CEng 2031 – Engineering Mechanics I - Statics Lecture Note

CHAPTER IV

4. ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE STRUCTURES

4.1 Introduction

- An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or transfer forces
and to safely withstand the loads applied to it.
- In this chapter we shall analyze the internal forces acting in several types of structures, namely,
trusses, frames and simple machines.

Constraints and Statical Determinacy

Equilibrium equations, once satisfied, are both necessary and sufficient conditions to establish the
equilibrium of a body. However they don’t necessarily provide all the information that is required to
determine all the unknown forces that may act on a body in equilibrium.

If the number of unknown forces is more than the number of independent equilibrium equations, the
equilibrium equations alone are not enough to determine the unknown forces, possibly reaction
forces at the constraints.

The adequacy of the constraints to prevent possible movement of the body depends on the number,
arrangement and characteristics of the constraints.

a) Complete fixity adequate constraints b) Incomplete fixity partial constraints

c) Incomplete fixity partial constraints d) Excessive fixity redundant constraints

Problem Solution

It is found important to develop a logical and systematic approach in the solution of problems of
mechanics, which includes the following steps:
 Identify clearly the quantities that are known and unknown.

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CEng 2031 – Engineering Mechanics I - Statics Lecture Note

 Make an unambiguous choice of the body/group of bodies/ to be isolated and draw its
complete FBD, labeling all external known and unknown forces and couples which act on it.
 Designate a convenient set of axes and choose moment centers with a view to simplifying the
calculations.
 Identify and state the applicable force and moment principles or equations which govern the
equilibrium condition of problem.
 Match the number of independent equations with the number of unknowns in each problem.
 Carry out the solution and check the results.
4.2 Plane Trusses

A truss is a framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a rigid structure. When the
members of the truss lie essentially in a single plane, the truss is known as a plane truss.
Examples of commonly used trusses that can be analyzed as plane as plane trusses are; -

i/ Bridge Trusses

Pratt Howe

Warren K

Baltimore

ii/ Roof Trusses

Fink Pratt

Howe Warren

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CEng 2031 – Engineering Mechanics I - Statics Lecture Note

The basic element of a plane truss is the triangle. Structures that are built from a basic triangle in the
manner described are known as simple trusses. When more members are present than are needed to
prevent collapse, the truss is statically indeterminate. A statically indeterminate truss cannot be analyzed
by the equations of equilibrium alone. Additional members or supports that are not necessary for
maintaining the equilibrium position are called redundant.

-Three bars joined by pins at their ends constitute a rigid frame.

-Four or more bars pin-jointed to form a polygon of as many

sides constitute a non rigid frame.
- We can make the non rigid frame stable or rigid by adding
diagonal bars.
-The term rigid is used in the sense of non-collapsible and also in the sense that
deformation of the members due to induced internal strains is negligible.

All members in a simple truss are assumed to be two-force members. The members may be in tension (T)
or in compression ( C ).

Tension Compression
Fig. Two-force members

The weight of truss members is assumed small compared with the force it supports. If it is not, or if the
small effect of the weight is to be accounted for, the weight W of the member may be replaced by two
forces, each W/2 if the member is uniform, with one force acting at each end of the member. These forces,
in effect, are treated as loads externally applied to the pin connections. Accounting for the weight of a
member in this way gives the correct result for the average tension or compression along the member but
will not account for the effect of bending of the member.

- When welded or riveted connections are used to join structural members, the assumption of a pin-
jointed connection is usually satisfactory if the centerlines of the members are concurrent at the
joint.
- We also assume in the analysis of simple trusses that all external forces are applied at the pin
connections. This condition is satisfied in most trusses. In bridge trusses the deck is usually laid
on cross beams that are supported at the joints.

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CEng 2031 – Engineering Mechanics I - Statics Lecture Note

Force analysis of plane trusses

Two methods for the force analysis of simple trusses will be given. The external reactions are usually
determined by computation from the equilibrium equations applied to the truss as a whole before the force
analysis of the remainder of the truss is begun.

