Materials Engineering and

Technology

Course Instructor
Dr. Raghukiran, N.
School of Mechanical Engineering
VIT University – Chennai campus
The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

• Materials Science and Engineering is a multidisciplinary field that

explores the structure, properties, processing, and performance of
materials.
• The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron provides a
framework to understand the four major components that contribute to
this field.

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Processing:

• The techniques and methods used to modify and shape materials.

• Example: Heat Treatment
• Heat treatment alters the microstructure of materials to enhance
their properties.
• Examples: Annealing, quenching, tempering.

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Processing:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Processing:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Structure:

• The study of the arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a material.

• Example: Crystal Structure
• Understanding the atomic arrangement in a crystal lattice provides
insights into its properties and behavior.
• Examples: Diamond, Sodium Chloride (NaCl) crystal lattice.

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Structure:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Structure:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Structure:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Properties:

• Investigating the physical and chemical characteristics of materials.

• Example: Mechanical Properties
• Mechanical properties describe how a material responds to external
forces.
• Examples: Tensile strength, hardness, elasticity.

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Properties:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Properties:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Properties:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Performance:

• Evaluating how materials perform under specific conditions and

applications.
• Example: Corrosion Resistance
• Assessing a material's ability to resist chemical reactions with its
surroundings.
• Example: Stainless steel's resistance to rust and corrosion.

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Performance:

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The Materials Science and Engineering Tetrahedron

Performance:

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Classification of materials

Ceramics

Metals
Polymers

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Classification of materials

• Metals
• Ceramics
• Polymers
• Composites
• Advanced materials
• Semiconductors
• Biomaterials
• Smart Materials
• Nanomaterials

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Classification of functional materials

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Classification of materials

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Classification of materials

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Classification of materials

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Classification of materials

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Classification of materials

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The Structure of Crystalline Solids
Crystalline
• A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are situated in a
repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances; that is,
long-range order exists, such that upon solidification, the atoms
will position themselves in a repetitive three-dimensional
pattern, in which each atom is bonded to its nearest-neighbor
atoms.

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NOTE: All metals, many ceramic materials, and certain polymers
form crystalline structures under normal solidification
conditions.

For those that do not crystallize, this long-range atomic order is

absent; these are called noncrystalline or amorphous materials

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The Structure of Crystalline Solids

• Crystal structure is the manner in which atoms, ions, or

molecules are spatially arranged.
• Some of the properties depend on the crystal structure.

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The Structure of Crystalline Solids: Terminology
Method of representation
• Atomic hard-sphere model

• Reduced sphere model

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The Structure of Crystalline Solids: Terminology

• Lattice
a three-dimensional array of points coinciding with atom positions (or
sphere centers).

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The Structure of Crystalline Solids: Terminology
• Unit Cell:
The smallest building block of a crystal, consisting of atoms, ions,
or molecules, whose geometric arrangement defines a crystal's
characteristic symmetry and whose repetition in space produces
a crystal lattice.

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Common Metallic crystal structures

1. The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal (FCC) Structure

Cubic geometry with atoms located at each of the corners and the
centers of all the cube faces.
Eg. copper, aluminum, silver, and gold.

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The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal (FCC) Structure

• Each corner atom is shared among eight unit cells, whereas a

face-centered atom is shared by two unit cells.
• A total of four whole atoms, may be assigned to a given unit cell
• Corner and face positions are really equivalent

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The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal (FCC) Structure
• Coordination number
The number of nearest-neighbor or touching atoms. For face-centered
cubics, the coordination number is 12.
• Atomic packing factor (APF) or Structural Packing Fraction (SPF)
the sum of the sphere volumes of all atoms within a unit cell
(assuming the atomic hard-sphere model) divided by the unit cell
volume—that is,

For the FCC structure, the atomic packing factor is 0.74, which is the
maximum packing possible for spheres all having the same diameter.
Metals typically have relatively large atomic packing factors to
maximize the shielding provided by the free electron cloud.

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The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal (FCC) Structure

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The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal (FCC) Structure

• These spheres or ion cores touch one another across a face

diagonal
• The cube edge length a and the atomic radius R are related
through

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The Face-Centered Cubic Crystal (FCC) Structure

Solution

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Common Metallic crystal structures

2. The Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Cubic geometry with atoms located at all eight corners and a single
atom at the cube center.
Eg. Chromium, iron, tungsten.

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The Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure

• Center and corner atoms touch one another along cube

diagonals
• Two atoms are associated with each BCC unit cell: the equivalent
of one atom from the eight corners, each of which is shared
among eight unit cells, and the single center atom, which is
wholly contained within its cell
• Corner and center atom positions are equivalent
• The coordination number for the BCC crystal structure is 8
• E.g. Each center atom has as nearest neighbors its eight corner
atoms.

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The Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure

Try Yourself:
Show for the body-centered cubic crystal structure
that the unit cell edge length a and the atomic radius
R are related through

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The Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure

• The BCC unit cell length a and atomic radius R are related
through
Using the triangle NOP

And then for triangle NPQ,

or

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The Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Crystal Structure

Try Yourself:
Show that the atomic packing factor for BCC is 0.68

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Theoretical Density for Metals

• A knowledge of the crystal structure of a metallic solid permits

computation of its theoretical density through the relationship

Where
n = number of atoms associated with each unit cell
A = atomic weight
VC = volume of the unit cell
NA = Avogadro’s number (6.022x1023 atoms/mol)

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Theoretical Density for Metals

Example:

Try Yourself:
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, an FCC
crystal structure, and an atomic weight of 63.5 g/mol.
Compute its theoretical density and compare the
answer with its measured density.

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Theoretical Density for Metals

• Solution: Because the crystal structure is FCC, n, the number of

atoms per unit cell, is 4. Furthermore, the atomic weight ACu is
given as 63.5 g/mol. The unit cell volume VC for FCC was
determined in the earlier example as where R, the
atomic radius, is 0.128 nm.
• Substitution for the various parameters into the equation yields,

• The literature value for the density of copper is 8.94 g/cm3,

which is in very close agreement with the foregoing result.
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Polymorphism and Allotropy

• Some metals, as well as nonmetals, may have more than one

crystal structure, a phenomenon known as polymorphism.
When found in elemental solids, the condition is often termed
allotropy
• The prevailing crystal structure depends on both the
temperature and the external pressure.
• Examples
• Carbon: graphite is the stable polymorph at ambient conditions,
whereas diamond is formed at extremely high pressures.
• Iron: pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature,
which changes to FCC iron at 912 ˚C.
1. Most often a modification of the density and other physical
properties accompanies a polymorphic transformation.

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CRYSTAL SYSTEMS

• Because there are many different possible crystal structures, it is

sometimes convenient to divide them into groups according to
unit cell configurations.
• One such scheme is based on the unit cell geometry, that is, the
shape of the appropriate unit cell parallelepiped without regard
to the atomic positions in the cell.

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Crystal Systems

• Within this framework, an xyz coordinate system is established

with its origin at one of the unit cell corners; each of the x, y, and
z axes coincides with one of the three parallelepiped edges that
extend from this corner.

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Crystal Systems
Lattice Parameters
• The unit cell geometry is completely defined in terms of six
parameters: the three edge lengths a, b, and c, and the three
interaxial angles α, β, and γ. These are sometimes termed the
lattice parameters of a crystal structure.

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Crystal Systems

• On this basis there are seven different possible combinations of

a, b, and c, and α, β, and γ, each of which represents a distinct
crystal system.
• These seven crystal systems are cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal,
orthorhombic, rhombohedral, monoclinic, and triclinic.

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Crystal Systems

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Crystal Systems

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Crystal Systems

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Crystal Systems

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Crystal Systems

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Crystal Systems

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Crystal Systems

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Crystallographic Points, Directions, and Planes

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Point coordinates

• The position of any point located within a unit cell may be

specified in terms of its coordinates as fractional multiples of
the unit cell edge lengths (i.e., in terms of a, b, and c).

“The q coordinate (which is a fraction)

corresponds to the distance qa along the
x axis, where a is the unit cell edge
length. The respective r and s
coordinates for the y and z axes are
determined similarly”

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Example: Location of Point Having Specified Coordinates
Ø For the unit cell shown below, locate the point having coordinates
¼1½.

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Example: Location of Point Having Specified Coordinates
Ø For the unit cell shown below, locate the point having coordinates
¼1½.

Answer:

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Example: Specification of Point Coordinates
Specify point coordinates for all atom positions for a BCC unit cell.

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Example: Specification of Point Coordinates
Specify point coordinates for all atom positions for a BCC unit cell.

Answer:

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Crystallographic Directions
A crystallographic direction is a unit vector used to represent various
directions with in the crystal system.
The following steps are used to determine the three directional indices:
1. A vector of convenient length is positioned such that it passes through
the origin of the coordinate system. Any vector may be translated
throughout the crystal lattice without alteration, if parallelism is
maintained.
2. The length of the vector projection on each of the three axes is
determined; these are measured in terms of the unit cell dimensions a,
b, and c.
3. These three numbers are multiplied or divided by a common factor to
reduce them to the smallest integer values.
4. The three indices, not separated by commas, are enclosed in square
brackets, thus: [uvw]. The u, v, and w integers correspond to the
reduced projections along the x, y, and z axes, respectively.
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Crystallographic Directions: example

“The [100], [110], and [111]

directions within a unit cell”

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Crystallographic Directions

Representation of negative indices

• For each of the three axes, there will exist both positive and
negative coordinates.
• Thus negative indices are also possible, which are represented
_
by a bar over the appropriate index. For example, the [111]
direction would have a component in the y direction.

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Crystallographic Directions: example
Determine the indices for the direction shown in the accompanying
figure.

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Crystallographic Directions: example
Determine the indices for the direction shown in the accompanying
figure.
Solution:
• The vector, as drawn, passes through the origin of the coordinate
system, and therefore no translation is necessary.
• Projections of this vector onto the x, y, and z axes are, respective
½ a, 1 b, and 0 c, which become 1, and 0 in terms of the unit cell
parameters (i.e., when the a, b, and c are dropped).
• Reduction of these numbers to the lowest set of integers is
accompanied by multiplication of each by the factor 2.
• This yields the integers 1, 2, and 0, which are then enclosed in
brackets as [120].

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 _
Draw a [1 1 0] direction within a cubic unit cell.

