Ndolo and Çavdar 

Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Journal of Electrical Systems
https://doi.org/10.1186/s43067-021-00028-9
and Information Technology

REVIEW Open Access

Current state of communication systems

based on electrical power transmission lines
Antony Ndolo1,2* and İsmail Hakkı Çavdar1

*Correspondence:
[email protected] Abstract
1
Department of Electrical Power line communication technology is a retrofit alternative technology for last mile
and Electronics Engineering,
Karadeniz Technical information technology. Despite several challenges, such as inadequate standards and
University, Trabzon, Turkey electromagnetic compatibility, it is maturing. In this review, we have analysed these
Full list of author information obstacles and its current application status.
is available at the end of the
article Keywords: Electrical power lines, Power line communication (PLC), Power line
networks, Noise, Channels, Modulation

Introduction
Indeed, advancements in communication engineering and technology have brought in
revolution in the telecommunication industry. One great impact has been in informa-
tion and service delivery during the last decades of the twentieth century to date. This is
due to the high demand for information created by the huge human population. Better
methods and channel models for signal transmission have been researched and devel-
oped. For instance, fibre optics has provided waveguide for numerous services at higher
speed while inheriting other advantages such immunity to electromagnetic interferences
amongst others [1, 2]. Despite all the positive attractions towards fibre communication,
it is expensive to install and it is limited to certain areas. That is, remote, rural and
mountainous areas. This has necessitated the search for alternative information trans-
mission methods. Power line communication (PLC) is one such alternative.
Power line communication technology is the basically a technology that uses pre-
existing and installed electrical power cables for transmission of information [3–6].
Traditionally, such electrical lines were designed exclusively for distribution and trans-
mission of electricity at lower frequency. This frequency varies from country to country,
mainly, 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Upon generation of electricity, it is distributed and transmitted
through different voltage network. Firstly, electricity is transmitted over high voltage
lines, then distribution is done over medium voltage lines, and lastly, it is converted/
scaled down using transformers for the end-user consumption in the low-voltage lines.
Figure 1 gives summary of PLC structure. This technology is therefore retrofit and eco-
nomically cheaper compared to other methods. There is no need for new cable installa-
tions. Secondly, electrical power network is the most developed, covers large areas and

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Ndolo and Çavdar Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Page 2 of 10

Fig. 1 Structure of power line communication network

reaches many homesteads. At distribution lines, they are majorly used for the control
signals, remote data acquisition and IP telephony services [7].
Power line communication is divided into three categories, namely ultra-narrowband,
narrowband and broadband as summarised in Table 1. The first two are commonly
grouped together and termed as narrowband PLC. We will characterise these categories
in the next section in details.

Classification of power line communication

The initial idea to use electrical power line for communication purposes was first
put foward in the early 1900s. Schwartz in [8] gives comprehensive history regard-
ing the technology. In the paper, PLC evolution in upto the early 2000s is also
reviewed. According to [9], we have three categories of PLC as mentioned in the previ-
ous section. They are classified based on frequency band of operation and application
areas. In Table 1, we give a brief summary of each class. Each category varies in appli-
cation areas. For instance, ultra-narrowband PLC has been applied in automatic metre
reading technology, while the second type has found its application in advance metre
reading [10], electric vehicles [11], smart grid [9, 12] and street lighting [13, 14].
Broadband PLC has penetrated to high-speed internet access and home area network
applications including audio, HDTV, online gaming and others in [17, 18].
Ndolo and Çavdar Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Page 3 of 10

