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2 CODE DIVISION FOR MULTIPLE ACCESS

(CDMA)

UNIT
INTRODUCTION TO CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital cellular technology used for
mobile communication. CDMA is the base on which access methods such as
cdmaOne, CDMA2000, and WCDMA are built. CDMA cellular systems are
deemed superior to FDMA and TDMA, which is why CDMA plays a critical role in
building efficient, robust, and secure radio communication systems.
A Simple Analogy
Let’s take a simple analogy to understand the concept of CDMA. Assume we
have a few students gathered in a classroom who would like to talk to each other
simultaneously. Nothing would be audible if everyone starts speaking at the
same time. Either they must take turns to speak or use different languages to
communicate.
The second option is quite similar to CDMA — students speaking the same
language can understand each other, while other languages are perceived as
noise and rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a
shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only those users
associated with a particular code can communicate.
Salient Features of CDMA
CDMA, which is based on the spread spectrum technique has following salient
features −
 In CDMA, every channel uses the full available spectrum.
 Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital
sequence and then transmitted using a wide frequency range.
 CDMA consistently provides better capacity for voice and data
communications, allowing more subscribers to connect at any given
time.

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 CDMA is the common platform on which 3G technologies are built.

For 3G, CDMA uses 1x EV-DO and EV-DV.

Third Generation Standards

CDMA2000 uses Frequency Division Duplexing-Multicarrier (FDD-MC) mode.

Here, multicarrier implies N × 1.25 MHz channels overlaid on N existing IS-95
carriers or deployed on unoccupied spectrum. CDMA2000 includes −
 1x — uses a spreading rate of 1.2288 Mcps.
 3x — uses a spreading rate of 3 × 1.2288 Mcps or 3.6864 Mcps.
 1xEV-DO (1x Evolution – Data Optimized) — uses a spreading rate
of 1.2288 Mcps, optimized for the data.
 WCDMA/FDD-DS — Wideband CDMA (WCDMA) Frequency Division
Duplexing-Direct Sequence spreading (FDD-DS) mode. This has a
single 5 MHz channel. WCDMA uses a single carrier per channel and
employs a spreading rate of 3.84 Mcps.

CDMA Development Group (CDG)

The CDMA Development Group (CDG), founded in December 1993, is an

international consortium of companies. It works together to lead the growth and
evolution of advanced wireless telecommunication systems.
CDG is comprised of service providers, infrastructure manufacturers, device
vendors, test equipment vendors, application developers, and content
providers. Its members jointly define the technical requirements for the
development of complementary systems CDMA2000 and 4G. Further, the
interoperability with other emerging wireless technologies are meant to
increase the availability of wireless products and services to consumers and
businesses worldwide.

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IMT-2000 System

BASIC CDMA MECHANISM

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates
various signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of
available bandwidth. The technology is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency
(UHF) cellular telephone systems, bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-
GHz.

CDMA Overview

Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency
multiplexing. In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the
entire duration. The basic principle is that different CDMA codes are used to
distinguish among the different users.
Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum modulation
(DS-CDMA), frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here, a
signal is generated which extends over a wide bandwidth. A code
called spreading code is used to perform this action. Using a group of codes,
which are orthogonal to each other, it is possible to select a signal with a given
code in the presence of many other signals with different orthogonal codes.

How Does CDMA Work?

CDMA allows up to 61 concurrent users in a 1.2288 MHz channel by processing

each voice packet with two PN codes. There are 64 Walsh codes available to
differentiate between calls and theoretical limits. Operational limits and quality
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issues will reduce the maximum number of calls somewhat lower than this
value.
In fact, many different "signals" baseband with different spreading codes can be
modulated on the same carrier to allow many different users to be supported.
Using different orthogonal codes, interference between the signals is minimal.
Conversely, when signals are received from several mobile stations, the base
station is capable of isolating each as they have different orthogonal spreading
codes.
The following figure shows the technicality of the CDMA system. During the
propagation, we mixed the signals of all users, but by that you use the same
code as the code that was used at the time of sending the receiving side. You
can take out only the signal of each user.

