DATA NETWORK FUNDAMENTALS

ENGR. NEIL BRYAN C. HERNANDEZ

ENGR. JOHN CARLO V. AGGARI
TOPIC OUTCOMES

• Describe the basic principles of all communication systems.

• Describe the historical background and evolution of data communications.
• Explain the role of standards and protocols.
• Describe the OSI model of communication layers.
• Describe four important physical standards.
• Explain the difference between circuit switched and packet switched networks
• Describe the different network topologies
INTRODUCTION
Data communications is the transfer of information from one
point to another. ‘Data’ refers to information that is represented
by a sequence of zeros and ones; the same sort of data that is
handled by computers. Many communications systems handle
analog data; examples are the telephone system, radio, and
television. Modern instrumentation is almost wholly concerned
with the transfer of digital data.
Any communications system requires a transmitter to send
information, a receiver to accept it and a link between the two.
Types of links include copper wire, optical fiber, radio, and
microwave. Some short distance links use parallel connections;
meaning that several wires are required to carry a signal.
INTRODUCTION
The digital data is sometimes transferred using a system that is
primarily designed for analog communication. A modem, for
example, works by using a digital data stream to modulate an
analog signal that is sent over a telephone line. At the
receiving end, another modem demodulates the signal to
reproduce the original digital data. The word ‘modem’ comes
from modulator and demodulator.
STANDARDS
Protocols are the structures used within a communications
system so that, for example, a computer can talk to a printer.
Traditionally, developers of software and hardware platforms
have developed protocols, which only their products can use. In
order to develop more integrated instrumentation and control
systems, standardization of these communication protocols is
required.
Standards may evolve from the wide use of one
manufacturer’s protocol (a de facto standard) or may be
specifically developed by bodies that represent an industry.
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL
Layer 7 – Application
 it’s what most users see
 It receives information directly from users and displays incoming data it to the user

Layer 6 – Presentation
 represents the area that is independent of data representation at the application layer
 good example of this is encryption and decryption of data for secure transmission

Layer 5 – Session
 computers or servers need to “speak” with one another, a session needs to be created
 this layer involve setup, coordination (how long should a system wait for a response, for
example) and termination between the applications at each end of the session

Layer 4 – Transport
 data transfer between end systems and hosts
 Transport Layer is the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), which is built on top of the
Internet Protocol (IP), commonly known as TCP/IP
OPEN SYSTEM INTERCONNECTION (OSI) MODEL
Layer 3 - Network
 responsible for packet forwarding, including routing through different routers

Layer 2 – Data Link

 provides node-to-node data transfer (between two directly connected nodes)
 two sublayers exist here - the Media Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control
(LLC) layer