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Crystallographic Directions: Hexagonal Crystals

Ø A four-axis coordinate system (or Miller–Bravais)

a. The three a1, a2, and a3 axes are all contained within a single plane
(called the basal plane) and are at 120˚ angles to one another.
b. The z-axis is perpendicular to this basal plane.
c. Directional indices, which are obtained as described earlier, will be
denoted by four indices, as [uvtw]; by convention, the first three
indices pertain to projections along the respective a1, a2, and a3
axes in the basal plane.

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Crystallographic Directions: Hexagonal Crystals

Conversion from the three-index system to the four-index system,

is accomplished by the following formulas:

Where,
primed indices are associated with the three-index scheme and
unprimed with the new Miller–Bravais four-index system.

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Crystallographic Directions: Hexagonal Crystals

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Crystallographic Directions: Hexagonal Crystals
Determine the directional indices (four-index system) for the
direction shown in the following figure.

Example problem

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Crystallographic Directions: Hexagonal Crystals

Now convert these indices into an index set referenced to the four-axis scheme. This
requires the use of equations mentioned in the earlier slides.

Finally, the answer is…

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Crystallographic Planes

The orientations of planes for a crystal structure are represented in a

similar manner.

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Crystallographic Planes
• The procedure used to determine the h, k, and l index numbers is as
follows:
1. If the plane passes through the selected origin, either another parallel
plane must be constructed within the unit cell by an appropriate
translation, or a new origin must be established at the corner of
another unit cell.
2. At this point the crystallographic plane either intersects or parallels
each of the three axes; the length of the planar intercept for each axis
is determined in terms of the lattice parameters a, b, and c.
3. The reciprocals of these numbers are taken. A plane that parallels an
axis may be considered to have an infinite intercept, and, therefore, a
zero index.
4. If necessary, these three numbers are changed to the set of smallest
integers by multiplication or division by a common factor.
5. Finally, the integer indices, not separated by commas, are enclosed
within parentheses, thus: (hkl).
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Crystallographic Planes

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Calculating the angle between two planes

• For cubic crystals, the angle, θ between two planes, (h1 k1 l1) and (h2 k2 l2) is given by:

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Crystallographic Planes: example

Determine the Miller indices for the plane shown in the below sketch

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Crystallographic Planes: example

Solution:
1. Because the plane passes through the selected origin O, a new
origin must be chosen at the corner of an adjacent unit cell,
taken as O’ and shown in sketch on the right side..

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Crystallographic Planes: example

Solution (continued..)
2. This plane is parallel to the x axis, and the intercept may be
taken as ∞a. The y and z axes’ intersections, referenced to the
new origin O’, are -b and c/2, respectively.
3. Thus, in terms of the lattice parameters a, b, and c, these
intersections are ∞, -1 and ½ respectively.
4. The reciprocals of these numbers are 0, -1, and 2; because all are
integers, no further reduction is necessary.
_
5. Finally, enclosure in parentheses yields (012).

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Crystallographic Planes: example

Solution (continued..)

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Construction of Specified Crystallographic Plane
_
Example: Construct a (011) plane within a cubic unit cell.
Solution: To solve this problem, carry out the procedure used in the
preceding example in reverse order.

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Planar Atomic Arrangements

• The atomic arrangement for a crystallographic plane depends on

the crystal structure.
• The (110) atomic planes for FCC and BCC crystal structures are
represented here.

(110) atomic plane for FCC crystal structure (110) atomic plane for BCC crystal structure

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Planar Atomic Arrangements
Family of Planes
• A family of planes contains all planes that are crystallographically
equivalent— that is, having the same atomic packing.
• a family is designated by indices that are enclosed in braces—
such as {100}.
--- - -- -
• For example, in cubic crystals the (111), (111 ), (111), (111 ), (111),
-- - - -
( 111), ( 111 ), and (111) planes all belong to the {111} family.

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Linear and Planar Densities

• Linear density (LD) is defined as the number of atoms per unit

length whose centres lie on the direction vector for a specific
crystallographic direction; that is,

• Example: determine the linear density of the [110] direction for

the FCC crystal structure

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Linear and Planar Densities
Planar density (PD) is taken as the number of atoms per unit area
that are centered on a particular crystallographic plane, or

Example:
# Although six atoms have centers that lie on
this plane, only one-quarter of each of atoms
A, C, D, and F, and one-half of atoms B and
E, for a total equivalence of just 2 atoms, are
on that plane.
# Furthermore, the area of this rectangular
section is equal to,
# and the planar density is determined as
(110) atomic plane for FCC crystal structure follows:

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Linear and Planar Densities

• Linear and planar densities are important considerations relative

to the process of slip—that is, the mechanism by which metals
plastically deform (will be discussed in the future lectures).
• Slip occurs on the most densely packed crystallographic planes
and, in those planes, along directions having the greatest atomic
packing.

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Crystalline and non-crystalline materials

Single crystals
For a crystalline solid, when the periodic and repeated arrangement of
atoms is perfect or extends throughout the entirety of the specimen
without interruption, the result is a single crystal.

Ø Single crystals exist in nature, but they may

also be produced artificially.
Ø They are ordinarily difficult to grow, because
the environment must be carefully controlled.
Ø Extremely important in many of our modern
technologies, in particular electronic
microcircuits, which employ single crystals of
silicon and other semiconductors
A garnet single crystal that was found in
Tongbei, Fujian Province, China
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Crystalline and non-crystalline materials
Polycrystalline materials
Most crystalline solids are composed of a collection of many small
crystals or grains; such materials are termed polycrystalline.
Ø Various stages in the solidification of a polycrystalline specimen:
1. Initially, small crystals or nuclei
form at various positions.
2. The small grains grow by the
successive addition from the
surrounding liquid of atoms
3. Upon completion of solidification,
grains having irregular shapes
have formed.
4. The grain structure as it would
appear under the microscope;
dark lines are the grain
boundaries.
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Note

There exists some atomic mismatch within the region where two
grains meet; this area, called a grain boundary.

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Single crystals vs. Polycrystalline materials

Single crystals Polycrystalline

A polycrystalline solid or polycrystal is
An ideal single crystal has an atomic comprised of many individual grains or
structure that repeats periodically across its crystallites. Each grain can be thought of as
whole volume. a single crystal, within which the atomic
structure has long-range order.
They are ordinarily difficult to produce, Generally, most of the crystalline materials
because the environment must be carefully exist in polycrystalline form when they
controlled solidify in normal conditions.

Grain 1 Grain 2

Grain
boundary Grain 3

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Single crystals vs. Polycrystalline materials
Single crystals Polycrystalline
No grain boundaries. Hence, no defects Grain boundaries were present (Grain
related to the grain boundaries were boundaries are interfaces where crystals of
present. different orientations meet.)
Properties vary with direction (called Properties may not vary with direction if the
anisotropic): grains are randomly oriented (called
The physical properties of single crystals of isotropic):
some substances depend on the For many polycrystalline materials, the
crystallographic direction in which crystallographic orientations of the
measurements are taken. For example, the individual grains are totally random. Under
elastic modulus, the electrical conductivity, these circumstances, even though each
and the index of refraction may have grain may be anisotropic, a specimen
different values in the [100] and [111] composed of the grain aggregate behaves
directions. This directionality of properties is isotropically.
termed anisotropy.
Popularly used in electronic microcircuits,
which employ single crystals of silicon and
other semiconductors

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Single crystals vs. Polycrystalline materials
Single crystals Polycrystalline
On the quantum scale that microprocessors Used in all generic engineering applications
operate on, the presence of grain
boundaries would have a significant impact
on the functionality of field effect transistors
by altering local electrical properties.
Therefore, microprocessor fabricators have
invested heavily in facilities to produce large
single crystals of silicon.

Grain
boundary

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Crystalline and non-crystalline materials

Anisotropy
• The physical properties of single crystals of some substances
depend on the crystallographic direction in which measurements
are taken.
• For example, the elastic modulus, the electrical conductivity, and
the index of refraction may have different values in the [100] and
[111] directions.
• This directionality of properties is termed anisotropy, and it is
associated with the variance of atomic or ionic spacing with
crystallographic direction.
• Substances in which measured properties are independent of
the direction of measurement are isotropic.

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Crystalline and non-crystalline materials

Non-crystalline materials
noncrystalline solids lack a systematic and regular arrangement
of atoms over relatively large atomic distances. Sometimes such
materials are also called amorphous (meaning literally “without
form”) materials, or supercooled liquids, inasmuch as their
atomic structure resembles that of a liquid.

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Crystalline and non-crystalline materials

Example: Two-dimensional schemes of the structure of (a)

crystalline silicon dioxide and (b) noncrystalline silicon dioxide.

Crystalline Non-crystalline
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 Imperfection in solids

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Imperfection in solids

• So far, we assumed that perfect order exists throughout

crystalline materials on an atomic scale.
• However, such an idealized solid does not exist; all contain large
numbers of various defects or imperfections.
• Many of the properties of materials are profoundly dependent
on the type and amount of these imperfections in the crystalline
solids.
• The influence is not always adverse, and often specific
characteristics are deliberately fashioned by the introduction of
controlled amounts or numbers of particular defects

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Crystalline defect

Crystalline defect refers to a lattice irregularity having one or more

of its dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter.

Example:
Two-dimensional representations of a
vacancy and a self-interstitial.

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Crystalline defect

• Classification of crystalline imperfections is frequently made

according to geometry or dimensionality of the defect.
• Examples include..
a. point defects: those associated with one or two atomic positions
b. linear (or one-dimensional) defects and interfacial defects, or
boundaries, which are two-dimensional
c. Surface and volume defects
d. Impurities in solids (because impurity atoms may exist as point
defects)

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 Zero-dimensional Defects
OR
Point Defects

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Point Defects
Vacancy
The simplest of the point defects is a vacancy, or vacant lattice site,
one normally occupied from which an atom is missing.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 104

Point Defects: vacancy
1. All crystalline solids contain vacancies. In fact, it is not possible to
create such a material that is free of these defects.
2. The equilibrium number of vacancies, Nv, for a given quantity of
material depends on and increases with temperature according
to

Where, N is the total number of atomic sites, Qv is the energy

required for the formation of a vacancy, T is the absolute
temperature in kelvins, and k is the gas or Boltzmann’s constant.
The value of k is 1.38 x 10-23 J/atom-K, or 8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K,
depending on the units of Qv

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 105

Point Defects: vacancy
Example: Calculate the equilibrium number of vacancies per cubic
meter for copper at 1000 ˚C. The energy for vacancy formation is 0.9
eV/atom; the atomic weight and density (at 1000 ˚C) for copper are
63.5 g/mol and 8.4 g/cm3, respectively.
Solution: This problem may be solved by using equation in the
previous slide; it is first necessary, however, to determine the value
of N, the number of atomic sites per cubic meter for copper, from its
atomic weight ACu, its density ρ, and Avogadro’s number NA,
according to

Continued in the next slide…….