CDMA Capacity

The factors deciding the CDMA capacity are −

 Processing Gain
 Signal to Noise Ratio
 Voice Activity Factor
 Frequency Reuse Efficiency
Capacity in CDMA is soft, CDMA has all users on each frequency and users are
separated by code. This means, CDMA operates in the presence of noise and
interference.

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In addition, neighboring cells use the same frequencies, which means no re-use.
So, CDMA capacity calculations should be very simple. No code channel in a cell,
multiplied by no cell. But it is not that simple. Although not available code
channels are 64, it may not be possible to use a single time, since the CDMA
frequency is the same.

Centralized Methods

 The band used in CDMA is 824 MHz to 894 MHz (50 MHz + 20 MHz
separation).
 Frequency channel is divided into code channels.
 1.25 MHz of FDMA channel is divided into 64 code channels.

Processing Gain

CDMA is a spread spectrum technique. Each data bit is spread by a code

sequence. This means, energy per bit is also increased. This means that we get
a gain of this.
P (gain) = 10log (W/R)
W is Spread Rate
R is Data Rate
For CDMA P (gain) = 10 log (1228800/9600) = 21dB
This is a gain factor and the actual data propagation rate. On an average, a
typical transmission condition requires a signal to the noise ratio of 7 dB for the
adequate quality of voice.
Translated into a ratio, signal must be five times stronger than noise.
Actual processing gain = P (gain) - SNR
= 21 – 7 = 14dB
CDMA uses variable rate coder
The Voice Activity Factor of 0.4 is considered = -4dB.
Hence, CDMA has 100% frequency reuse. Use of same frequency in surrounding
cells causes some additional interference.
In CDMA frequency, reuse efficiency is 0.67 (70% eff.) = -1.73Db

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Advantages of CDMA

CDMA has a soft capacity. The greater the number of codes, the more the
number of users. It has the following advantages −
 CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far
effect. In other words, a user near the base station transmitting with
the same power will drown the signal latter. All signals must have
more or less equal power at the receiver
 Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed
versions of time (a chip or later) of the signal (multipath signals) can
be collected and used to make decisions at the bit level.
 Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch
without changing operator. Two base stations receive mobile signal
and the mobile receives signals from the two base stations.
 Transmission Burst − reduces interference.

Disadvantages of CDMA

The disadvantages of using CDMA are as follows −

 The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can
induce delay or may cause interference.
 Time synchronization is required.
 Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may
reduce capacity.
 As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base
station needs constant tight power control. This can result in several
handovers.

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FUNDAMENTALS OF CDMA CODES

CDMA is a form of wireless communication. The goal of CDMA is to break up a
finite radio frequency so that multiple users can access it at the same time.
Through randomization of frequencies, CDMA divides the radio frequency
spectrum to share the space for multiple users using a code to accomplish the
multiplexing instead of time or frequency division. This ability to use codes to
divide up the signal, provides CDMA with a great advantage over GSM and other
wireless technologies because it can support more users on the available
bandwidth.

You can find a sample network diagram from the CDG Web site. This Web site is
an excellent resource for understanding CDMA technologies, its benefits and
evolution. From the various wireless devices, the voice/data is converted into a
wireless signal that is transmitted to a base station controller (BSC). From here,
the data is transferred through the network and back to the end-user/station.