Layer 1 - Physical
 represents the electrical and physical representation of the system
 can include everything from the cable type, radio frequency link (as in an 802.11 wireless
systems), as well as the layout of pins, voltages and other physical requirements
PROTOCOLS
OSI model provides a framework within which a specific protocol
may be defined. A frame (packet) might consist of the following.
The first byte can be a string of 1s and 0s to synchronize the
receiver or flags to indicate the start of the frame
PHYSICAL STANDARDS
RS-232 interface standard
The RS-232C interface standard was issued in the USA in 1969 to define the
electrical and mechanical details of the interface between data terminal
equipment (DTE) and data communications equipment (DCE) which employ
serial binary data interchange.
 PHYSICAL STANDARDS
RS-432 interface standard
The RS-423 interface standard is an unbalanced system similar to RS-232
with increased range and data transfer rates and up to 10-line receivers per
line driver.
RS-422 interface standard
The RS-422 interface system is a balanced system with the same range as
RS-423, with increased data rates and up to 10-line receivers per line driver.
RS-485 interface standard
The RS-485 is a balanced system with the same range as RS-422, but with
increased data rates and up to 32 transmitters and receivers possible per
line.
The RS-485 interface standard is very useful for instrumentation and control
systems where several instruments or controllers may be connected together
on the same multipoint network.
PHYSICAL STANDARDS
RS232 is full-duplex, RS485 is half-duplex, and RS422 is full-duplex.
RS485 and RS232 are only the physical protocol of communication (ie
interface standard), RS485 is the differential transmission mode, RS232 is the
single-ended transmission mode, but the communication program does not have
much difference.
MODERN INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
In an instrumentation and control system, data is acquired by measuring
instruments and is transmitted to a controller – typically a computer. The
controller then transmits data (or control signals) to control devices, which act
upon a given process.
The main purpose of an instrumentation and control system, in an industrial
environment, is to provide the following:
 Control of the processes and alarms
 Control of sequencing, interlocking and alarms
 An operator interface for display and control
 Management information
MODERN INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Control of the processes and alarms
 common for equipment from various sources to be mixed in the same control system. Stand-
alone controllers and instruments have largely been replaced by integrated systems such as
distributed control systems (DCS) .
Control of sequencing, interlocking and alarms
 provided by relays, timers and other components hardwired into control panels and motor
control centers. The sequence control, interlocking and alarm requirements have largely been
replaced by PLCs.
An operator interface for display and control
 process and manufacturing plants were operated from local control panels by several
operators, each responsible for a portion of the overall process
Management information
 traditionally provided by taking readings from meters, chart recorders, counters, and
transducers and from samples taken from the production process. This data is required to
monitor the overall performance of a plant or process and to provide the data necessary to
manage the process.
MODERN INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
The four devices that have made the most significant impact on how plants are
controlled are:
Distributed control system (DCS)
A DCS is hardware and software based digital process control and data acquisition
based system. The DCS is based on a data highway and has a modular, distributed,
but integrated architecture. Each module performs a specific dedicated task such as
the operator interface/analog or loop control/digital control. There is normally an
interface unit situated on the data highway allowing easy connection to other devices
such as PLCs and supervisory computer devices.
Programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
They are controlled by a central processor using easily written ‘ladderlogic’ type
programs. Modern PLCs now include analog and digital I/O modules as well as
sophisticated programming capabilities similar to a DCS e.g. PID loop programming.
High speed inter-PLC links are also available, such as 10 and 100 Mbps Ethernet.
MODERN INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Smart instruments (SIs)
In the 1960s, the 4–20 mA analog interface was established as the de facto
standard for instrumentation technology. As a result, the manufacturers of
instrumentation equipment had a standard communication interface on which
to base their products. Users had a choice of instruments and sensors, from a
wide range of suppliers, which could be integrated into their control systems.
PCs
NETWORKING
NETWORKING
There are three broad classes of network, although the distinction between them is blurred
and they tend to overlap:
• Local area networks (LANs)
LANs are usually confined to one building or group of buildings within a radius of a few
hundred meters. All devices on a LAN are connected to a common transmission medium such
as coaxial cable. Transmission speeds are typically up to hundreds of Mbps.
• Metropolitan area networks (MANs)
A MAN covers a city or metropolitan area, and may have several LANs connected to it.
Transmission speeds are generally up to hundreds of Mbps and almost always use optical
fiber cable.
• Wide area networks (WANs)
WANs may cover thousands of kilometers and involve several different transmission media
(such as optical fiber, satellite links, microwave and coaxial cable). Transmission speeds vary
greatly. An example WAN is the public telecommunications system, which now has 200 Mbps
optical fiber links between capital cities and major centers.
CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING
The two basic types of networks are ‘circuit’ switched and ‘packet’ switched
Circuit switched network, a connection is established between the two ends
and maintained for the duration of the message exchange (an example is the
public telephone system). The advantage is a guarantee of continuity, while
the disadvantage is cost. The circuit is tied up even when no one is talking or
the transmission rate may be slow.
CIRCUIT AND PACKET SWITCHING
Packet switched network does not establish a direct connection. Instead, the
message is broken up into a series of packets or frames, sometimes known as
protocol data units (PDUs). These are transmitted one at a time, each carrying
the destination address.
Depending on the network conditions, they may take different routes to the
destination, and may arrive out of order. It is the job of the protocol software
to reassemble the packets in the right order. Packet switching is cheaper as it
makes better use of the resources; the physical communications links carry
packets from multiple sources concurrently.
Packet-switched network can offer either connectionless or connection-oriented
communications, depending on the protocols used.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
• Star
• Ring or loop
• Bus (or multidrop)
STAR TOPOLOGY
There is a central node or hub and all the outlying nodes communicate back to
it on separate communication links.

