TYBBI Semester V

Research Methodology
Introduction to Research
Teacher In-Charge: Anubhuti Singh

What is Research: Definition

Research is a careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or
problem using scientific methods.

Kothari defines that research is an original contribution to the existing stock of

knowledge making for its development. The systematic approach concerning
generalisations and formulation of a theory is also research.

According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “Research is a

systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive

methods are used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are
associated with qualitative research and deductive methods are more
commonly associated with quantitative research.

Deduction & Induction

In logic, we often refer to the two broad methods of reasoning as
the deductive and inductive approaches.

Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific.
Sometimes this is informally called a “top-down” approach. We might begin
with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that
down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even
further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately
leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a confirmation (or
not) of our original theories.
Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to
broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a
“bottom up” approach (please note that it’s “bottom up” and not “bottoms up”
which is the kind of thing the bartender says to customers when he’s trying to
close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations
and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some
tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some
general conclusions or theories.

These two methods of reasoning have a very different “feel” to them when
you’re conducting research. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more
open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive reasoning
is more narrow in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming
hypotheses. Even though a particular study may look like it’s purely deductive
(e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of some treatment
on some outcome), most social research involves both inductive and deductive
reasoning processes at some time in the project. In fact, it doesn’t take a rocket
scientist to see that we could assemble the two graphs above into a single
circular one that continually cycles from theories down to observations and
back up again to theories. Even in the most constrained experiment, the
researchers may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new
theories.
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Characteristics of Research
1. Empirical.
Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
2. Logical.
Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Cyclical.
Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
4. Analytical.
Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether
historical, descriptive, experimental and case study.
5. Critical.
Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
6. Methodical.
Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic
method and procedures.
7. Replicability.
The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.

Qualities of a Good Researcher

1. Research-oriented
2. Efficient
3. Scientific
4. Effective
5. Active
6. Resourceful
7. Creative
8. Honest
9. Economical
Types of Research

Basic research

This research is conducted largely for the enhancement of knowledge and is

research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research is
done for human welfare, animal welfare, and plant kingdom welfare. It is called
basic, pure, fundamental research. The main motivation here is to expand
man's knowledge, not to create or invent something. According to Travers,
“Basic Research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific knowledge
and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.” It is
used to solve a problem by adding to the field of application of discipline.

Applied Research

Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world,

rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. The goal of applied
research is to improve the human condition. It focuses on analysis and solving
social and real-life problems. This research is generally conducted on a large
scale basis and is expensive. As such, it is often conducted with the support of
some financing agency like the national government, public corporation, world
bank, UNICEF, UGC, etc. According to Hunt, “applied research is an
investigation for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems”
for example:- improve agriculture crop production, treat or cure a specific
disease, improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, how can
communication among workers in large companies be improved. This type of
research can also be called Action Research.
Empirical research
Empirical research is research using empirical evidence. Empirical evidence is
the information received by means of the senses, particularly
by observation and experimentation. So it is a way of gaining knowledge by
means of direct and indirect observation or experience.
Scientific research
Scientific research is the systematic investigation of scientific theories and
hypotheses. The key thing about the scientific method is that it carries no
prejudice, meaning you don't even have to believe whatever it is the researcher
wrote or said! Using the scientific method, you can repeat the experiment to
find out for yourself whether or not the other researcher's assertions are true.
This is a key factor that separates science from dogma! Scientific researchers
try to answer the many questions we have about how the world works. Medical
and technical researches also come under this category.
Social Research
Social Research is a method used by social scientists and researchers to learn
about people and societies so that they can design products/services that cater
to various needs of the people. Different socio-economic groups belonging to
different parts of a country think differently. Various aspects of human
behaviour need to be addressed to understand their thoughts and feedback
about the social world, which can be done using Social Research. Any topic can
trigger social research – new feature, new market trend or an upgrade in old
technology.
Historical Research
Historical research studies the meaning of past events in an attempt to
interpret the facts and explain the cause of events, and their effect in the
present events. In doing so, researchers rely heavily on primary historical data
(direct accounts of events, archival data - official documents, personal records,
and records of eyewitnesses) and less frequently on secondary historical data
(information from persons who didn’t witness the event; e.g. textbooks,
newspapers, encyclopedias).
Exploratory research

Exploratory research is the process of investigating a problem that has not

been studied or thoroughly investigated in the past. Exploratory type of
research is usually conducted to have a better understanding of the existing
problem, but usually doesn't lead to a conclusive result. Researchers use
exploratory research when trying to gain familiarity with an existing
phenomenon and acquire new insight into it to form a more precise problem. It
begins based on a general idea and the outcomes of the research are used to
find out issues related with the topic of the research.