SPREADING CODES BASED ON PSEUDO-NOISE (PN)

SEQUENCES
A coded sequence of 1s and 0s with specific autocorrelation properties is known
as a pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
Both the transmitter and receiver are informed of the PN sequence, which is a
deterministic, periodic signal. The signal appears to have the statistical
properties of sampled white noise since the signal is deterministic. Thus to an
unauthorized listener, it appears as a random signal.
Randomness properties
The important qualities of a truly random binary sequence are present in PN
sequences. A random binary sequence is one in which the existence of either a
1 or a 0 is equally likely. As a test for the appearance of randomness, any periodic
binary sequence can be given three fundamental qualities. They are as follows:
1) Balance Property:
The number of 1s in each period of the sequence is always one more than the
number of 0s. This property is termed as 'the balance property'.
2) Run Property:
One-half of the runs of 1s and 0s in each period of the sequence is of length one,
one-fourth of the runs of length two, one-eighth of the runs of length three, and
so on. The Run property is what it's called. A run is a sequence of binary digits of

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a single type. A new run starts when the alternate digit occurs in a sequence.
The number of digits in the run determines its length.
3) Correlation Property
A sequence's autocorrelation function is binary-valued and periodic. This
property is termed as 'the correlation property.'
Pseudo Noise (PN) sequence generator
In spread spectrum communications, the class of sequences utilized is
frequently periodic, indicating that a series of 1s and 0s repeats itself perfectly
with a defined time. A frequently used periodic PN sequence is represented by
the maximum length sequence, a sort of cyclic coding.
Shift register circuits having feedback from one or more stages may readily
construct maximum length sequences, often known as PN sequences. Figure 1
shows a PN sequence generator with a three-stage shift register.

Figure 1: PN Sequence or Maximum Length Sequence Generator

T Three flip-flops are controlled by a single timing clock in the 3-stage shift
register. Each flipflop's state is moved to the next one with every clock pulse.
Modulo-2 addition of the outputs of flip-flops x2 and x3 yields the feedback
function. The input of the first flip-flop, x1, receives the feedback term. By noting
the contents of flipflop x3 at each clock pulse, the maximum length sequence
output is determined. The resulting maximum-length sequence is always
periodic, with a period of:
N = 2m-1 ----------------------- (1)
where m represents the length of the shift register. Here, m = 3 and so N = 23-1
= 7.
If we assume that the shift register contents are initially 111 for the PN sequence
generator shown in Figure 2, the contents will vary with each clocking pulse as
given in Table 1.

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Table 1 operation of the PN sequence generator

Shift register contents
Shifts x’1 = X2 Ꚛ X3 X1 X2 X3
0 1 1 1
1 1Ꚛ1=0 0 1 1
2 1Ꚛ1=0 0 0 1
3 0Ꚛ1=1 1 0 0
4 0Ꚛ0=0 0 1 0
5 1Ꚛ0=1 1 0 1
6 0Ꚛ1=1 1 1 0
7 1Ꚛ0=1 1 1 1

As a result, the output PN sequence for one period is 1 1 1 0 0 1 0, with a length

of 7. The sequence will be repeated after that.
Key Points to Consider
• The PN sequence has a length of N = 2m-1, where m is the number of shift
register stages.
• Every 'N' clock cycles, the PN sequence repeats itself.
• The PN sequence is an NRZ type pulse signal, as shown in Figure 2, with logic
1 represented by + 1 and logic 0 represented by -1.

Figure 2: PN Sequence Waveform

• The chip duration Tc is the time it takes for each bit to complete. The number
of bits (chips) per second is specified as the chip rate Rc.
Tc = 1/𝑅𝑐 (or) Rc = 1/𝑇𝑐 --------------------- (5.2)
• Tb, the period of the PN sequence can be determined as:
Tb = NTc
• The autocorrelation function R(τ) is a two-valued periodic function of time.

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Figure 3: Autocorrelation Function of a PN Sequence

Demerits of spread spectrum system
When a transmitter employs a spreading code, the result is a wideband
broadcast signal that seems noise to a receiver who is unaware of the spreading
code. Naturally, this technology gives better interference protection. However,
there are certain drawbacks to this strategy.
They are:
• Larger transmission bandwidth
• System Complexity
• Large processing time
As a result, spread spectrum systems are only used for situations where
transmission security is essential.

