Research Design:

A research design can be defined as the preparation of conditions, for the collection and
analysis of data in such a manner, which aims at combining relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure.

In other words, the design arrangement of a research project is commonly known as the
“research design”. Besides, the decisions like what, where, when, how, etc., in regard
to a research study, creates a research design. In fact, the research design is the
conceptual structure within which a research is conducted. Moreover, it comprises the
outline for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. Hence, the design carries
a blueprint of what the researcher will do, from composing the hypothesis and its
operational implications to the final analysis of data.

Overtly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:

1) What is the research?

2) Where and why will the research be conducted?

3) What data is required for the research?

4) Where can be the data found?

5) What will be the time period of the research?

6) What will be the sample design?

7) What methods will be used for data collection?

8) How will be the data analysed?

9) In which style will be the research report prepared?

Based on the above mentioned design decisions, the complete research design
may be divided into the following parts:

(a) Sample design: this deals with the technique of selecting items and thus
requires careful observation for the given research study.
 (b) Observational design: this relates to the conditions under which the
experiments are to be conducted.

(c) Statistical design: this concerns the question of how many items are to be
observed, and how are the collected data and information going to be analysed.

(d) Operational design: this deals with the methods by which the procedures
specified in the sample, observational and statistical designs can be conducted.

The essential characteristics of a research design are as the following:

(a) It is a plan, which specifies the sources and types of data relevant to the
research problem.

(b) It is a strategy, which decides the approach that will be used to collect and
analyse the data.

(c) Since most of the research studies are conducted under these two controls, it
also includes the time and cost budgets.

In short, the research design must contain the following:

(i) A clear and concise statement of the research problem,

(ii) (ii) The population to be studied, and
(iii) (iii) The various procedures, methods, and techniques to be used for
collecting and analyzing the data.

Need for Research Design:

Research design has a significant impact on the reliability of the results obtained. It thus
acts as a firm foundation for the entire research. It is needed because it facilitates the
smooth functioning of the various research operations. It makes the research as efficient
as possible by giving maximum information with minimal expenditure of effort, time
and money. For construction of a house, we need to have a proper blueprint prepared
by an expert architect. Similarly, we need a proper research design or plan prior to data
collection and analysis of our research project. Preparation of research design should be
done carefully as even a minute error might ruin the purpose of the entire project. The
design helps the researcher to organize his ideas, which helps to identify and correct his
flaws, if any. In a good research design, all the components with each other or go
together with each other in a coherent manner. The theoretical and conceptual
framework must with the research goals and purposes.

Likewise, the data collection strategy must fit with the research purposes, conceptual
and theoretical framework and approach to data analysis. The need for research design
is as follows:

It reduces inaccuracy;

Helps to get maximum efficiency and reliability;

Eliminates bias and marginal errors;

Minimizes wastage of time;

Helpful for collecting research materials;

Helpful for testing of hypothesis;

Gives an idea regarding the type of resources required in terms of money, manpower,
time, and efforts;

Provides an overview to other experts;

Guides the research in the right direction.

Features of a Good Research Design:

When a researcher has formulated a research problem, he/she has to focus on

developing a good design for solving the problem. A good design is one that minimizes
bias and maximizes the reliability of the data. It also yields maximum information, gives
minimum experimental error, and provides different aspects of a single problem. A
research design depends on the purpose and nature of the research problem.

Thus, one single design cannot be used to solve all types of research problem, i.e., a
particular design is suitable for a particular problem.

A research design usually consists of the following factors:

(i) The means of obtaining information;

(ii) The availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) The objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) The nature of the problem; and
(v) The availability of time and money for the research work.

If a research study is an exploratory or formulative one, i.e., it focuses on discovery of

ideas and insights, the research design should be flexible enough to consider different
aspects of the study. Similarly, if the study focuses on accurate description or association
between variables, the design should be accurate with minimum bias and maximum
reliability.

However, in practice, it is difficult to categorize a particular study into a particular

group. A study can be categorized only on the basis of its primary function and
accordingly, its design can be developed. Moreover, the above mentioned factors must
be given due weight age while working on the details of the research design.