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 106
Point Defects: vacancy

Thus, the number of vacancies at 1000 ˚C (1273 K) is equal to

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 107

Point Defects

Self-interstitial
A self-interstitial is an atom from the crystal that is crowded into an
interstitial site, a small void space that under ordinary circumstances
is not occupied.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 108

Point Defects: Self-interstitial

• Since the atom is substantially larger than the interstitial position

in which it is situated, the formation of this defect is not highly
probable, and it exists in very small concentrations, which are
significantly lower than for vacancies

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 109

 One-dimensional Defects
OR
Linear Defects

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 110

Dislocations—Linear Defects

• A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which

some of the atoms are misaligned.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 111

Dislocations—Linear Defects
Edge Dislocation: an extra portion of a plane of atoms, or half-plane,
the edge of which terminates within the crystal.

Dislocation line: the line that is defined along the end of the extra
half-plane of atoms (perpendicular to the plane of the page).
MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 112
Edge dislocation
• Within the region around the edge dislocation line, there is some
localized lattice distortion.
• The atoms above the dislocation line (shown in the previous
slide) are squeezed together, and those below are pulled apart
• The edge dislocation (shown in the previous slide) is represented
by the symbol Ʇ
• An edge dislocation may also be formed by an extra half-plane of
atoms that is included in the bottom portion of the crystal (as
shown below); its designation is Τ

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 113

Dislocations—Linear Defects
Screw dislocation: Is thought of as being formed by a shear stress
that is applied to produce the distortion shown below: the upper
front region of the crystal is shifted one atomic distance to the right
relative to the bottom portion.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 114

Screw dislocation
• The atomic distortion associated with a screw dislocation is also
linear and along a dislocation line, line AB as shown below.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 115

Screw dislocation

• The symbol is used to designate a screw dislocation.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 116

Mixed Dislocations

• Most dislocations found in crystalline materials are probably

neither pure edge nor pure screw, but exhibit components of
both types; these are termed mixed dislocations.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 117

Burgers vector
• The magnitude and direction of the lattice distortion associated
with a dislocation is expressed in terms of a Burgers vector,
denoted by b.
• Burgers vectors are indicated in Figures below for edge and
screw dislocations.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 118

Burgers vector

• The nature of a dislocation (i.e., edge, screw, or mixed) is defined

by the relative orientations of dislocation line and Burgers
vector.
Ø For an edge dislocation, they are perpendicular to each other
Ø For screw dislocation, they are parallel to each other
Ø For mixed dislocation, they are neither parallel nor perpendicular
to each other
• For metallic materials, the Burgers vector for a dislocation will
point in a close-packed crystallographic direction and will be of
magnitude equal to the interatomic spacing.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 119

Burgers vector in Edge Dislocation
If we describe a clockwise loop around the edge dislocation, starting at
point x and traveling an equal number of atom spacing in each
direction, we finish at point y one atom spacing from the starting point.

If an edge dislocation were not present,

the loop would close.
But, if an edge dislocation is present, then
the vector required to complete the loop is
the Burgers vector b.
The Burgers vector is perpendicular to the
edge dislocation.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 120

Burgers vector in Screw Dislocation
If we follow a crystallographic plane one revolution around the axis
on which the crystal was skewed, starting at point x and traveling
equal atom spacings in each direction, we finish at point y one atom
spacing below our starting point.
If a screw dislocation were not present,
the loop would close.
But, if a screw dislocation is present, then
the vector required to complete the loop is
the Burgers vector b.
The Burgers vector is parallel to the screw
dislocation.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 121

Facts About Dislocations

• The permanent deformation of most crystalline materials is by

the motion of dislocations.
• Dislocations can be observed in crystalline materials using
electron-microscopic techniques.
• Virtually all crystalline materials contain some dislocations that
were introduced during solidification, during plastic
deformation, and as a consequence of thermal stresses that
result from rapid cooling.
• Dislocations are involved in the plastic deformation of crystalline
materials.
• Dislocations are also observed in polymeric materials

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 122

Facts About Dislocations

A transmission electron micrograph of a

titanium alloy in which the dark lines are
dislocations. Magnification: 51,450x.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 123

Slip

• a slip system describes the set of symmetrically identical slip

planes and associated family of slip directions for which
dislocation motion can easily occur and lead to plastic
deformation.
• Depending on the type of lattice, different slip systems are
present in the material. More specifically, slip occurs on close-
packed planes (those containing the greatest number of atoms
per area), and in close-packed directions (most atoms per length).
• The magnitude and direction of slip are represented by the
Burgers vector.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 124

Slip planes and directions in metallic structures

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 125

 Two-dimensional Defects
OR
Planar Defects
OR
Surface Defects
OR
Interfacial Defects

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 126

Two-dimensional Defects

• These defects are boundaries that have two dimensions and

normally separate regions of the materials that have different
crystal structures and/or crystallographic orientations.
• These imperfections include
a. external surfaces,
b. grain boundaries,
c. Phase boundaries,
d. twin boundaries, and
e. stacking faults.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 127

a. External Surfaces
• One of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along
which the crystal structure terminates.
• Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest
• neighbors, and are therefore in a higher energy state than the
atoms at interior positions.
• The bonds of these surface atoms that are not satisfied give rise to
a surface energy, expressed in units of energy per unit area (J/m2).
• To reduce this energy, materials tend to minimize, if at all possible,
the total surface area.
• For example, liquids assume a shape having a minimum area—the
droplets become spherical.
• Of course, this is not possible with solids, which are mechanically
rigid.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 128

b. Grain Boundaries
• A Grain Boundary is a general planar defect that separates
regions of different crystalline orientation (i.e. grains) within a
polycrystalline solid. The atoms in the grain boundary will not be
in perfect crystalline arrangement.
• Within the boundary region, which is probably just several atom
distances wide, there is some atomic mismatch in a transition
from the crystalline orientation of one grain to that of an
adjacent one.
• Various degrees of crystallographic misalignment between
adjacent grains are possible.
• When this orientation mismatch is slight, on the order of a few
degrees, then the term small- (or low-) angle grain boundary is
used. When this orientation mismatch is significantly higher,
they are called as high-angle grain boundaries.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 129

b. Grain Boundaries

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 130

c. Phase Boundaries

• Phase boundaries exist in multiphase materials, wherein a

different phase exists on each side of the boundary;
furthermore, each of the constituent phases has its own
distinctive physical and/or chemical characteristics.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 131

 Three-dimensional Defects
OR
Volume Defects
OR
Bulk Defects

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 134

Volume Defects

• These defects exist in all solid materials that are much larger
than those heretofore discussed.
• These include pores, cracks, foreign inclusions, and other
phases.
• They are normally introduced during processing and fabrication
steps

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 135

Polymorphism and Allotropy

• Some metals, as well as nonmetals, may have more than one

crystal structure, a phenomenon known as polymorphism.
When found in elemental solids, the condition is often termed
allotropy
• The prevailing crystal structure depends on both the
temperature and the external pressure.
• Examples
• Carbon: graphite is the stable polymorph at ambient conditions,
whereas diamond is formed at extremely high pressures.
• Iron: pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature,
which changes to FCC iron at 912 ˚C.
1. Most often a modification of the density and other physical
properties accompanies a polymorphic transformation.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 136

 Solid Solution

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 137

Solid Solution

• A solid solution is a solid-state solution of one or more solutes in

a solvent. Such a mixture is considered a solution rather than a
compound
ü when the crystal structure of the solvent remains unchanged by
addition of the solutes, and
ü when the mixture remains in a single homogeneous phase.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 138

Types of Solid Solutions

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 139

Solubility

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 140

Solubility
• Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical
substance called solute to dissolve in a solid, liquid, or gaseous
solvent.
• Unlimited Solubility: Example: Water in alcohol
• Limited Solubility: Salt in water

Solid copper-nickel alloys display complete

Liquid copper and liquid nickel are solid solubility with copper and nickel
completely soluble in each other atoms occupying random lattice sites.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 141

Solubility

In copper-zinc alloys containing more than 30% Zn, a second phase forms because of the
limited solubility of zinc in copper.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 142

Solubility

The red line represents the solubility

limit; when excess zinc is added, the
solubility limit is exceeded and two
phases coexist.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 143

Conditions for Unlimited Solid Solubility
(The Hume-Rothery rules)
Conditions to form substitutional solid solution:
1. The atomic radius of the solute and solvent atoms must differ by
no more than 15%
2. The crystal structures of solute and solvent must be similar.
3. Complete solubility occurs when the solvent and solute have the
same valency. A metal dissolves a metal of higher valency to a
greater extent than one of lower valency.
4. The solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity. If
the electronegativity difference is too great, the metals tend to
form intermetallic compounds instead of solid solutions.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 144

Conditions for Unlimited Solid Solubility
(The Hume-Rothery rules)
Conditions to form interstitial solid solution:
1. Solute atoms must be smaller than the interstitial sites in the
solvent lattice.
2. The solute and solvent should have similar electronegativity.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 145

 Phases and the Phase Diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 146

Phase

• A phase can be defined as a homogeneous portion of a system

that has uniform physical and chemical characteristics and
bounded by a surface that separates it from any other portions.
• For example, water has three phases—liquid water, solid ice, and
steam.
• A phase has the following characteristics:
1. The same structure or atomic arrangement throughout
2. Roughly the same composition and properties throughout and
3. A definite interface between the phase and any surrounding or
adjoining phases.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 147

Example

• For example, if we enclose a block of ice in a vacuum chamber,

the ice begins to melt, and some of the water vaporizes.
• Under these conditions, we have three phases coexisting: solid
H2O, liquid H2O, and gaseous H2O.
• Each of these forms of H2O is a distinct phase;
a. each has a unique atomic arrangement,
b. unique properties, and
c. a definite boundary between each form.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 148

Cooling Curve

• A cooling curve is a graphical

plot of the changes in
temperature with time for a
material over the entire
temperature range through
which it cools.
• Cooling Curve for Pure Metals is
shown here.
Cooling Curve
1. This is by far the most widely used experimental method.
2. It relies on the information obtained from the cooling process.
3. In this method, alloys with different compositions are melted and then the temperature of the mixture is
measured at a certain time interval while cooling back to room temperature.
4. A cooling curve for each mixture is constructed and the initial and final phase change temperatures are
determined. Then these temperatures are used for the construction of the phase diagrams
Cooling curve for the solidification of a pure metal

Under equilibrium
conditions, all
metals exhibit a
definite melting or
freezing point. If a
cooling curve is
plotted for a pure
metal. It will show a
horizontal line at
the melting or
freezing
temperature.
Cooling curve for a pure metal showing possible undercooling.
Cooling curve for a solid solution.
Phase diagram
Definition 1 Definition 2
Phase diagram is a graphical A phase diagram shows the
representation of the phases and their compositions at
physical states of a substance any combination of temperature
under different conditions of and alloy composition.
temperature and pressure.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 155

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams

Binary phase diagram When

only two elements or two
compounds are present in a
material.