CORRELATION PROPERTIES OF RANDOM CDMA SPREADING

SEQUENCES
All technical modulation and demodulation strive for greater power and/or
efficiency of bandwidth in a white Gaussian additive stationary noise channel.
Since bandwidth is a limited resource, one of the primary design goals of all the
modulation schemes is to minimize the bandwidth required for transmission. On
the other hand, spread spectrum techniques use a transmission bandwidth that
is order of the magnitude greater than the bandwidth required the minimum
signal.
The advantage of spread spectrum technique is that — many users can
simultaneously use the same bandwidth without interfering with each other.
Therefore, spread spectrum is not economic when the number of users is less.
 Spread spectrum is a form of wireless communications in which the
frequency of the transmitted signal is deliberately varied resulting
higher bandwidth.
 Spread-spectrum is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-
capacity theorem −
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C = B × log2 (1 + S/N)
 In the given equation, `C’ is the channel capacity in bits per second
(bps), which is the maximum data rate for a theoretical bit-error
rate (BER). ‘B’ is the required channel bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is
the signal-to-noise power ratio.
 Spread spectrum uses wideband, noise-like signals that are hard to
detect, intercept, or demodulate. Additionally, spread-spectrum
signals are harder to jam (interfere with) than narrow band signals.
 Since spread-spectrum signals are so wide, they transmit at a much
lower spectral power density, measured in watts per hertz, than
narrow band transmitters. Spread-spectrum and narrowband
signals can occupy the same band, with little or no interference. This
capability is the main attraction for all the interest in spread
spectrum today.
Points to Remember −
 The transmitted signal bandwidth is greater than the minimal
information bandwidth, which is needed to transmit the signal
successfully.
 Some function other than the information itself is normally
employed to determine the resultant transmitted bandwidth.
Following are the two types of spread spectrum techniques −
 Direct Sequence and
 Frequency Hopping.
Direct Sequence is adopted by CDMA.

Direct Sequence (DS)

Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) is a technique to

multiplex users by different codes. In this technique, the same bandwidth is used
by different users. Each user is assigned with one its own spreading code. These
sets of codes are divided into two classes −
 Orthogonal Codes and
 Non-Orthogonal Codes
Walsh sequences come into the first category which is Orthogonal Codes
whereas other sequences i.e. PN, Gold, and Kasami are shift register sequences.

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Orthogonal codes are assigned to the users, the output of the correlator in the
receiver will be zero except the desired sequence. In synchronous direct
sequence, the receiver receives the same code sequence which was transmitted
so that there is no time shift between the users.
Demodulating DS Signals - 1
In order to demodulate DS signals, you need to know the code that was used at
the time of transmission. In this example, by multiplying the code used in the
transmission to the reception signal, we can get the transmitted signal.
In this example, multiple codes were used at the time of transmission
(10,110,100) to the received signal. Here, we have calculated by using the law
of two additives (Modulo 2 Addition). It is further demodulated by multiplying
the code that was used at the time of this transmission, called the reverse
diffusion (de-spreading). In the diagram given below, it can be seen that during
the transmission of the data to the narrow band (Narrow Band) spectrum, the
spectrum of the signal is dispread.

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Demodulating DS Signals − 2
On the other hand, if you do not know the code that was used at the time of
transmission, you will not be able to demodulate. Here, you are trying to
demodulation in the code of different (10101010) and the time of transmission,
but it has failed.
Even looking at the spectrum, it is spreading during the time of transmission.
When it is passed through a band-pass filter (Band Path Filter), only this small
signal remains and these are not demodulated.

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Features of Spread Spectrum

As shown in the following figure, the power density of Spread Spectrum signals
could be lower than the noise density. This is a wonderful feature that can keep
the signals protected and maintain privacy.