Research Design: Important Concepts In order to facilitate a clear and better

understanding of the different research designs, it is initially necessary to define all the
various important concepts of research design itself.

1) Dependent and independent variables: A variable is a concept that can take on

different quantitative values. E.g., weight, height, income, etc. A dependent variable can
be defined as the variable, which depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable.
On the other hand, an independent variable can be defined as the variable that is
antecedent to the dependent variable. E.g., if height depends upon age, then height is a
dependent variable, while age is an independent variable.

2) Extraneous variable: Although, the independent variables are unrelated to the study
purpose, they might however affect the dependent variables, known as extraneous
variables. E.g., When a researcher investigates the hypothesis of the relationship
between children’s gains in moral studies achievement and their selfconcepts. The self-
concept denotes an independent variable, whereas the moral studies achievement
denotes a dependent variable. However, intelligence may also affect the moral studies
achievement, but as it is unrelated to the study purpose, it will thus be called an
extraneous variable.

3) Control: The most significant quality of a good research design is to reduce the
influence/effect of extraneous variables. Control is a technical term, which is used while
designing the study, by reducing the effects of extraneous independent variables.
Besides, in experimental studies, the term control refers to the restraining of
experimental conditions.

4) Confounded relationship: In case the dependent variable is bound by the influence of

extraneous variable, the relationship between the dependent and independent variables
is known to be confused by extraneous variables.

5) Research hypothesis: This can be defined as the prediction or a hypothesised

relationship that needs to be tested by scientific methods. Besides, it is a predictive
statement, which connects an independent variable to a dependent variable. Moreover,
a research hypothesis needs to contain, at least, one independent and one dependent
variable

6) Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: When a research

aims at investigating a research hypothesis, it is known as the hypothesistesting
research. However, it can be of the experimental or the non-experimental design. On
the other hand, a research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known
as the experimental hypothesis-testing research, while the research in which an
independent variable is not manipulated is known as the nonexperimental hypothesis-
testing research.

7) Experimental and control groups: When any group is exposed to the usual conditions
of an experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as a control group. Whereas,
when the group is exposed to some other special condition, it is known as an
experimental group.

8) Treatments: This can be defined as the different types of conditions under which the
experimental and control groups are put. E.g., In order to determine the comparative
impact of three varieties of fertilizers on a crop yield, the three different varieties of
fertilizers will be treated as three different treatments.

9) Experiment: This can be defined as the process of examining the truth of a statistical
hypothesis, relating to some research problem. E.g., An experiment conducted in order
to research the usefulness of a newly developed medicine. Moreover, experiments can
be of two types: i. Absolute experiment The determination of the impact of a fertilizer
on a crop yield is an example of absolute experiment. ii. Comparative experiment The
determination of the impact of one fertilizer, in comparison to another fertilizer, is an
example of comparative experiment.

10) Experimental units: These represent the pre-determined plots or blocks, where
different types of treatments are used. Moreover, such type of experimental units must
be selected, as well as defined, very cautiously and thoroughly.

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS:

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:

1. research design in case of exploratory research studies;

2. research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies, and

3. research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies.

Research design in case of exploratory research studies: Exploratory research studies
are also termed as formulative research studies. The main purpose of such studies is that
of formulating a problem for more precise investigation or of developing the working
hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major emphasis in such studies is on
the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research design appropriate for such
studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for considering different aspects
of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed because the
research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one with more precise
meaning in exploratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for gathering relevant data.