Isomorphous phase diagrams

Ø Only one solid phase forms
Ø The two components in the
system display complete
solid solubility
Ø Example: Cu-Ni

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 156

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams

Liquidus and Solidus Temperatures

• Liquidus temperature: The temperature above which a material
is completely liquid.
• Solidus temperature: The temperature below which the alloy is
100% solid.
• Freezing range: The temperature difference between the
liquidus and the solidus is the freezing range of the alloy.
• Within the freezing range, two phases coexist: a liquid and a
solid.
• The solid is a solution of copper and nickel atoms and is
designated as the α phase.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 157

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams
How to generate phase diagrams from cooling curves???
Below are cooling curves for the same system recorded for different compositions and
then displaced along the time axis. The red regions indicate where the material is liquid,
the blue regions indicate where the material is solid and the green regions indicate
where the solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium.

Now, use the phase change start

temperature and end temperature and
indicate on the phase diagrams.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 158

How to generate phase diagrams from cooling curves?

• By removing the time axis from the curves and replacing it with composition, the cooling
curves indicate the temperatures of the solidus and liquidus for a given composition.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 159

How to generate phase diagrams from cooling curves?

• This allows the solidus and liquidus to be plotted to produce the phase diagram:

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 160

How to generate phase diagrams from cooling curves?

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 161

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams
Composition of Each Phase: we can use a tie line to determine the
composition of the two phases.
• A tie line is a horizontal line within a two-phase region drawn at
the temperature of interest
• In an isomorphous system, the tie line connects the liquidus and
solidus points at the specified temperature.
• The ends of the tie line represent the compositions of the two
phases in equilibrium.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 162

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams

• For any alloy with an

overall or bulk
composition lying
between cL and cS, the
• composition of the
liquid is cL and the
composition of the
solid α is cS.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 163

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams
Composition of Each Phase: Procedure is summarized below.
1. A tie line is constructed across the two-phase region at the
temperature of the alloy.
2. The intersections of the tie line and the phase boundaries on
either side are noted.
3. Perpendiculars are dropped from these intersections to the
horizontal composition axis, from which the composition of each
of the respective phases is read.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 164

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams
Amount of Each Phase (the Lever Rule)
1. To calculate the amounts of liquid and solid, we construct a lever
on our tie line, with the fulcrum of our lever being the original
composition of the alloy.
2. The leg of the lever opposite to the composition of the phase,
the amount of which we are calculating, is divided by the total
length of the lever to give the amount of that phase.
3. The lever rule in general can be written as

Note that the denominator represents the total length of the tie line
and the numerator is the portion of the lever that is opposite the
composition of the solid we are trying to calculate.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 165

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams
Example on Amount of Each Phase (the Lever Rule)
Calculate the amounts of α and L at 1250°C in the Cu-40% Ni alloy shown in below Figure.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 166

Isomorphous Phase Diagrams

Let’s say that x = mass fraction of the alloy that is solid α.

Since we have only two phases, the balance of the alloy must be in
the liquid phase (L). Thus, the mass fraction of liquid will be = 1 - x.

From the phase diagram at 1250°C:

Solid phase α, X 100 = 62%

Hence, Liquid phase, L = 1 - 0.62 = 38%

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 167

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
• Another type of common and relatively simple phase diagram found
for binary alloys is shown here.
• The below binary eutectic phase diagram explains the chemical
behaviour of two elements with limited solubility in solid state but are
completely soluble in liquid state

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 168

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram

1. Where L stands for liquid, and A and B are the two components
and α and β are two solid phases rich in A and B respectively.
2. The blue lines represent the liquidus and solidus lines.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 169

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram: Terminology

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 170

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
Ø Cooling curve for alloy composition that passes mainly through
terminal solid solution.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 171

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
Ø Cooling curve for alloy composition that passes through terminal
solid solution without formation of eutectic solid.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 172

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
Ø Cooling curve for alloy composition that passes through hypo-
eutectic region.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 173

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
Ø Cooling curve for alloy composition that passes through through
eutectic-point.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 174

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
(Example: copper–silver system)

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 175

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
A number of features of this phase diagram are important
1. three single-phase regions are found on the diagram: α, β and
liquid
a. The α-phase is a solid solution rich in copper; it has silver as the
solute component and an FCC crystal structure
b. The β-phase solid solution also has an FCC structure, but copper is
the solute.
2. The solubility in each of these solid phases is limited, in that at any
temperature below line BEG-line, only a limited concentration of
silver will dissolve in copper (for the α-phase), and similarly for
copper in silver (for the β-phase)
3. the solid solubility limit line separating the α and α+β phase
regions is termed a solvus line
4. the boundary AB between the α and α+L fields is the solidus line

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 176

Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram
1. This horizontal line BEG, which is parallel to the composition axis
and extends between these maximum solubility positions, may
also be considered a solidus line; it represents the lowest
temperature at which a liquid phase may exist for any copper–
silver alloy that is at equilibrium.
2. There are also three two-phase regions found for the copper–
silver system: α+L, β+L and α+β
3. The temperature at which the alloys become totally liquid
decreases along the liquidus line,
4. Invariant point: A point on a binary phase diagram at which
three phases are in equilibrium.
5. The eutectic reaction: upon cooling, a liquid phase is
transformed into the two solid phases; the opposite reaction
occurs upon heating.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 177

The lead–tin phase diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 178

 IRON IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 179

The iron–iron carbide phase diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 180

 Eutectic

eutectoid

Pearlite and
Cementine

Austenite

Ferrite

Pearlite and
Carbide
Pearlite

Steel Cast iron

Iron Iron-carbon Diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 182

Cooling curve for pure iron

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 183

Definition of structures

Various phases that appear on the Iron-Carbon equilibrium phase

diagram are as under:
• Austenite
• Ferrite
• Pearlite
• Cementite
• Martensite*
• Ledeburite

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 184

Unit Cells of Various Phases

• FIGURE - The unit cell for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect
of the percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite
is shown in (d). Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms and the increase
in dimension c with increasing carbon content. Thus, the unit cell of martensite is
in the shape of a rectangular prism.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 185

Microstructure of different phases of steel

Austenite
Ferrite

Pearlite
Pearlite
(High resolution)

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 186

Definition of structures

1. Ferrite is known as α solid solution.

2. It is an interstitial solid solution of a small amount of carbon
dissolved in α (BCC) iron.
3. stable form of iron below 912 deg.C
4. The maximum solubility is 0.025 % C at 723°C and it dissolves
only 0.008 % C at room temperature.
5. It is the softest structure that appears on the diagram.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 187

Definition of structures

1. Pearlite is the eutectoid mixture containing 0.80 % C and is

formed at 723°C on very slow cooling.
2. It is a very fine platelike or lamellar mixture of ferrite and
cementite.
3. The white ferritic background or matrix contains thin plates of
cementite (dark).

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 188

Definition of structures
1. Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of Carbon dissolved in g
(F.C.C.) iron.
2. Maximum solubility is 2.0 % C at 1130°C.
3. High formability, most of heat treatments begin with this single
phase.
4. It is normally not stable at room temperature. But, under certain
conditions it is possible to obtain austenite at room
temperature.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 189

Definition of structures

1. Cementite or iron carbide, is very hard, brittle intermetallic

compound of iron & carbon, as Fe3C, contains 6.67 % C.
2. It is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram, exact
melting point unknown.
3. Its crystal structure is orthorhombic.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 190

Definition of structures

• Ledeburite is the eutectic mixture of austenite and cementite.

• It contains 4.3 percent C and is formed at 1130°C.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 191

Definition of structures

• Martensite - a super-saturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite.

• It is formed when steel is cooled so rapidly that the change from
austenite to pearlite is suppressed.
• The interstitial carbon atoms distort the BCC ferrite into a BC-
tetragonal structure (BCT).; responsible for the hardness of
quenched steel.
• Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-phase structure that
results from a diffusionless transformation of austenite.
• Since it is a non-equilibrium phase, it will not be usually
indicated in the Iron-Iron Carbon equilibrium phase diagram.
• The martensitic transformation occurs when the quenching rate
is rapid enough to prevent carbon diffusion.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 192

 Various Features of Fe-C diagram
Phases present
L
a ferrite
d BCC structure
BCC structure Ferromagnetic
Paramagnetic Fairly ductile

g austenite Fe3C cementite

FCC structure Orthorhombic
Reactions Non-magnetic Hard
ductile brittle
Peritectic L + d = g
Max. solubility of C in ferrite=0.022%
Eutectic L = g + Fe3C
Eutectoid g = a + Fe3C Max. solubility of C in austenite=2.11%
Invariant Reactions

1. Peritectic, at 1490 deg.C, with low wt% C alloys (almost no

engineering importance).
2. Eutectic, at 1130 deg.C, with 4.3wt% C, alloys called cast irons.
3. Eutectoid, at 723 deg.C with eutectoid composition of 0.8wt% C,
two-phase mixture (ferrite & cementite). They are steels.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 194

The diagram shows three horizontal lines which indicate isothermal
reactions (on cooling / heating):
• First horizontal line is at 1490°C, where peritectic reaction takes
place:
Liquid + d ↔ austenite
• Second horizontal line is at 1130°C, where eutectic reaction
takes place:
liquid ↔ austenite + cementite
• Third horizontal line is at 723°C, where eutectoid reaction takes
place:
austenite ↔ pearlite (mixture of ferrite &
cementite)

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 195

Delta region of Fe-Fe carbide diagram

Liquid + d ↔ austenite

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 196

Ferrite region of Fe-Fe Carbide diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 197

The Austenite to ferrite / cementite transformation in relation to Fe-C diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 198

Pearlitic structure

1. The net reaction at the eutectoid is the formation of pearlitic

structure.
2. Since the chemical separation occurs entirely within crystalline
solids, the resultant structure is a fine mixture of ferrite and
cementite.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 199