4.2.1 Method of joints

This method for finding the forces in the members of a simple truss consists of satisfying the conditions of
equilibrium for the forces acting on the connecting pin of each joint.
- The method deals with the equilibrium of concurrent forces, and only two independent
equilibrium equations are involved. (  Fx = 0 and  Fy = 0 for each joint)
- We begin the analysis with any joint where at least one known load exists and where not more
than two unknown forces are present. Taking free body diagram of a joint, tension will always be
indicated by an arrow away from the pin, and compression will always be indicated by an arrow
toward the pin.
- In some instances it is not possible to initially assign the correct direction of one or both of the
unknown forces acting on a given pin. In this event we may make an arbitrary assignment. A
negative value from the computation indicates that the assumed direction is incorrect.

4.2.2 Method of sections

On the analysis of plane trusses by the method of joints, we took advantage of only two of the three
equilibrium equations, since the procedures involve concurrent forces at each joint.

We may take advantage of the third or moment equation of equilibrium by selecting an entire section of
the truss for the free body in equilibrium under the action of a non-concurrent system of forces. This
method of sections has the basic advantage that the force in almost any desired member may be found
directly from an analysis of a section, which has cut that member. Thus it is not necessary to proceed with
the calculation from joint to joint until the member in question has been reached.

-In choosing a section of the truss, we note that, in general, not more than three members whose forces are
unknown may be cut, since these are only three available equilibrium relations which are independent.

- It is essential to understand that in the method of sections an entire portion of the truss is
considered a single body in equilibrium. Thus, the forces in members internal to the section are not
involved in the analysis of the section as a whole.

- To classify the free body and the forces acting externally on it, the section is preferably passed
through the members and not the joints.

 In some cases the methods of sections and joints can be combined for an efficient solution.

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CEng 2031 – Engineering Mechanics I - Statics Lecture Note

The moment equations are used to great advantage in the method of sections. One should choose a moment
center, either on or off the section, through which as many unknown forces as possible pass.

It is not always possible to assign the proper sense of an unknown force when the free-body diagram of a
section is initially drawn. With an arbitrary assignment made, a positive answer will verify the assumed
sense and a negative result will indicate that the force is in the sense opposite to that assumed.

4.3 Frames and Simple Machines

A structure is called a frame or machine if at least one of its individual members is a multiforce member. A
multiforce member is defined as one with three or more forces acting on it or one with two or more forces
and one or more couples acting on it.
Frames are structures which are designed to support applied loads and are usually fixed in
position.
- Machines are structures which contain moving parts and are designed to transmit forces or couples
from input values to output values.

In this article attention is focused on the equilibrium of interconnected rigid bodies which contain multi
force members. The forces acting on each member of a connected system are found by isolating the member
with a free-body diagram and applying the established equations of equilibrium.
The principle of action and reaction must be carefully observed when we represent the forces of interaction
on the separate free-body diagrams.
If the frame or machine constitutes a rigid unit by itself when removed from its supports, the analysis is
best begun by establishing all the forces external to the structure considered as a single rigid body. We
then dismember the structure and consider the equilibrium of each part separately.

The equilibrium equations for the several parts will be related through the terms involving the forces of
interaction.

Rigid Non-collapsible

If the structure is not a rigid unit by itself but depends on its external supports for rigidity, as in the figure
below, then the calculation of the external support reactions cannot be completed until the structure is
dismembered and the individual parts are analyzed.

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CEng 2031 – Engineering Mechanics I - Statics Lecture Note

Non rigid Collapsible

In most cases we find that the analysis of frames and machines is facilitated by representing the forces in
terms of their rectangular components.

It is not always possible to assign every force or its components in the proper sense when drawing the free
body diagrams and it becomes necessary for us to make an arbitrary assignment.

-In any event it is absolutely necessary that a force be consistently represented on the diagrams for
interacting bodies, which involve the force in question. For example, for two bodies connected by the pin
in the figure below the force components must be consistently represented in opposite directions on the
separate free-body diagrams.

Ay

A
Ax Ax

Ay

If we choose to use vector notation in labeling the forces, then we must be careful to use a plus sign for an
action and a minus sign for the corresponding reaction.
-Situations occasionally arise where it is necessary to solve two or more equations simultaneously in order
to separate the unknowns. In most instances, however, we may avoid simultaneous solutions by careful
choice of the member or group of members for the free-body diagram and by a careful choice of moment
axes which will eliminate undesired terms from the equations.