By spreading the spectrum of the transmitted signal, one can reduce its power
density such that it becomes less than the power density of the noise. In this
way, it is possible to hide the signal in the noise. It can be demodulated if you
know the code that was used to send the signal. In case the code is not known,
then the received signal will remain hidden in the noise even after the
demodulation.
DS-CDMA
DS code is used in CDMA. So far, it has been explained basic part of the spread
spectrum communication. From here, we will explain how Direct Sequence Code
Division Multiple Access (DS-CDMA) works.
The signal which is spread spectrum, can be demodulated only by a code used
for transmission. By using this, the transmission signal of each user can be
identified by the separate code when it receives the signal. In the given example,
the spread signal of the user A at the code A, and diffused signal of user B at
code B. Each of the signal when it receives are mixed. However, by the inverse
diffuser (Despreadder), it identifies the signal of each user.

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DS-CDMA System - Forward Link

DS-CDMA System - Reverse Link

Spreading Code
Cross-Correlation
Correlation is a method of measurement of how precisely a given signal matches
with a desired code. In CDMA technology, each user is assigned with a different
code, the code which is being assigned or chosen by the user is very important
to modulate the signal because it is related to the performance of the CDMA
system.

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One will get best performance when there will be clear separation between the
signal of desired users and signals of the other users. This separation is made by
correlating the desired signal code which was locally generated and other
received signals. If the signal matches with the code of the user, then the
correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the
user's desired code has nothing in common with the signal, the correlation
should be as close to zero as possible (thus eliminating the signal); also known
as cross correlation. So, there is a self-correlation (Self-Correlation) and cross-
correlation (Cross-Correlation).
Properties of self-correlation and code are shown in the diagram given below
where correlation between spreading code ‘A’ and spreading code ‘B’ is shown.
In this example, the calculated correlation of spreading code ‘A
(1010110001101001) and spreading code ‘B’ (1010100111001001) is given,
while performing calculations in below example, the result has come to 6/16.

Preferable Codes
Preferable code is used in CDMA. There are different codes that can be used
depending on the type of a system of CDMA. There are two types of system −
 Synchronous (Synchronous) System and
 Asynchronous (Asynchronous) System.
In a synchronous system, orthogonal codes (Orthogonal Code) can be used. In
asynchronous system for this, such as pseudo-random code (Pseudo-random
Noise) or Gold code is used.
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In order to minimize mutual interference in DS-CDMA, the spreading codes with

less cross-correlation should be chosen.
Synchronous DS-CDMA
 Orthogonal Codes are appropriate. (Walsh code etc.)
Asynchronous DS-CDMA
 Pseudo-random Noise (PN) codes/Maximum sequence
 Gold Codes
Synchronous DS-CDMA
Synchronous CDMA Systems are realized in Point to Multi-point Systems. For
example, Forward Link (Base Station to Mobile Station) in Mobile Phone.

Synchronization system is used in one-to-many (Point to Multipoint) systems.

For example, at a given time, in a mobile communication system, a single base
station (BTS) can communicate with multiple cell phones (forward
link/downlink).
In this system, a transmission signal for all the users can communicate in
synchronization. Means, "Synchronization" on this point is a sense that can be
sent to align the top of each user signal. In this system, it is possible to use
orthogonal codes and it is also possible to reduce mutual interference. And
orthogonal codes, it is the sign, such as cross-correlation i.e. 0.
Asynchronous DS-CDMA
In asynchronous CDMA system, orthogonal codes have bad cross-correlation.

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Unlike the signal from the base station, the signal from the mobile station to the
base station, becomes the asynchronous system.
In an asynchronous system, somewhat mutual interference increases, but it uses
the other codes such as PN code or Gold code.

Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Since the signal is spread over a wide frequency band, the power spectral
density becomes very low, so other communication systems do not suffer from
this kind of communication. However, the Gaussian noise increases. Given
below is a list of a few major advantages of Spread Spectrum −
 Multipath can be agreed with, as a large number of codes can be
generated, allowing a large number of users.
 In spread spectrum, there is no limit of users whereas there is
limitations of users in FDMA technology.
 Security − without knowing the spreading code, it is hardly possible
to recover the transmitted data.
 Descending rejection − as large bandwidth is used the system; it is
less susceptible to deformation.