PLC regulation standards

For universal functionality, there is need for proper standards to regulate communica-
tion quality and as well as to cater for minimal, if not zero, interference to human health.
In telecommunication, such standards aid in designing an optimal communication sys-
tem. The parameters that require governing and continuous check include signal-to-
noise ratio (SNR) and bit-error-rate (BER). There has been an ever-rising interest in PLC
technology in the last two decades. Therefore, researchers and non-governmental bodies
have come up with set of rules and requirements to improve optimality and interoper-
ability. This is of course to make electrical power lines more compatible and secure for
transmission of different varieties of signals.
Internationally, the following organisations are responsible for setting and gov-
erning standards in the telecommunication industry; International Telecommuni-
cation Union (ITU), European Committee for Electro-technical Standardisation
(CENELEC), International Electro-technical Commission (IEC), Institute of Electri-
cal and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) and lastly, Federal Communication Commission’s (FCC). All these organisa-
tions have set standards for both broadband and narrowband PLC. Nonetheless,
ITU favours the latter to be implemented within 3–490 kHz frequency for low speed
transmission as mentioned in Table 1.
In order to work efficiently, CENELEC has several internal groups performing
specific tasks. For instance, EN50065-1 is focussed on general requirements, fre-
quency bands and electromagnetic disturbances for signalling on low-voltage elec-
trical lines. EN50065-1 has subgroups which deal mainly with narrowband PLC,
whereas EN55022 standard works on high-speed PLC in the spectrum of frequency
between 150 to 500 kHz. While IEEE 1901.1 standard focuses on access communica-
tion systems as patented by IEEE. IEEE 1901.1 is designed for control transmissions
of frequencies less than 15 MHz in smart grid applications [3, 16] and [references
therein].
These standards also specify signal coding and modulation techniques. IEEE
1901.2 is a revised version of the first one that advocates for use of Reed Solomon
(RS) and convolutional codes (CC). The latter is also compatible with Internet Pro-
tocol version 6 (IPv6) [18]. ITU and

Table 1 Categories of PLC technology

Type of PLC Features Related works

Ultra-narrowband Frequency: 0.3–3 kHz [8, 15]

Designed for single way communication links
Data rate: Approx. 100 bps
Narrowband Frequency: 3–500 kHz (Europe) [15–17]
10–490 kHz (USA)
Designed for in-door communication links
Data rate: Approx. up to 100 kbps
Broadband Frequency: 1.8–250 MHz [3, 6, 15–17]
Designed for in-home links
Data rate: Approx. up to 200 Mbps
Ndolo and Çavdar Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Page 4 of 10

Table 2 Regulator standards for narrowband PLC and relevant modulation methods
Standards Modulation method Related works

IEEE P1901.1 OFDM [19, 20]

IEEE P1901 OFDM [19, 21]
IEEE P1901.2 PSK & QAM (subclasses) [19, 22, 23]
ITU-T G.9904 OFDM [19, 24, 25]
ITU-T G.9903 OFDM [19, 25, 26]
IEC61334 S-FSK [19, 27–30]
G3-PLC OFDM [19, 31, 32]
ISO/IEC 14,908–1 BPSK [19, 28, 33, 34]
PRIME OFDM [19, 31, 35]
ANSI/IEA 790.1,2 BPSK [19, 36]
MAX2990 OFDM [19, 37, 38]
STM7580 BPSK [19]

Table 3 Regulator standards for broadband PLC and relevant modulation methods
Standards Modulation method Related works

KNX S-FSK [18, 19]

HomePlug 1.0 D4PSK [19, 39]
HomePlug AV BPSK, 4PSK, QAM & subclasses [19, 40]

IEC have also contributed widely in developing some of these standards for nar-
rowband PLC. Tables 2 and 3 provide summary lists of regulatory standards with
regard to electrical power line communication technology and respective modula-
tion techniques.

Challenges facing PLC network

Electrical power supply networks do offer an economical opportunity to realise info-
communication network at no extra cost of laying new communication cable lines.
They also cover large areas thus increasing the size of communication network.
However, electrical lines are by design not meant for communication purposes. Such
lines have unconducive features for transmission of signals. At the same time, power
cables are the most asymmetrical network with many irregular connections extending
between end-users and communication backbone lines [17, 41]. Continuous connection
or disconnection of electrical appliances, such as, all switching changes, may change the
topology [41].Each load switched and connected to the network operate at varying fre-
quencies thereby injecting noises and imbalance impendance. Noise is discussed in the
next section.
Güzelgöz et al. in [42] have comprehensively compared wireless and PLC transmis-
sion channel. From their comparison, it is evident that PLC is characterised by multipath
propagation. These paths are caused by the presence of reflection points with different
characteristic impedances. In [43], other factors that affect signal transmission such as
frequency- selectivity of PLC channel, mismatched connections and branches have been
reported.
Ndolo and Çavdar Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Page 5 of 10