Hypo-eutectoid steels

1. Hypo-eutectoid steels: Steels having less than 0.8% carbon are

called hypo-eutectoid steels (hypo means "less than").
2. Consider the cooling of a typical hypo-eutectoid alloy along line
y-y‘.
3. At high temperatures the material is entirely austenite.
4. Upon cooling it enters a region where the stable phases are
ferrite and austenite.
5. The low-carbon ferrite nucleates and grows, leaving the
remaining austenite richer in carbon.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 200

Hypo-eutectoid steels

1. Hypo-eutectoid steels- At 723°C, the remaining austenite will

have assumed the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), and
further cooling transforms it to pearlite.
2. The resulting structure, is a mixture of primary or pro-eutectoid
ferrite (ferrite that forms before the eutectoid reaction) and
regions of pearlite.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 201

Hyper-eutectoid steels

1. Hyper-eutectoid steels (hyper means "greater than") are those

that contain more than the eutectoid amount of Carbon.
2. When such a steel cools, as along line z-z' , the process is similar
to the hypo-eutectoid steel, except that the primary or pro-
eutectoid phase is now cementite instead of ferrite.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 202

Hyper-eutectoid steels

1. As the carbon-rich phase nucleates and grows, the remaining

austenite decreases in carbon content, again reaching the
eutectoid composition at 723°C.
2. This austenite transforms to pearlite upon slow cooling through
the eutectoid temperature.
3. The resulting structure consists of primary cementite and
pearlite.
4. The continuous network of primary cementite will cause the
material to be extremely brittle.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 203

Hyper-eutectoid steels

Hyper-eutectoid steel showing primary

cementite along grain boundaries pearlite

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 204

Principal phases of steel and their Characteristics

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 205

Note:

1. It should be noted that the transitions as discussed, are for

equilibrium conditions, as a result of slow cooling.
2. Upon slow heating the transitions will occur in the reverse
manner.
3. When the alloys are cooled rapidly, entirely different results are
obtained, since sufficient time may not be provided for the
normal phase reactions to occur.
4. In these cases, the equilibrium phase diagram is no longer a valid
tool for engineering analysis.
5. Rapid-cool processes are important in the heat treatment of
steels and other metals

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 206

The iron–iron carbide phase diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 207

The iron–iron carbide phase diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 208

Invariant reactions

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 209

Uses of Phase Diagrams

1. To show phases are present at different compositions and

temperatures under slow cooling (equilibrium) conditions.
2. To indicate equilibrium solid solubility of one
element/compound in another.
3. To indicate temperature at which an alloy starts to solidify and
the range of solidification.
4. To indicate the temperature at which different phases start to
melt.
5. Amount of each phase in a two-phase mixture can be obtained.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 210

Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram
• The TTT diagram describes the time required at any temperature
for a phase transformation to begin and end.
• The TTT diagram is also called as isothermal transformation (IT)
diagram or the C-curve.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 211

Time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram

The time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram for a eutectoid steel,

where P = Pearlite, B = Bainite, and M = Martensite. The subscripts “s” and “f” indicate the start
and finish of a transformation. is unstable austenite.
MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 212
TTT diagram for a eutectoid steel

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 213

The decomposition of austenite, as a function of cooling rate

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 214

The decomposition of austenite, as a function of cooling rate

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 215

The decomposition of austenite, as a function of cooling rate

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 216

Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) Diagram

1. A continuous cooling transformation (CCT) phase diagram is

often used when heat treating steel.
2. These diagrams are used to represent which types of phase
changes will occur in a material as it is cooled at different rates.
3. These diagrams are often more useful than time-temperature-
transformation diagrams because it is more convenient to cool
materials at a certain rate than to cool quickly and hold at a
certain temperature.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 217

Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) Diagram

The CCT diagram (solid lines) for a 1080 steel compared with the TTT diagram (dashed
lines).

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 218

Heat Treatment and Surface Heat treatment

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 219

Heat treatment

Ø Heat treatment is a controlled process used to alter the

microstructure of metals and alloys such as steel and aluminium
to impart properties which benefit the working life of a
component, for example increased surface hardness,
temperature resistance, ductility and strength.
Ø Heat treatment involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to
extreme temperatures, to achieve a desired result such as
hardening or softening of a material.
Ø The term heat treatment applies only to processes where the
heating and cooling are done for the specific purpose of altering
properties intentionally.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 220

Heat treatment

1. Simple heat treatments commonly used for steels are

a. Process annealing,
b. Annealing,
c. Normalizing, and
d. Spheroidizing
e. Quench and Temper Heat Treatments
2. These heat treatments are used to accomplish one of three
purposes:
a. eliminating the effects of cold work,
b. controlling dispersion strengthening, or
c. improving machinability.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 221

The iron–iron carbide phase diagram

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 222

Note

• The A3 shows the temperature at which ferrite starts to form on

cooling;
• The Acm shows the temperature at which cementite starts to
form; and
• The A1 is the eutectoid temperature.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 223

Process Annealing
• The recrystallization heat treatment used to eliminate the effect
of cold working in steels with less than about 0.25% C is called a
process anneal.
• The process anneal is done by heating the material to above its
recrystallization temperature (80°C to 170°C below the A1
temperature), maintaining a suitable temperature, and then
cooling slowly.
• The intent of the process anneal treatment for steels is to
significantly reduce or eliminate residual stresses.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 224

Annealing and Normalizing
1. The steel is initially heated to produce homogeneous austenite
(FCC γ-phase), a step called austenitizing.
2. In Annealing, or a full anneal, the steel is allowed to cool slowly
in a furnace, producing coarse pearlite.
3. In Normalizing, the steel is allowed to cool more rapidly, in air,
producing fine pearlite.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 225

Annealing and Normalizing
• In annealed steels, the slow furnace cool and coarse pearlite
provide relatively low strength and good ductility.
• In normalized steels, the faster cooling gives fine pearlite and
provides higher strength.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 226

Note

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 227

The effect Annealing and Normalizing heat treatment

The effect of carbon and heat

treatment on the properties of
plain carbon steels.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 228

Spheroidizing

1. Steels that contain a large concentration of Fe3C have poor

machining characteristics. It is possible to transform the
morphology of Fe3C using spheroidizing.
2. During the spheroidizing treatment, which requires several hours
at about 30°C below the A1, the Fe3C phase morphology changes
into large, spherical particles in order to reduce boundary area.
3. The microstructure, known as spheroidite, has a continuous
matrix of soft, machinable ferrite (Figure below).

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 229

Austempering
The isothermal transformation heat treatment used to produce
bainite, called austempering, simply involves austenitizing the steel,
quenching to some temperature below the nose of the TTT curve,
and holding, at that temperature until all of the austenite transforms
to bainite.

The austempering and isothermal anneal heat

treatments in a 1080 steel

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 230

• Bainite is a plate-like microstructure or phase morphology (not
an equilibrium phase) that forms in steels at temperatures of
250–550 °C (depending on alloy content).

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 231

Martempering or marquenching
• Martempering is a heat treatment for steel involving austenitisation
followed by step quenching, at a rate fast enough to avoid the
formation of ferrite, pearlite or bainite to a temperature slightly above
the martensite start (Ms) point.
• After that it is cooled in air or oil to room temperature to permit the
austenite to transform to martensite. The steel is then tempered.

The marquenching heat treatment,

designed to reduce residual stresses and
quench cracking.

•Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-phase

structure that results from a diffusionless
transformation of austenite.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 232

Hardenability

• Hardenability is the ability of an alloy to be hardened by the formation of martensite as

a result of a given heat treatment.
• The hardenability of a material can be measured using The Jominy End-Quench Test

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 233

The Jominy End-Quench Test
• One standard procedure that is widely utilized to
determine hardenability is the Jominy end-quench test
1. A cylindrical specimen is austenitized at a prescribed
temperature for a prescribed time.
2. After removal from the furnace, it is quickly mounted in
a fixture as diagrammed in Figure. The lower end is
quenched by a jet of water of specified flow rate and
temperature. Thus, the cooling rate is a maximum at the
quenched end and diminishes with position from this
point along the length of the specimen.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 234

Diffusionless transformation

• A diffusionless transformation is a phase change that occurs

without the long-range diffusion of atoms but rather by some
form of cooperative, homogeneous movement of many atoms
that results in a change in crystal structure. These movements
are small, usually less than the interatomic distances, and the
atoms maintain their relative relationships.
• Martensite is a nonequilibrium single-phase structure that
results from a diffusionless transformation of austenite.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 235

Quench and Temper Heat Treatments

1. Quenching is the rapid cooling of a workpiece to obtain certain

material properties.
2. Quenching hardens most steels and tempering increases the
toughness.
3. This has been known for perhaps thousands of years.
4. For example, a series of such heat treatments has been used for
making Damascus steel and Japanese Samurai swords.
5. We can obtain an exceptionally fine dispersion of Fe3C and
ferrite (known as tempered martensite) if we first quench the
austenite to produce martensite and then temper.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 237

Tempering

• Tempering is a low temperature (150ºC to 650ºC) heat

treatment intended to remove the stresses and brittleness
caused by quenching and to develop the required mechanical
properties.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 238

Surface Hardening Processes

• We can, by proper heat treatment, produce a structure that is

hard and strong at the surface, so that excellent wear and
fatigue resistance are obtained,
• But at the same time gives a soft, ductile, tough core that
provides good resistance to impact failure.
Surface hardening by localized heating
1. We could rapidly heat the surface of a medium-carbon steel
above the A3 temperature (the center remains below the A1).
2. After the steel is quenched, the center is still a soft mixture of
ferrite and pearlite, while the surface is martensite.
3. The depth of the martensite layer is the case depth.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 239

Surface hardening by localized heating

(a) Surface hardening by localized heating. (b) Only the surface heats above the A1
temperature and is quenched to martensite.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 240

Surface hardening by localized heating

• We can, if we wish, harden only selected areas of the surface

that are most subject to failure by fatigue or wear.
• We can provide local heating of the surface by using a gas flame,
an induction coil, a laser beam, or an electron beam.
• We could begin by rapidly heating the surface of a medium-
carbon steel above the A3 temperature (the core remains below
the A1).
• After the steel is quenched, the core is still a soft mixture of
ferrite and pearlite, while the surface is martensite.
• The depth of the martensite layer is the case depth.
• Tempering produces the desired hardness at the surface.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 241