PN Sequence

The DS-CDMA system uses two types of spreading sequences, i.e., PN

sequences and orthogonal codes. As mentioned above, the PN sequenc is
generated by the pseudo-random noise generator. It is simply a binary linear
feedback shift register, consisting of XOR gates and a shift register. This PN
generator has the ability to create a sequence identical for both the transmitter
and the receiver, and retaining the desirable properties of the noise
randomness bit sequence.

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A PN sequence has many features such as having an almost equal number of

zeros and ones, very low correlation between shifted versions of the sequence,
and very low cross-correlation with other signals such as interference and noise.
However, it is able to correlate well with itself and its inverse. Another important
aspect is the autocorrelation of the sequence as it determines the ability to
synchronize and lock the spreading code for the received signal. This fight
effectively effects the multiple interference and improves the SNR. M-
sequences, Gold codes, and Kasami sequences are the examples of this class of
sequences.
 A Pseudo-random Noise (PN) sequence is a sequence of binary
numbers, e.g. ±1, which appears to be random; but it is in fact,
perfectly deterministic.
 PN sequences are used for two types of PN spread spectrum
techniques −
o Direct Signal Spread Spectrum (DS-SS) and
o Frequency Hop spread Spectrum (FH-SS).
 If ‘u’ uses PSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in DS-SS.
 If ‘u’ uses FSK for modulating the PN sequence, it results in FH-SS.

Frequency Hopping Technology

Frequency hopping is a spread spectrum in which the propagation takes place

by hopping in frequency over a wide band. The precise order in which the break
occurs is determined by a hopping table generated by using a pseudo-random
code sequence.
Hopping rate is a function of the speed information. The order of frequencies is
selected by the receiver and is dictated by the pseudo-random noise sequence.
Although the transmission of a frequency hopping signal spectrum is quite
different from that of a direct sequence signal, it suffices to note that the data
is distributed over a signal band is larger than necessary to carry. In both the
cases, the resulting signal will appear as noise and the receiver uses a similar
technique, which is used in the transmission to recover the original signal.

MULTI-USERCDMA
One important property of the air interface of a cellullar telephone system is the
multiple access method. Each user of the cellular system is given a channel, and
all users get different channels. The way in which these channels are different is
determined by the multiple access method. Traditionally in a radio
communication system, each channel occupies its own frequency. This is for
instance the case in FM radio broadcasting: different stations have different
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frequencies. By tuning the radio receiver to a specific frequency, the listener can
choose which station he or she wants to listen to. This multiple access scheme
is called Frequency Division Multiple Access or FDMA. The analog cellular
systems, e.g. NMT, use FDMA.

The pan-european cellular system GSM uses Time Division Multiple Access or
TDMA as its main multiple access method. In TDMA, the channels are separated
by use of time slots. Many users occupy the same frequency, but not at the same
time. The mobile telephones take turn to transmit. Typically, each time slot is a
few microseconds long. TDMA is also used in the Northamerican cellular
standard IS-54 and in the japanese system PDC.

In a cellular system employing Direct Sequence Code Division Multiple Access

(DS-CDMA), all users use the same frequency at the same time. Before
transmission, the signal from each user is multiplied by a distinct signature
waveform. The signature waveform is a signal which has a much larger
bandwidth than the information bearing signal from the user. The CDMA system
is thus a spread spectrum technique. All users use different signatures
waveforms to expand their signal bandwidth. The procedure is depicted below
for a two-user case. Notice the phase shifts in the transmitted signal due to the
negative pulses in the data stream.

The conventional receiver

At the base station, the sum of all the broadband signals is received. To
demodulate a signals from a specific user, the received signal is correlated with
the signature waveform of that user. The procedure is illustrated by correlating
the sum of the two signals above with the respective signature waveforms:

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Under ideal conditions, the correlation between different signature waveforms

is zero. In that case, the output of the correlator will be the transmitted signal
of the desired user, as depicted above.