Attenuation which increases with frequency is another factor that hinders full exploi-
tation of PL for communication use. Attenuation in this case depends on the length of
branches, the material of the line and varying characteristic impedance too [44], and
[references herein].
Electromagnetic compatibility is another challenge. From Maxwell’s equation and elec-
tromagnetic theories [45, 46], and [references herein] electrical power lines, by exten-
sion PLC, act as antenna that excite electromagnetic waves. Therefore, use of frequency
spectrum ranging to 30 MHz which is reserved for radio communication may be inter-
fered with by power line communication networks. As discussed under standards, there
regulations have been set to minimise PLC electromagnetic interference on other ser-
vices. Additionally, electromagnetic compatibility restrictions limit transmission power
which in turn leads to low SNR at the receiver. Works on the latter are also ongoing.
The other major factor that degrades signal transmission in PL channels is non-Gauss-
ian noise. This noise will be discussed in a section below. Before that, we describe PLC
channel briefly.

PL transmission channel
In both [42] and [43], and [references herein] have compared power line communica-
tion channel as a multipath transmission medium. This is because of numerous reflec-
tion points, discrete and mismatched electrical loads in the PLC network. The channel
load is either varying periodically or aperiodically due to connection or disconnection of
electrical loads at varying times.
Understanding the channels behaviour is very vital in designing communication sys-
tems. Therefore, engineers and researchers apply channel models in order to characterise
PLC transmission channel. Generally, there are two models: bottom-up and up-bottom
approaches [43] and [references herein]. These approaches are iterative. Their approach
includes both measurements and CAD simulations. Both approaches are either applied
in time or frequency domain. The bottom-up model approach involves the use of mathe-
matical model to define electrical power line channel. Model’s parameters are calculated
followed by simulation. To validate simulation results, measurements must be carried.
The difference is that, the second approach starts with measurements. Thus, there is
need for comprehensive information of the network and its physical topology. It also
requires knowledge on impedances and features of cables. Up-bottom approach is prac-
tical and realistic. It is therefore the frequently used model by communication engineers.
Mathematical models for both approaches are available in [19] and [references herein]
for the reader to explore.
Berger et al. in [5] introduce the concept of MIMO PLC model. This is another tech-
nique that can be used to study the channel’s feature in order to improve PL communica-
tion system’s performance. Intensive studies of various models are focussed on possible
exploitation of adaptive filters and scheduling, development of efficient PLC code, wid-
ening the bandwidth amongst others. Other models of study are mentioned in [47].
Ndolo and Çavdar Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Page 6 of 10

Noise in PL communication system

This noise can be defined based on its magnitude, origin and its representation main in
time domain. Electrical power networks are heavy loaded in the so-called “last mile” and
in-door areas. At these points, electrical appliances are the main source of noise in PL
systems.
Noise in PL communication systems is non-Gaussian as opposed to traditional data
communication channels which can be expressed in terms of additive white Gaussian
noise [48, 49], and [references therein]. Several researches have grouped noise in PLC as
background noise and impulsive noises. Background noise is subdivided into coloured
background and narrowband noises, while impulsive noise, namely periodic asynchro-
nous impulsive noise to the main lines frequency, periodic impulsive noise synchronous
to the main lines frequency and aperiodic impulsive noise. The sources and forms of
these noises have been widely studied and documented in [19] and [references therein].
Figures 2 and 3 show PLC system and noise in the channel.

Modulation techniques for PLC systems

Impulsive noise has great negative effect on transmitted signal. Therefore, in order to
combat its effect multicarrier modulation techniques such as OFDM have superiority
over single-carrier types.
Hrasnica et al. in [17] and Guzelgoz et al. in [42] have detailed explanations how
other modulation used in wireless communication can be applied in PL communi-
cation system. Such modulation techniques include frequency hopping of spread
spectrum family and random packet modulations. All these modulation techniques
advocate for interleaving that spreads bit and symbol errors [50], and [references
herein]. There is need though to keep guard with regard to intercarrier interferences.
Coding techniques such as turbo codes [51] and Solomon Reeds amongst others are
also used to improve channel capacity. In [19], a brief and clear explanation on modu-
lation and coding techniques has been presented. In Tables 2 and 3, recommended
modulation techniques used in PLC are presented. In Table 4, we tabulate history of
OFDM which has shown resistance to the effects of impulsive noise.