Descriptive research

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a

population, situation or phenomenon. It can
answer what, when, where, when and how questions, but not why questions. A
descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to
investigate one or more variables. Unlike in experimental research, the
researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only
observes and measures them.

Causal research
Causal research can be defined as a research method that is used to determine
the cause and effect relationship between two variables. This research is used
mainly to identify the cause of the given behavior. Using causal research, we
decide what variations take place in an independent variable with the change
in the dependent variable. The meaning of causal research is to determine the
relationship between a cause and effect. It is also known as explanatory
research. A variation in an independent variable is observed, which is assumed
to be causing changes in the dependent variable. The changes in the
independent variable are measured due to the variation taking place in the
dependent variable.
Ex-post-facto Research
The ex-post facto research is a kind of research in which the researcher
predicts the possible causes behind an event that has already occurred. For
example, if a child is delinquent (that is, one who indulges in criminal
activities), then in order to find the basic reason behind such delinquency, the
researcher would try to find out the various events that have occurred and the
many possibilities that could have contributed to the concerned delinquent
behaviour. The expected possibilities may be lack of discipline at school/ family
history/ peer effect/ neighbourhood or socialisation. It is an interesting point
to note that, the researcher predicts a cause on the basis of a controlled effect
(since no variation can be done on the effect which has already taken place on
the basis of the independent variable or the cause). Thus, an ex-post facto
research can be defined as an empirically based investigation which does not
involve the researchers’ direct control over the independent variables because
they have already led to effects.
Types of research for Qualitative approach

Here are the five qualitative methods in more detail.

1. Ethnography

In ethnography, you immerse yourself in the target participants’ environment

to understand the goals, cultures, challenges, motivations, and themes that
emerge. Ethnography has its roots in cultural anthropology where researchers
immerse themselves within a culture, often for years! Rather than relying on
interviews or surveys, you experience the environment first hand, and
sometimes as a “participant observer.”

For example, one way of uncovering the unmet needs of customers is to “follow
them home” and observe them as they interact with the product. You don’t
come armed with any hypotheses to necessarily test; rather, you’re looking to
find out how a product is used.
2. Narrative

The narrative approach weaves together a sequence of events, usually from just
one or two individuals to form a cohesive story. You conduct in-depth
interviews, read documents, and look for themes; in other words, how does an
individual story illustrate the larger life influences that created it. Often
interviews are conducted over weeks, months, or even years, but the final
narrative doesn’t need to be in chronological order. Rather it can be presented
as a story (or narrative) with themes, and can reconcile conflicting stories and
highlight tensions and challenges which can be opportunities for innovation.

3. Phenomenological

When you want to describe an event, activity, or phenomenon, the aptly named
phenomenological study is an appropriate qualitative method. In a
phenomenological study, you use a combination of methods, such as
conducting interviews, reading documents, watching videos, or visiting places
and events, to understand the meaning participants place on whatever’s being
examined. You rely on the participants’ own perspectives to provide insight into
their motivations.

Like other qualitative methods, you don’t start with a well-formed hypothesis.
In a phenomenological study, you often conduct a lot of interviews, usually
between 5 and 25 for common themes, to build a sufficient dataset to look for
emerging themes and to use other participants to validate your findings.

4. Grounded Theory

Whereas a phenomenological study looks to describe the essence of an activity

or event, grounded theory looks to provide an explanation or theory behind the
events. You use primarily interviews and existing documents to build a theory
based on the data. Grounded theory can help inform design decisions by better
understanding how a community of users currently use a product or perform
tasks.

For example, a grounded theory study could involve understanding how

software developers use portals to communicate and write code or how small
retail merchants approve or decline customers for credit.

5. Case Study

Made famous by the Harvard Business School, even mainly quantitative

researchers can relate to the value of the case study in explaining an
organization, entity, company, or event. A case study involves a deep
understanding through multiple types of data sources. Case studies can be
explanatory, exploratory, or describing an event.