This correlation receiver is known as the conventional receiver.

Disadvantages with the conventional receiver

The conventional receiver has some serious drawbacks. The underlying
assumption is that the signals from different users are uncorrelated. In this case
the conventional receiver is optimum. In practise the signals from different users
will be correlated, which means the conventional receiver will be suboptimum.
Still the conventional receiver will still work rather well under these two
conditions:
 The correlation between the signature sequences is small
 The signals from different users are received with approximately the same
power.
The first condition can be fulfilled by careful design of the code sequences that
determine the signature waveforms. The second condition can be fulfilled by
accurate power control. The base station measures the received power of all the
transmitting mobiles. By sending power control commands to all the mobiles,
telling them to increase or decrease their transmit power, the received power
levels of all the users can be kept at approximately the same level. Without

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power control, the received power levels may differ by 60 dB or more! If the
power of the received signals differ significantly, we say we suffer from the near-
far problem.

Code sequence design also has problems. It turns out that the correlation
between the signals from different users is critically dependent on the relative
delays of the signals from different users. It is possible to design codes that are
orthogonal, i.e. have zero cross correlation if the signals arrive at the base
station synchronously. It is however impossible to design code sequences (with
finite length) that have very low cross correlation for all relative delays.

A multiuser detection problem

Due to the problems with the conventional receiver mentioned above, a
different type of detector has been derived. These detectors, which do not treat
other users as noise, but as digital signals are called multiuser detectors.

Different types of multiuser detectors

 Most multiuser detctors are used in conjunction with the conventional
receiver. This means that the received signal is first correlated with each
of the signature waveforms. The output from this bank of correlators is
treated as a vector. The multiuser receiver then performs some linear or
non-linear transformation on this vector.
 Several multiuser detectors of this kind has been proposed. Usually, some
parameters need not be known, whereas others must be estimated.
Unfortunately, some of the necessary parameter estimation may be
difficult in a situation where there is a near-far problem. This is true in
particular for estimation of the propagation delay, which is necessary for
most of the multiuser detectors in this category.
 Other multiuser detectors do not operate on the output from the bank of
correlators. Instead the demodulated wideband signal is sampled at a
high rate and fed into an adaptive discrete time filter. The coefficients of
the filter are adjusted so that the output of the filter resembles some
known training sequence, which is transmitted before transmission of the
actual message. These coefficients are then used during the remainder of
the transmission.

Amazingly enough, these detectors need no side information except the training
sequence! Still, they have some problems. The use of these detectors place
severe restrictions on the choice of spreading codes. Also the detectors may not
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be able to adapt to changing transmission conditions due to fading. Fading and

ways to combat it is discussed in detail in the section Research on parameter
tracking and adaptive filtering.

A multivariable decision feedback equalizer operating on the correlator outputs

As an example of a multiuser detector that operates on the output from the
bank of correlators, we have studied a multivariable decision feedback equalizer
(DFE). Decision feedback equalizers were first derived in the 1960's. They were
then used to mitigate intersymbol interference, which was a major problem for
construction of high speed telephone line modems.

For application as a multiuser detector in an asynchronous DS-CDMA system,

the DFE has to be extended to have multiple inputs as well as multiple outputs.
For this purpose, we use the vector of sampled correlator outputs as the output
of a discrete time multivariable channel model. We also collect the transmitted
symbols of all users at a certain time instant in a vector. The situation is depicted
in the figure below:

Note that both input and output of the filter are vectors.

By using the information about the transmission and reception in a DS-CDMA

system, it is possible to relate the output to the input. This relation will be a
discrete time multivariable FIR-filter with the number of inputs and the number
of outputs equal to the number of users. The resulting FIR filter have three taps,
where each tap is a matrix:

Here, A is a matrix which contains phase shifts and gains of the transmission
channel, whereas R(-1), R(0) and R(1) are functions of the mutual
crosscorrelations of the signature sequences, as well as of the relative
transmission delays among the users.

