. at Mougeron, near Paris, 1867; M.D., Montpellier, 1813,
pupil of De Candolle and Cuvier; Prof. at the Jardin des Plantes;
Mem. of Inst. of France; Perpetual Sec. Acad. des Sciences; Mem.
Academy of France; Commander Leg. of Hon.; Mem. of principal Litt.
and Scient. Socs. of Europe.
 Author of “Analyse de la Philosophie Anatomique, où l’on
considère plus particulièrement l’influence qu’aura cet ouvrage sur
l’état actuel de la Physiologie,” Paris, 1819; “Recherches sur les
fonctions du grand sympathique,” 1823; “Recherches expérir
mentales sur les propriétés et les fonctions du système nerveux dans
les animaux vertébrés,” Paris, 1824; “Expériences sur le système
nerveux,” Paris, 1825; “Expériences sur l’action de la moëlle épinière
sur la circulation,” Paris, 1829; “De l’instinct et de l’intelligence des
animaux,” Paris, 1841; “Recherches sur le développement des os et
des dents,” Paris, 1842; “Mécanisme de la respiration des poissons,”
Paris, 1843; “Anatomie Générale de la peau et des membranes
Muqueuses,” Paris, 1843; “Examen de la Phrénologie, réfutation des
doctrines matérialistes de Gall, Spurzheim, et Brouissais,” Paris,
1842; “Théorie expérimentale de la formation des os,” Paris, 1847;
“Nouvelles recherches touchant l’histoire de la circulation du sang,”
Journal des Savants, 1849; “De la longévité humaine et de la
quantité de vie sur la terre,” Paris, 1856; “De la vie et de
l’intelligence,” Paris, 1858; “De la raison du génie et de la folie,”
Paris, 1861; “Psychologie comparée,” Paris, 1864, and a great
number of contributions to the “Comptes rendus de l’acad. des
Sciences.”
Made numerous experiments on ruminating animals, on rabbits,
on the brains of fishes, and on the semi-circular canals of the brains
of ducks, fowls, and pigeons.
“The description given by Flourens of the phenomena resulting
from the section of the semi-circular canals in rabbits, is almost
entirely inaccurate.”—Cyon, “Fonctions des canaux semi-circulaires,”
Bibl. de l’École des Hautes Études, Paris, 1879, p. 51, note 2.
“Flourens supported his bold hypothesis almost solely by
experiments on pigeons and other inferior animals. The few
experiments on mammals, which he mentions, are very meagrely
described and of trifling value.”—Goltz, “Verrichtungen des
Grosshirns, p. 3.
 “I heard M. Flourens, in one of his lectures, state the following:
—‘Majendie sacrificed 4,000 dogs to establish the distinctions of the
sensory and the motor nerves according to Charles Bell; then he
sacrificed 4,000 more dogs to prove that he had made a mistake. I,’
added M. Flourens, ‘had to continue the experiments, and I have
proved that Majendie’s first opinion was correct; the reflex motions,
which he did not quite understand, had caused his doubts. To arrive
at this result, I also have had to sacrifice a great number of dogs.’”—
Blatin, Nos Cruautés, pp. 201-202.
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