Surface hardening by Carburizing and Nitriding
Carburizing: Controlled diffusion of carbon into iron or steel by
heating in the presence of carbon to harden the surface.
It is a heat treatment process in which iron or steel absorbs carbon
liberated when the metal is heated in the presence of a carbon bearing
material, such as charcoal or carbon monoxide, with the intent of
making the metal harder.
Nitriding: Controlled diffusion of nitrogen into steel by heating in
the presence of ammonia or other nitrogenous material so as to
increase hardness and corrosion resistance.
It is a heat treating process that diffuses nitrogen into the surface of a
metal to create a case-hardened surface.
These processes are most commonly used on low-carbon, low-alloy
steels. They are also used on medium and high-carbon steels,
titanium, aluminium and molybdenum.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 242

Structure of case-carburized mild steel as you proceed from surface to core.
The case is normally on the order of 1 mm deep and is harder than the inner core of material.
The influence of carbon content on hardness for Fe–C alloys is demonstrated in Figure.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 243

Surface hardening by Carburizing and Nitriding
• In carburizing, carbon is diffused into the surface of the steel at a
temperature above the A3.
• For best toughness, we start with a low-carbon steel.
• A high carbon content is produced at the surface due to rapid
diffusion and the high solubility of carbon in austenite.
• When the steel is then quenched and tempered, the surface
becomes a high-carbon tempered martensite, while the ferritic
centre remains soft and ductile.
• The thickness of the hardened surface, again called the case
depth, is much smaller in carburized steels than in flame- or
induction hardened steels.
• In Nitriding. nitrogen provides a hardening effect similar to that
of carbon.
• Nitriding is carried out below the A1 temperature.
MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 244
Carburizing

Carburizing of a low-carbon steel to produce a high-carbon, wear-resistant surface.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 245

Cyaniding and Carbonitriding

• In cyaniding, the steel is immersed in a liquid cyanide bath that

permits both carbon and nitrogen to diffuse into the steel.
• In carbonitriding, a gas containing carbon monoxide and
ammonia is generated, and both carbon and nitrogen diffuse
into the steel.

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 246

Comparison of the case-hardening processes

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 247

Note

In each of these surface hardening processes, compressive residual

stresses are introduced at the surface, providing excellent fatigue
resistance in addition to the good combination of hardness,
strength, and toughness!!!

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 248

Introduction to
ferrous metals

249
Ferrous metals

1. One of the most important modern technological developments

2. Primitive ferrous tools first appeared about 4000 to 3000 B.C.
3. True iron making began in Asia Minor in about 1100 B.C. and
signaled the advent of the Iron Age
4. Invention of the blast furnace in about 1340 A.D.

250
Ferrous metals

1. Iron is the principal constituent

2. Ferrous metals make up 70 to 85% by Weight of structural
members and mechanical components
3. The average U.S. passenger vehicle (including trucks and sport
utility vehicles) contains about 1200 kg of steel, accounting for
about 60% of its total Weight
4. Are produced in larger quantities than any other metal type
a. abundant quantities within the Earth’s crust
b. relatively economical extraction, refining
c. Can be tailored to have a wide range of mechanical and physical
properties
5. Main disadvantage: susceptibility to corrosion

251
Ferrous metals: classification

252
Classification of steels

• Low carbon steels (also called as mild steels) (C < 0.3%)

a. Used for common industrial products (e.g.. bolts, nuts etc.)
b. Easy to machine and weld
• Medium carbon steels (0.3% < C < 0.6%)
a. machinery, automotive and agricultural equipment parts (gears,
axles, connecting rods, and crankshafts), railroad equipment etc.
• High carbon steels (0.6% < C < 1.45%)
a. Cutting tools, cable, music wire, springs, and cutlery.
b. Usually heat treated
• Cast Iron: C > 2.1%

253
Classification of steels

254
Low-Carbon Steels

1. Carbon < 0.25 wt%

2. Unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form martensite
3. Strengthening is accomplished by cold work
4. consist of ferrite and pearlite
5. Relatively soft and weak
6. Have outstanding ductility and toughness
7. Machinable and weldable
8. Typical applications: automobile body components, structural
shapes (e.g., I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets that
are used in pipelines, buildings, bridges, and tin cans

255
Low-Carbon & High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels

1. High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels

2. Contain other alloying elements such as copper, vanadium,
nickel, and molybdenum in combined concentrations as high as
10 wt%
3. Possess higher strengths than the plain low-carbon steels
4. May be strengthened by heat treatment
5. They are ductile, formable, and machinable.
6. More resistant to corrosion than the plain carbon steels
7. Applications: where structural strength is critical (e.g., bridges,
towers, support columns in high-rise buildings, pressure vessels)

256
Low-Carbon & High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels

257
Low-Carbon & High-strength, low-alloy (HSLA) steels

258
Medium-Carbon Steels

1. 0.25 wt% < Carbon < 0.6 wt%

2. May be heat-treated by austenitizing, quenching, and then
tempering
3. Most often utilized in the tempered condition (having
microstructures of tempered martensite)
4. The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities
5. Can be successfully heat-treated only in very thin sections and
with very rapid quenching rates.
6. Stronger than the low-carbon steels, but at a sacrifice of
ductility and toughness.
7. Additions of chromium, nickel, and molybdenum improve the
capacity of these alloys to be heat-treated giving rise to a
variety of strength–ductility combinations
259
Medium-Carbon Steels

• Applications include railway wheels and tracks, gears,

crankshafts, and other machine parts and high-strength
structural components calling for a combination of high
strength, wear resistance, and toughness

260
High-Carbon Steels

1. 0.6 wt% < Carbon < 1.4 wt%

2. The hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the carbon
steels
3. Used in a hardened and tempered condition
4. Wear resistant and capable of holding a sharp cutting edge
5. The tool and die steels are high carbon alloys, usually
containing chromium, vanadium, tungsten, and molybdenum.
6. These alloying elements combine with carbon to form very hard
and wear-resistant carbide compounds (e.g., Cr23C6, V4C3, and
WC).

261
High-Carbon Steels

• Applications: These steels are used as cutting tools and dies for
forming and shaping materials, as well as in knives, razors,
hacksaw blades, springs, and high-strength wire.

262
Comparison

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 263

Medium & High carbon steels

264
Applications for some of the tool steels

265
Stainless Steels

• Highly resistant to corrosion

• Predominant alloying element is chromium (at least 11 wt% Cr)
• Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by nickel and
molybdenum additions
• Stainless steels are divided into three classes on the basis of the
predominant phase constituent of the microstructure:
martensitic, ferritic, or austenitic.
• Martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat-treated
• For austenitic stainless steels, the austenite (or g) phase field is
extended to room temperature.
• Ferritic stainless steels are composed of the a-ferrite (BCC)
phase.

266
Stainless Steels

• Austenitic and ferritic stainless steels are hardened and

strengthened by cold work because they are not heat-treatable.
• The austenitic stainless steels are the most corrosion resistant
because of the high chromium contents and also the nickel
additions
• Both martensitic and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic; the
austenitic stainlesses are not
• Why ferritic and austenitic stainless steels are not heat-
treatable?

267
Stainless Steels

268
Stainless Steels

269
Stainless Steels

270
Effect of alloying elements on steel

1. Carbon improves hardenability, strength, hardness, and wear resistance; it

reduces ductility, weldability, and toughness.
2. Chromium improves toughness, hardenability, wear and corrosion resistance,
and high-temperature strength; it increases the depth of hardness
penetration resulting from heat treatment by promoting carburization.
3. Cobalt improves strength and hardness at elevated temperatures.
4. Molybdenum improves hardenability, wear resistance, toughness, elevated
temperature strength, creep resistance, and hardness; it minimizes temper
embrittlement.
5. Nickel improves strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, and hardenability.
6. Titanium improves hardenability; it deoxidizes steels.
7. Tungsten has the same effects as cobalt.
8. Vanadium improves strength, toughness, abrasion resistance, and hardness
at elevated temperatures; it inhibits grain growth during heat treatment.

271
Alloy steels

1. Stainless steels (high corrosion resistant steels)

a. Chromium > 10-12%
b. Wide range of applications
2. Tool and Die steels
a. High strength, impact toughness, and wear resistance at room
and elevated temperatures.
b. Used for machining and forming of the materials
c. High speed steels: maintain their hardness and strength at
elevated operating temperatures (M-type and T-type)
d. Die-steels: high toughness, as well as high resistance to wear and
cracking (generally use tungsten, molybdenum, chromium, and
vanadium)

272
MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 273
Ferrous metals and alloys

274
Cast Iron

1. Ferrous alloys with > 2.1 wt% C

a. more commonly 3 - 4.5 wt%C
2. low melting (also brittle) so easiest to cast

3. Cementite decomposes to ferrite + graphite

Fe3C à 3 Fe (a) + C (graphite)

a. generally a slow process

275
Fe-C True Equilibrium Diagram

T(°C)
1600
Graphite formation
1400 L Liquid +
promoted by
g +L Graphite
• Si > 1 wt% 1200 g 1153°C
Austenite 4.2 wt% C
• slow cooling
1000
a+g g + Graphite
800
740°C

0.65
600
a + Graphite
Adapted from Fig.
11.2,Callister 7e. (Fig. 11.2 400
adapted from Binary Alloy 0 1 2 3 4 90 100
Phase Diagrams, 2nd ed., (Fe) Co , wt% C
Vol. 1, T.B. Massalski (Ed.-
in-Chief), ASM International,
Materials Park, OH, 1990.)

276
Types of Cast Iron

Gray iron
1. graphite flakes
2. weak & brittle under tension
3. stronger under compression
4. excellent vibrational dampening
5. wear resistant Adapted from Fig. 11.3(a) & (b), Callister 7e.

Ductile (nodular) iron

1. add Mg or Ce
2. graphite in nodules not flakes
3. matrix often pearlite - better
ductility
277
Types of Cast Iron

White iron
1. <1wt% Si so harder but brittle
2. more cementite

Adapted from Fig. 11.3(c) & (d), Callister 7e.