The vector y(t) is used as input to the multivariable DFE shown below:

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The vector of correlator outputs are used as input to the feedforward filter,
which suppresses most of the intersymbol interference and cross-couplings in
the channel. From the outputs of the feedforward filter, the outputs from
the feedback filter remove the impact of symbols that have been previously
detected.

We tried the multivariable DFE in a CDMA scenario with two users. The received
powers of the two users differed by 20 dB, and the codes used were Gold codes,
which is a common choice in CDMA systems. We varied the signal to noise ratio
between 5 and 20 dB, and counted the number of errors in the symbol decisions.
The performance of the multivariable DFE was compared to the performance of
the coventional receiver, and also to the performance of the decorrelating
detector, a linear multiuser detector.

The performance of the DFE is superior to the performance of the conventional

detector. This is natural, since the performance of the conventional detector is
limited by the interference from the other user. This is in contrast to both the
DFE and the decorrelating detector, which strangely enough have the same
performance. It should be noted however that the decorrelating detector can
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not be impelented without modifiction in a real system, since it is a block

detector. In a block detector, an entire sequence is received and demodulated
simultaneously. It is then implicitely assumed that the transmission begins and
ends at specified instances, which are not separated too far apart. This will not
be the situation in a real system: in a CDMA system, transmission takes place
continuously. The performance of a practical implementation of the
decorrelating detector is then overbounded by the performance indicated in the
graph. Also, the decorrelating detector has been shown to perform very badly
in a situation were the propagation delay has been estimated inaccurately.
Thirdly, the complexity of the DFE is lower than the complexity of the
decorrelating detector.

A multiuser detector operating directly on the wideband signal

As previously stated, multiuser detector operating on the output of the

correlator bank rely on accurate estimation of among other things the
propagation delay. To circumvent the problem of propagation delay estimation,
we have also devised a multiuser detector operating directly on the wideband
signal. But we do not want to have the disadvantages associated with such a
detector: lack of flexibility in the code selection part and inability to cope with
fast fading. A multiuser detector for application in mobile radio must be able to
adapt to rapid changes in transmission conditions. A multiuser detector fulfilling
these conditions would be an ideal candidate for practical implementation.

Such a detector can in fact be devised. By rewriting the system for transmission
and reception in a CDMA system, it becomes clear that we are dealing with a
simple equalization problem rather than a complex detection problem. There
are only two differences from the equalization problems considered since the
1960's:

 the channel has several inputs, one for each user and
 the output of the channel must be sampled much more rapidly than
once per symbol.

The situation we have to consider is depicted below.

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These equivalent channels are discrete time FIR filters. The coefficients of these
filters will depend on two things

 the codes that are used and

 the physical channel.

The former is known at the receiver, whilst the latter must be estimated using a
training sequence. This estimation problem is relatively simple and does not
suffer from the near-far problem. Also, the parameter tracking can use the a
priori information about the parameter variations mentioned in the section

Based on knowledge of the channels, a number of different detectors can be

designed. All of them have counterparts among equalizers used to combat
intersymbol interference. Examples of such detectors are

 fractionally spaced linear equalizers,

 fractionally spaced decision feedback equalizers (DFE:s) and
 detectors based on the Viterbi algorithm.

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As an example of such a detector, we have studied a fractionally spaced decision

feedback equalizer. We have performed simulations to investigate its
performace in a realistic scenario. In this case, we have studied its performance
for an asynchronous DS-CDMA system with five users. The received signal differ
by 0, 10, 20 or 30 dB. The physical channels have four taps, and random
codes are used. This means that over time, different codes are used to spread
different symbols and that in a given symbol period the correlation between
different signature waveforms may be high. We compare the performance of
the DFE to the performance of a single-user under the same conditions.

The results in the graph indicate that the performance of the system is
satisfactory, despite the heavy load and the severe near-far situation. The
difference between the DFE and the single user case is rather large, but the
system in which the DFE operates is very heavily loaded.

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