Generally, the following three methods in the context of research design for such studies
are talked about: the survey of concerning literature, the experience survey and the
analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples. The survey of concerning literature happens
to be the most simple and fruitful method of formulating precisely the research problem
or developing hypothesis. Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and
their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further research. It may also be considered
whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new hypothesis. In this way the
researcher should review and build upon the work already done by others, but in cases
where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to review the available
material for deriving the relevant hypotheses from it. Besides, the bibliographical
survey of studies, already made in one’s area of interest may as well as made by the
researcher for precisely formulating the problem. He should also make an attempt to
apply concepts and theories developed in different research contexts to the area in which
he is himself working. Sometimes the works of creative writers also provide a fertile
ground for hypothesis formulation and as such may be looked into by the researcher.
Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with
the problem to be studied. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relating to the research problem. For such
a survey people who are competent and can contribute new ideas may be carefully
selected as respondents to ensure a representation of different types of experience. The
respondents so selected may then be interviewed by the investigator. The researcher
must prepare an interview schedule for the systematic questioning of informants. But
the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the respondents should be allowed
to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not previously considered.
Generally, the experience collecting interview is likely to be long and may last for few
hours. Hence, it is often considered desirable to send a copy of the questions to be
discussed to the respondents well in advance. This will also give an opportunity to the
respondents for doing some advance thinking over the various issues involved so that,
at the time of interview, they may be able to contribute effectively. Thus, an experience
survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more concisely and help in the
formulation of the research hypothesis. This survey may as well provide information
about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research. Analysis of
‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting hypotheses for
research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience to serve as a
guide. This method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the
phenomenon in which one is interested.

For this purpose the existing records, if any, may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other approach may be adopted. Attitude of the
investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the researcher to draw together
diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main features which make this
method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.

Now, what sort of examples are to be selected and studied? There is no clear cut answer
to it. Experience indicates that for particular problems certain types of instances are
more appropriate than others. One can mention few examples of ‘insight-stimulating’
cases such as the reactions of strangers, the reactions of marginal individuals, the study
of individuals who are in transition from one stage to another, the reactions of
individuals from different social strata and the like. In general, cases that provide sharp
contrasts or have striking features are considered relatively more useful while adopting
this method of hypotheses formulation.

Thus, in an exploratory of formulative research study which merely leads to insights or

hypotheses, whatever method or research design outlined above is adopted, the only
thing essential is that it must continue to remain flexible so that many different facets
of a problem may be considered as and when they arise and come to the notice of the
researcher.

Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies: Descriptive

research studies are those studies which are concerned with describing the
characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic research
studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association with
something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are
examples of diagnostic research studies. As against this, studies concerned with specific
predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group or
situation are all examples of descriptive research studies. Most of the social research
comes under this category. From the point of view of the research design, the descriptive
as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we may group
together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in diagnostic
studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure and
must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of
‘population’ he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The
research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must
maximize reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research
study. The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention
on the following: o Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and
why is it being made?) o Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of
gathering data will be adopted?) o Selecting the sample (how much material will be
needed?) o Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what
time period should the data be related?) o Processing and analysing the data. o Reporting
the findings. In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step is to specify the objectives
with sufficient precision to ensure that the data collected are relevant. If this is not done
carefully, the study may not provide the desired information. Then comes the question
of selecting the methods by which the data are to be obtained. In other words, techniques
for collecting the information must be devised. Several methods (viz., observation,
questionnaires, interviewing, examination of records, etc.), with their merits and
limitations, are available for the purpose and the researcher may user one or more of
these methods which have been discussed in detail in later chapters. While designing
data-collection procedure, adequate safeguards against bias and unreliability must be
ensured. Whichever method is selected, questions must be well examined and be made
unambiguous; interviewers must be instructed not to express their own opinion;
observers must be trained so that they uniformly record a given item of behaviour. It is
always desirable to pretest the data collection instruments before they are finally used
for the study purposes. In other words, we can say that “structured instruments” are used
in such studies. In most of the descriptive/diagnostic studies the researcher takes out
sample(s) and then wishes to make statements about the population on the basis of the
sample analysis or analyses. More often than not, sample has to be designed. Different
sample designs have been discussed in detail in a separate chapter in this book. Here
we may only mention that the problem of designing samples should be tackled in such
a fashion that the samples may yield accurate information with a minimum amount of
research effort. Usually one or more forms of probability sampling, or what is often
described as random sampling, are used. To obtain data free from errors introduced by
those responsible for collecting them, it is necessary to supervise closely the staff of
field workers as they collect and record information. Checks may be set up to ensure
that the data collecting staff perform their duty honestly and without prejudice. “As data
are collected, they should be examined for completeness, comprehensibility,
consistency and reliability.” The data collected must be processed and analysed. This
includes steps like coding the interview replies, observations, etc.; tabulating the data;
and performing several statistical computations. To the extent possible, the processing
and analysing procedure should be planned in detail before actual work is started. This
will prove economical in the sense that the researcher may avoid unnecessary labour
such as preparing tables for which he later finds he has no use or on the other hand,
redoing some tables because he failed to include relevant data. Coding should be done
carefully to avoid error in coding and for this purpose the reliability of coders needs to
be checked. Similarly, the accuracy of tabulation may be checked by having a sample
of the tables re-done. In case of mechanical tabulation the material (i.e., the collected
data or information) must be entered on appropriate cards which is usually done by
punching holes corresponding to a given code. The accuracy of punching is to be
checked and ensured. Finally, statistical computations are needed and as such averages,
percentages and various coefficients must be worked out. Probability and sampling
analysis may as well be used. The appropriate statistical operations, along with the use
of appropriate tests of significance should be carried out to safeguard the drawing of
conclusions concerning the study. Last of all comes the question of reporting the
findings. This is the task of communicating the findings to others and the researcher
must do it in an efficient manner. The layout of the report needs to be well planned so
that all things relating to the research study may be well presented in simple and
effective style. Thus, the research design in case of descriptive/diagnostic studies is a
comparative design throwing light on all points narrated above and must be prepared
keeping in view the objective(s) of the study and the resources available. However, it
must ensure the minimisation of bias and maximisation of reliability of the evidence
collected. The said design can be appropriately referred to as a survey design since it
takes into account all the steps involved in a survey concerning a phenomenon to be
studied. The difference between research designs in respect of the above two types of
research studies can be conveniently summarised in tabular form as under: 3. Research
design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing research
studies (generally known as experimental studies) are those where the researcher tests
the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables. Such studies require
procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit
drawing inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement. Hence,
when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of
experiments.