Malleable iron
1. heat treat at 800-900ºC
2. graphite in rosettes
3. more ductile

278
Grey cast iron

1. Flake graphite in a matrix of pearlite, ferrite or martensite

2. Wide range of applications
3. Low ductility - elongation 0.6%
4. Grey cast iron forms when
a. Cooling is slow, as in heavy sections
b. High silicon or carbon
5. Machineability is excellent
6. Ductility is low (0.6%), impact resistance low
7. Damping capacity high
8. Thermal conductivity high
9. Dry and normal wear properties excellent

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 279

Grey cast iron

Applications
1. Engines
a. Cylinder blocks, liners,
2. Brake drums, clutch plates
3. Pressure pipe fittings (AS2544)
4. Machinery beds
5. Furnace parts, ingot and glass moulds

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 280

Ductile (nodular) iron

1. Inoculation with Ce or Mg or both causes graphite to form as

spherulites, rather than flakes
2. Also known as spheroidal graphite (SG), and nodular graphite
iron
3. Far better ductility than grey cast iron

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 281

Ductile (nodular) iron

1. Strength higher than grey cast iron

2. Ductility up to 6% as cast or 20% annealed
3. Low cost
a. Simple manufacturing process makes complex shapes
4. Machineability better than steel
Applications
1. Automotive industry 55% of ductile iron in USA
a. Crankshafts, front wheel spindle supports, steering knuckles, disc
brake callipers
2. Pipe and pipe fittings (joined by welding)

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 282

Malleable iron

1. Graphite in nodular form

2. Produced by heat treatment of white cast iron
3. Graphite nodules are irregular clusters
4. Similar properties to ductile iron

MEE1005: Materials Engineering and Technology - Dr. Raghukiran 283

Malleable iron
1. Similar to ductile iron
2. Good shock resistance
3. Good ductility
4. Good machineability
Applications
1. Similar applications to ductile iron
2. Malleable iron is better for thinner castings
3. Ductile iron better for thicker castings >40mm
4. Vehicle components
a. Power trains, frames, suspensions and wheels
b. Steering components, transmission and differential parts, connecting
rods
5. Railway components and Pipe fittings

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Production of Cast Iron

Adapted from Fig.11.5,

Callister 7e.

285
Limitations of Ferrous Alloys

1) Relatively high density

2) Relatively low conductivity
3) Poor corrosion resistance

286
 Strengthening mechanisms
of crystalline materials

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Basics

• Important to the understanding of strengthening mechanisms is the relation between

dislocation motion and mechanical behaviour of metals.
• Because macroscopic plastic deformation corresponds to the motion of large numbers
of dislocations.
• The ability of a metal to plastically deform depends on the ability of dislocations to
move.
• Hence, by reducing the mobility of dislocations, the mechanical strength may be
enhanced; that is, greater mechanical forces will be required to initiate plastic
deformation.
• Virtually all strengthening techniques rely on this simple principle: Restricting or
hindering dislocation motion renders a material harder and stronger.

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Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction
1. The size of the grains, or average grain diameter, in a polycrystalline metal influences the
mechanical properties.
2. Adjacent grains normally have different crystallographic orientations and, of course, a
common grain boundary, as indicated in Figure.

• During plastic deformation, slip or dislocation motion must

take place across this common boundary—say, from grain A
to grain B in Figure.
• The grain boundary acts as a barrier to dislocation motion for
two reasons:
1. Because the two grains are of different orientations, a
dislocation passing into grain B will have to change its
direction of motion; this becomes more difficult as the
crystallographic mis-orientation increases.
2. The atomic disorder within a grain boundary region will
result in a discontinuity of slip planes from one grain
into the other.

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Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

• For high-angle grain boundaries, it is difficult for the dislocations to traverse grain
boundaries during deformation; rather, dislocations tend to “pile up” (or back up) at
grain boundaries.
• A fine-grained material (one that has small grains) is harder and stronger than one that
is coarse grained, because the former has a greater total grain boundary area to impede
dislocation motion.
• For many materials, the yield strength σy varies with grain size according to
Hall–Petch equation

This expression is termed the Hall–Petch equation, where d is the average grain diameter,
and σ0 and ky are constants for a particular material.

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Strengthening by Grain Size Reduction

• Note that the Hall–Petch equation is not valid for both very large (i.e., coarse) grain and
extremely fine grain polycrystalline materials.
• Grain size may be regulated by the rate of solidification from the liquid phase, and also
by plastic deformation followed by an appropriate heat treatment.
• grain size reduction improves not only strength, but also the toughness of many alloys.
• Boundaries between two different phases are also impediments to movements of
dislocations; this is important in the strengthening of more complex alloys.
• The sizes and shapes of the constituent phases significantly affect the mechanical
properties of multiphase alloys

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Solid-solution Strengthening
• Another technique to strengthen and harden metals is alloying with elements that go
into either substitutional or interstitial solid solution. Accordingly, this is called solid-
solution strengthening.
• Alloys are stronger than pure metals because the alloying elements that go into solid
solution ordinarily impose lattice strains (due to the different size of atoms) on the
surrounding host atoms.
• Lattice strain field interactions between dislocations and these alloying elements result,
and, consequently, dislocation movement is restricted.

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Solid-solution Strengthening

(a) Representation of tensile lattice strains imposed on (a) Representation of compressive strains imposed on
host atoms by a smaller substitutional impurity atom. (b) host atoms by a larger substitutional impurity atom. (b)
Possible locations of smaller impurity atoms relative to Possible locations of larger impurity atoms relative to
an edge dislocation such that there is partial cancellation an edge dislocation such that there is partial
of impurity–dislocation lattice strains. cancellation of impurity–dislocation lattice strains.

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Solid-solution Strengthening

• These solute atoms tend to diffuse to and segregate around dislocations in a way so as
to reduce the overall strain energy—that is, to cancel some of the strain in the lattice
surrounding a dislocation.
• To accomplish this, a smaller impurity atom is located where its tensile strain will
partially nullify some of the dislocation’s compressive strain.
• For the edge dislocation in Figure (previous slide), this would be adjacent to the
dislocation line and above the slip plane.
• A larger impurity atom would be situated as in Figure (previous slide).
• The resistance to slip is greater when impurity atoms are present because the overall
lattice strain must increase if a dislocation is torn away from them.
• a greater applied stress is necessary to first initiate and then continue plastic
deformation for solid-solution alloys, as opposed to pure metals; this is evidenced by
the enhancement of strength and hardness.

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Strain Hardening

1. Strain hardening is the phenomenon whereby a ductile metal becomes harder and
stronger as it is plastically deformed.
2. Sometimes it is also called work hardening, or, because the temperature at which
deformation takes place is “cold” relative to the absolute melting temperature of the
metal, cold working.
3. Most metals strain harden at room temperature.
4. It is sometimes convenient to express the degree of plastic deformation as percent cold
work rather than as strain. Percent cold work (%CW) is defined as

where A0 is the original area of the cross section that experiences deformation and
Ad is the area after deformation.
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Strain Hardening

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Precipitation hardening (Age hardening)

1. The strength and hardness of some metal alloys may be enhanced by the formation of
extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of a second phase within the original
phase matrix; this must be accomplished by phase transformations that are induced by
appropriate heat treatments.
2. The process is called precipitation hardening because the small particles of the new
phase are termed precipitates. Age hardening is also used to designate this procedure
because the strength develops with time, or as the alloy ages.

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Precipitation hardening (Age hardening)

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Example of age-Hardened Alloys: Al-4%Cu
• The Al-4%Cu alloy is a classic example of an age-hardenable alloy. There are three steps
in the agehardening heat treatment
• Step 1: Solution Treatment
• In the solution treatment, the alloy is first heated above the solvus temperature and held
until a homogeneous solid solution is produced.
• the Al-4% Cu alloy is solution treated between 500°C and 548°C.
• Step 2: Quench
• After solution treatment, the alloy, which contains only α in its structure, is rapidly cooled,
or quenched. The atoms do not have time to diffuse to potential nucleation sites, so the θ
does not form. After the quench, the structure is a supersaturated solid solution containing
excess copper

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Example of age-Hardened Alloys: Al-4%Cu

• Step 3: Age
• Finally, the supersaturated α is heated at a temperature below the solvus temperature. At
this aging temperature, atoms diffuse only short distances.
• Because the supersaturated is metastable, the extra copper atoms diffuse to numerous
nucleation sites and precipitates grow.
• When we go through the three steps described previously, we produce the phase in the
form of ultra-fine uniformly dispersed second-phase precipitate particles. This is what we
need for effective precipitation strengthening.

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Example of age-Hardened Alloys: Al-4%Cu

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Example of age-Hardened Alloys: Al-4%Cu

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Tensile properties of the materials

Tension Tests

A standard tensile specimen with

circular cross section

Schematic representation of the

apparatus used to conduct tensile
stress–strain tests.
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Tensile properties of the materials

1. This topic is covered in the assignment 2.

2. Also, see the video lecture for the complete discussion on the topic.

Typical
engineering
stress–strain
behavior to fracture,
point F.

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Ductility
• It is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained until
fracture.
• A metal that experiences very little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is termed
brittle.
• Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either percent elongation or percent
reduction in area. The percent elongation %EL is the percentage of plastic strain at
fracture, or
where lf is the final length and l0
is the original gauge length

Percent reduction in area %RA is defined as

A0 is the original cross-sectional area and Af is
the cross-sectional area at the
point of fracture.

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Stress and strain

DIRECT STRESS !
1. When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body deforms. The way in which the body
deforms depends upon the type of force applied to it.

Compression force makes the body shorter.

A tensile force makes the body longer

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DIRECT STRAIN

1. Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES

2. Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts.

"&#'A " ….. Unit is Pascal (Pa) or " " ! !

(F#A** = ! = =
!#A% ! ( Simbol – Sigma)

Note: Most of engineering fields used kPa, MPa, GPa.

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DIRECT STRAIN

1. In each case, a force F produces a deformation x. In engineering, we usually change this

force into stress and the deformation into strain and we define these as follows:
2. Strain is the deformation per unit of the original length.

#$%&'( = ! =
" The
symbol
! called EPSILON
!

Strain has no unit’s since it is a ratio of length to length. Most engineering materials do not
stretch very mush before they become damages, so strain values are very small figures. It
is quite normal to change small numbers in to the exponent for 10-6( micro strain).

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MODULUS OF ELASTICITY (E)

1. Elastic materials always spring back into shape when released. They also obey HOOKE’s
LAW.
2. This is the law of spring which states that deformation is directly proportional to the
force. F/x = stiffness = kN/m

• The stiffness is different for the different material and different sizes of the
material. We may eliminate the size by using stress and strain instead of force and
deformation:
• If F and x is refer to the direct stress and strain , then

A "" #A "
" = !! " = !! hence = and =
!" !
# !!

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

1. The stiffness is now in terms of stress and strain only and this constant is called the
MODULUS of ELASTICITY (E)

!= #A "
=
!" !

• A graph of stress against strain will be straight line with gradient of E. The
units of E are the same as the unit of stress.

ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS

•If a material is stretched until it breaks, the tensile stress has reached the absolute
limit and this stress level is called the ultimate tensile stress.