Fig. 2 PL Communication system

Ndolo and Çavdar Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Page 7 of 10

Fig. 3 PL Communication noise

Table 4 History of OFDM

Year Description Related works

1966 Proposal of the first OFDM. This was for fading communication channels [52–54]
1967 Multicarrier systems [53–55]
1970 OFDM is patented [53, 54, 56]
1971 First application of DFT in OFDM [53, 54, 57]
1980 OFDM is applied in telephone networks [53, 54, 58]
1985 OFDM studies in mobile communication [53, 54, 59]
1987 Used in digital broadcasting [53, 54, 60]
1991 & 1994 Report and standard for ADSL and HDSL [53, 54, 61–63]
1995 First standard for OFDM-based digital broadcasting system [53, 54, 64]
1996 WLAN standard [53, 54, 65]
1997 DVB-T standard [53, 54]
1998 VDSL and BRAN standard [53, 54]
1999 & 2000 IEEE 802.11a & 802.11g WLAN standard [53, 54]
2003 Wavelet-OFDM for high-speed PLC [53, 54]
2004 IEEE 802.16 WMAN, 802.11n next generation WLAN and 802.15.3a MB-OFDM [53, 54]
2010 Performance comparison between wavelet-OFDM & filtered-OFDM [53, 54]

Conclusion
As human population continues to increase, the thirst and demand for data informa-
tion and education will always be on the rise. The emergence of COVID19 has also
put pressure on the existing communication systems as many organisations shift to
"work from home". This calls for alternative signal transmission technology. Electrical
power lines for communication have proven to be this option. With roughly 80% of
the world population connected to the electric grid, this technology ready infrastruc-
ture to connect millions to info-communication network for business, education and
other purposes. Thus, geographical communication coverage is increased. Despite
Ndolo and Çavdar Journal of Electrical Systems and Inf Technol (2021) 8:9 Page 8 of 10

the tremendous work done in both research industries and universities, there is
need for more to be done to improve this technology.
In order for PLC to reach optimal maturity and mass implementation, the chal-
lenging obstacles discussed above must be tackled scientifically, properly and effec-
tively. Additionally, there is need for adequate research funding and implementation
of national regulation standards to comply with the international ones for uniform-
ity across the globe. The latter issues affect developing countries such as Kenya and
Türkiye.
In this paper, we have provided a detailed overview on the current state of PL Com-
munication. We have summarised classes of PLC, regulation standards, transmission
channel models, noises and tabulated modulation techniques. Although this field of
research is maturing slowly and is fairly recent, it has become a promising one for
near-future applications especially in Access Mode “Last mile” implementation. We
hope this work will motivate researchers further to advance the penetration of PLC
technology in developing countries’ remote areas where electricity access is available
but with rugged terrains.

Abbreviations
PLC: Power line communication; ITU: International Telecommunication Union; CENELEC: European Committee for
Electro-technical Standardisation; IEC: International Electro-technical Commission; IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Elec-
tronics Engineer; ISO: International Organisation for Standardisation; FCC: Federal Communication Commission; RS: Reed
Solomon; CC: Convolutional codes; IPv6: Internet Protocol version 6; CAD: Computer-aided design; MIMO: Multiple-input
and multiple-output; SNR: Signal-to-noise ratio; OFDM: Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing; BSPK: Binary phase
shift keying; QAM: Quadrature amplitude modulation; FSK: Frequency shift keying; DFT: Discrete Fourier transform; KNX:
Konnex protocol; WLAN: Wireless local area network; PL: Power line; S-FSK: Spread FSK.

Acknowledgements
Not applicable.

Authors’ contributions
The details of contributions of the authors in the present works are as follows: (a) AN contributed to the literature collec-
tion and manuscript preparation. (b) İHÇ contributed and edited the manuscript. Finally, all authors read and approved
the final manuscript.

Funding
No funding organization is involved in this work.

Availability of data and materials

The paper presents original review work not previously published in similar form and not currently under consideration
by another Journal.

Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Author details
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey. 2 Department
of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Machakos University, Machakos, Kenya.

Received: 30 December 2019 Accepted: 14 February 2021

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