The basic principles of experimental designs: The basic principles of experimental

designs are randomization, replication and local control.

These principles make a valid test of significance possible. Each of them is described
briefly in the following subsections.
(1) Randomization. The first principle of an experimental design is randomization,
which is a random process of assigning treatments to the experimental units. The
random process implies that every possible allotment of treatments has the same
probability. An experimental unit is the smallest division of the experimental material
and a treatment means an experimental condition whose effect is to be measured and
compared. The purpose of randomization is to remove bias and other sources of
extraneous variation, which are not controllable. Another advantage of randomization
(accompanied by replication) is that it forms the basis of any valid statistical test. Hence
the treatments must be assigned at random to the experimental units. Randomization is
usually done by drawing numbered cards from a well-shuffled pack of cards, or by
drawing numbered balls from a well-shaken container or by using tables of random
numbers.

(2) Replication. The second principle of an experimental design is replication; which is

a repetition of the basic experiment. In other words, it is a complete run for all the
treatments to be tested in the experiment. In all experiments, some variation is
introduced because of the fact that the experimental units such as individuals or plots
of land in agricultural experiments cannot be physically identical. This type of variation
can be removed by using a number of experimental units. We therefore perform the
experiment more than once, i.e., we repeat the basic experiment. An individual
repetition is called a replicate. The number, the shape and the size of replicates depend
upon the nature of the experimental material. A replication is used (i) to secure more
accurate estimate of the experimental error, a term which represents the differences that
would be observed if the same treatments were applied several times to the same
experimental units; (ii) to decrease the experimental error and thereby to increase
precision, which is a measure of the variability of the experimental error; and (iii) to
obtain more precise estimate of the mean effect of a treatment.

(3) Local Control. It has been observed that all extraneous sources of variation are not
removed by randomization and replication. This necessitates a refinement in the
experimental technique. In other words, we need to choose a design in such a manner
that all extraneous sources of variation are brought under control.
For this purpose, we make use of local control, a term referring to the amount of
balancing, blocking and grouping of the experimental units. Balancing means that the
treatments should he assigned to the experimental units in such a way that the result is
a balanced arrangement of the treatments. Blocking means that like experimental units
should be collected together to form a relatively homogeneous group.

A block is also a replicate. The main purpose of the principle of local control is to
increase the efficiency of an experimental design by decreasing the experimental error.
The point to remember here is that the term local control should not be confused with
the word control. The word control in experimental design is used for a treatment.
Which does not receive any treatment but we need to find out the effectiveness of other
treatments through comparison.