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

Elastic behaviour
1. The curve is straight line trough out most of the region
2. Stress is proportional with strain
3. Material to be linearly elastic
4. Proportional limit
a. The upper limit to linear line
b. The material still respond elastically
c. The curve tend to bend and flatten out
5. Elastic limit
a. Upon reaching this point, if load is remove, the specimen still return to original shape

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

Yielding
1. A Slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in breakdown of the material
and cause it to deform permanently.
2. This behaviour is called yielding
3. The stress that cause = YIELD STRESS@YIELD POINT
4. Plastic deformation
5. Once yield point is reached, the specimen will elongate (Strain) without any increase in
load
6. Material in this state = perfectly plastic

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

1. STRAIN HARDENING
a. When yielding has ended, further load applied, resulting in a curve that rises continuously
b. Become flat when reached ULTIMATE STRESS
c. The rise in the curve = STRAIN HARDENING
d. While specimen is elongating, its cross sectional will decrease
e. The decrease is fairly uniform
2. NECKING
a. At the ultimate stress, the cross sectional area begins its localised region of specimen
b. it is caused by slip planes formed within material
c. Actual strain produced by shear strain
d. As a result, “neck” tend to form
e. Smaller area can only carry lesser load, hence curve donward
f. Specimen break at FRACTURE STRESS
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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

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STRESS STRAIN DIAGRAM

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Hardness

Hardness is a measure of a material’s resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a

small dent or a scratch).
Hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test for several
reasons:
a. They are simple and inexpensive—ordinarily no special specimen need be prepared, and the
testing apparatus is relatively inexpensive.
b. The test is relatively non-destructive—the specimen is neither fractured nor excessively
deformed; a small indentation is the only deformation.
c. Other mechanical properties often may be estimated from hardness data, such as tensile
strength

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Various hardness tests

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Fracture of Metals

• Simple fracture is the separation of a body into two or more pieces in response to an
imposed stress that is static (i.e., constant or slowly changing with time) and at
temperatures that are low relative to the melting temperature of the material.
• For metals, two fracture modes are possible: ductile and brittle.
• Ductile metals typically exhibit substantial plastic deformation with high energy
absorption before fracture.
• On the other hand, there is normally little or no plastic deformation with low energy
absorption accompanying a brittle fracture

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Fracture of Metals

(a) Highly ductile fracture in

which the specimen necks down to a point.

(b) Moderately ductile fracture after some

necking.

(c) Brittle fracture without any

plastic deformation.

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Fracture of Metals

(a) Cupand-cone fracture in aluminum.

(b) Brittle fracture in a mild steel.

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Fracture Toughness
• Fracture toughness measures the ability of a material containing a flaw to withstand an
applied load.
• A typical fracture toughness test may be performed by applying a tensile stress to a
specimen prepared with a flaw of known size and geometry.
Schematic drawing of fracture toughness specimens with
(a) edge and (b) internal flaws. The flaw size is defined
differently for the two classes.

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Fracture Toughness

• The stress applied to the material is intensified at the flaw, which acts as a stress raiser
• For a simple case, the stress intensity factor “K” is

Ø where f is a geometry factor for the specimen and flaw, σ is the applied stress, and a is
the flaw size as defined in figure in previous slide.
Ø If the specimen is assumed to have an “infinite” width, f = 1.0.
Ø For a small single-edge notch [Figure (a)], f = 1.12
By performing a test on a specimen with a known flaw size, we can determine the value of K
that causes the flaw to grow and cause failure. This critical stress intensity factor is defined
as the fracture toughness Kc:

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Fatigue

1. Fatigue is the lowering of strength or failure of a material due to repetitive stress which
may be above or below the yield strength.
2. It is a common phenomenon in load-bearing components in cars and airplanes, turbine
blades, springs, crankshafts and other machinery, biomedical implants, and consumer
products, such as shoes, that are subjected constantly to repetitive stresses in the form
of tension, compression, bending, vibration, thermal expansion and contraction, or
other stresses.
3. These stresses are often below the yield strength of the material; however, when the
stress occurs a sufficient number of times, it causes failure by fatigue!
4. Quite a large fraction of components found in an automobile junkyard belongs to those
that failed by fatigue.
5. The possibility of a fatigue failure is the main reason why aircraft components have a
finite life.

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Types of cyclic loading

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Fatigue

Fatigue failures typically occur in three stages.

1. First, a tiny crack initiates or nucleates often at a time well after loading begins.
2. Next, the crack gradually propagates as the load continues to cycle.
3. Finally, a sudden fracture of the material occurs when the remaining cross-section of the
material is too small to support the applied load.
Thus, components fail by fatigue because even though the overall applied stress may
remain below the yield stress, at a local length scale, the stress intensity exceeds the tensile
strength.

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Fatigue Test and S-N curve

1. S of S-N curve stands for "Stress". That means repeatitive load.

2. N stands for "Number of cycles to failure".
3. S describes a vertical axis and N describes a cross axis. Those make a graph below.

A theoretical value for stress amplitude below which the

material will not fail for any number of cycles, called
a fatigue limit, endurance limit, or fatigue strength

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Fatigue

1. The fatigue test can tell us how long a part may survive or the maximum allowable loads
that can be applied without causing failure.
2. The endurance limit, which is the stress below which there is a 50% probability that
failure by fatigue will never occur, is our preferred design criterion.
3. Fatigue life tells us how long a component survives at a particular stress.

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Creep

• If we apply stress to a material at an elevated temperature, the material may stretch and
eventually fail, even though the applied stress is less than the yield strength at that
temperature.
• Time dependent permanent deformation under a constant load or constant stress and
at high temperatures is known as creep.
• A large number of failures occurring in components used at high temperatures can be
attributed to creep or a combination of creep and fatigue.
• Diffusion, dislocation glide or climb, or grain boundary sliding can contribute to the
creep of metallic materials.
• Polymeric materials also show creep.
• In ductile metals and alloys subjected to creep, fracture is accompanied by necking, void
nucleation and coalescence, or grain boundary sliding.

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Generalized creep behavior
• A typical creep test consists of subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress while
maintaining the temperature constant; deformation or strain is measured and plotted as
a function of elapsed time.
• The resulting creep curve consists of three regions, each of which has its own distinctive
strain–time feature.

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Generalized creep behavior

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Generalized creep behavior
Stage 1
Primary or transient creep occurs first, typified by a continuously decreasing creep rate;
that is, the slope of the curve diminishes with time. This suggests that the material is
experiencing an increase in creep resistance or strain hardening.
Stage 2
For secondary creep, sometimes termed steady-state creep, the rate is constant; that is,
the plot becomes linear. This is often the stage of creep that is of the longest duration.
Stage 3
Finally, for tertiary creep, there is an acceleration of the rate and ultimate failure. This
failure is frequently termed rupture and results from microstructural and/or metallurgical
changes; for example, grain boundary separation, and the formation of internal cracks,
cavities, and voids. Also, for tensile loads, a neck may form at some point within the
deformation region. These all lead to a decrease in the effective cross-sectional area and an
increase in strain rate.
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Generalized creep behavior

• Possibly the most important parameter from a creep test is the slope of the secondary
portion of the creep curve; this is often called the minimum or steady-state creep rate.
• It is the engineering design parameter that is considered for long-life applications, such
as a nuclear power plant component that is scheduled to operate for several decades,
and when failure or too much strain are not options.
• On the other hand, for many relatively short-life creep situations (e.g., turbine blades in
military aircraft and rocket motor nozzles), time to rupture, or the rupture lifetime tr, is
the dominant design consideration.

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Composites
Need
• Materials that have specific and unusual properties are needed for a host of high-
technology applications such as those found in the aerospace, underwater,
bioengineering, and transportation industries.
• For example, aircraft engineers are increasingly searching for structural materials that
have low densities; are strong, stiff, and abrasion and impact resistant; and do not easily
corrode. This is a rather formidable combination of characteristics.
• Among monolithic materials, strong materials are relatively dense; increasing the
strength or stiffness generally results in a decrease in toughness.
• A composite is considered to be any multiphase material that exhibits a significant
proportion of the properties of both constituent phases such that a better combination
of properties is realized.
• According to this principle of combined action, better property combinations are
fashioned by the judicious combination of two or more distinct materials.
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Composites
• Composite material is a material composed of two or more distinct phases (matrix
phase and dispersed phase) and having bulk properties significantly different form those
of any of the constituents.
• Many composite materials are composed of just two phases; one is termed the matrix,
which is continuous and surrounds the other phase, often called the dispersed phase
(or reinforcement phase).
Matrix phase: The primary phase, having a continuous character, is called matrix. Matrix is usually
more ductile and less hard phase. It holds the dispersed phase and shares a load with it.
Dispersed (reinforcing) phase: The second phase (or phases) is embedded in the matrix in a discontinuous
form. This secondary phase is called dispersed phase. Dispersed phase is usually stronger than the matrix,
therefore it is sometimes called reinforcing phase.
• The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the constituent phases,
their relative amounts, and the geometry of the dispersed phase. Dispersed phase
geometry in this context means the shape of the particles and the particle size,
distribution, and orientation.
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Composites

Schematic representations of the various

geometrical and spatial characteristics of
particles of the dispersed phase that may
influence the properties of composites

(a) concentration, (b) size, (c) shape, (d) distribution, and (e)
orientation

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Classification of Composite Materials
There are two classification systems of composite materials. One of them is based on the matrix
material (metal, ceramic, polymer) and the second is based on the material structure:
Based on matrix material
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMC)
Metal Matrix Composites are composed of a metallic matrix (aluminum, magnesium, iron,
cobalt, copper) and a dispersed ceramic (oxides, carbides) or metallic (lead, tungsten,
molybdenum) phase.
2. Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC)
Ceramic Matrix Composites are composed of a ceramic matrix and embedded fibers of other
ceramic material (dispersed phase).
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMC)
Polymer Matrix Composites are composed of a matrix from thermoset (Unsaturated Polyester
(UP), Epoxiy (EP)) or thermoplastic (Polycarbonate (PC), Polyvinylchloride, Nylon, Polysterene)
and embedded glass, carbon, steel or Kevlar fibers (dispersed phase).
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Various types of reinforcements in composite types
Classification Based on matrix material:

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Rule of mixtures
• The volume fraction of the two phases influences the behavior; mechanical properties
are enhanced with increasing particulate content.
• Two mathematicalexpressions have been formulated for the dependence of the elastic
modulus on the volume fraction of the constituent phases for a two-phase composite.
• These rule-of mixtures equations predict that the elastic modulus should fall between
an upper bound represented by

and a lower bound, or limit,

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