The central hub must have the capacity

to simultaneously send and receive
messages. Contention problems are
overcome by using buffers in the
computer at the hub of the star network.
STAR TOPOLOGY
The major disadvantages of the star network are:
• If the central hub is disabled, the entire system is inoperable.
• Depending on the physical layout, the costs of cabling a star network tend to
be higher than some of the alternatives.
RING OR LOOP TOPOLOGY
Nodes in a ring network are connected node to node, ultimately forming a
loop. The data flow is often arranged to be unidirectional, with each node
passing data on to the next node and so on. It is essential that each node,
when receiving, can remove data from the ring so that it does not circle
through the network indefinitely.

The basic ring network is unable to function if

a node is disabled or the ring broken.
Consequently, if modifications or additions
are to be made to the network, a complete
system shutdown is necessary.
BUS TOPOLOGY
The bus topology consists of a communication path with nodes connected to it
like leaves off a branch. The nodes are not physically inserted into the bus, as
is the case with ring topology, but are ‘teed-off’ the bus.
Bus networks can be bi-directional or unidirectional.
BUS TOPOLOGY
In the event of a disabled node, either due to a failure or an access control
malfunction (i.e. the destination node not taking its information from the bus),
the network can continue to operate as before, without the malfunctioning
node.
TRANSMISSION TECHNIQUES
Two main methods used for the transmission of information over a LAN are baseband and
broadband.
Baseband
This is also known as time division multiplexing (TDM). Only one device is allowed to transmit at any
one time and can use the entire bandwidth of the system. No carrier is used, so the signal (e.g. the
output from a UART) is directly applied to the medium.
Broadband
Broadband is also known as frequency division multiplexing (FDM). The system bandwidth is
divided into channels that do not overlap, meaning that many pairs of devices can communicate
simultaneously, and they usually retain their channel until the message transfer is complete. As only
a part of the system bandwidth is available, data transfer rates for individual communications are
less than for TDM using the same physical setup.
Data is transmitted by injecting a carrier (sine) wave on to the medium and modulating the carrier
with the data – be that by frequency modulation, amplitude modulation, or phase modulation.
IEEE LAN STANDARDS
The most important standard for LAN interfaces and protocols is IEEE 802, a series
administered by the IEEE 802 LAN Standards Technologies Committee. The standard
has several sections, each with its own co-coordinating committee. Some standards
have been superseded by ISO standards as shown in brackets in the descriptions
below.
IEEE 802.1 (ISO 8802.1)
Details how the other 802 standards relate to one another and to the ISO/OSI
reference model. As with the ISO/OSI model, the IEEE 802.1 specification describes
interface layers or communication interfaces between different hierarchical levels of
devices and activities.
IEEE LAN STANDARDS
IEEE 802.2 (ISO 8802.2)
Standard has divided the ISO/OSI data link layer into two sublayers and defines the
functions of the logic link control (LLC) sublayer and the media access control (MAC)
sublayer. An IEEE 802.2 interface defines services that fall into the following
categories:
 IEEE 802.3 (ISO 8802.3)
 This standard defines the carrier sense multiple accessing with collision detection (CSMA/CD) protocol,
which is the protocol used by Ethernet and is described in the section on Ethernet.
 IEEE 802.4 (ISO 8802.4)
 This standard defines the token passing bus access method. Physically this looks like a bus network with the
operation like that of a token ring network. Nodes on the network see themselves as being arranged in a
logical loop, with each node assigned an address. Collision problems that occurred in CSMA/CD are
solved as only one token can exist on the network at one time, and only one node may own the token.
Token holding times exist so that no node may own the period for prolonged periods of time. Token bus is
superior to CSMA/CD for networks with heavy loads, because each node has a regular time to
communicate.
 IEEE 802.5 (ISO 8802.5)
 This standard defines a token ring access method, similar to that used by IBM for their token ring standard.
ETHERNET
Ethernet was developed by Xerox in the early 1970s and standardized by
Xerox, Digital Equipment and Intel in 1978. It uses CSMA/CD as a medium
access control method.
The relevant standards are:
• Ethernet V2 (Bluebook)
• IEEE 802.3 (ISO 8802.3)
ETHERNET
Below are listed some of the hardware variations of Ethernet, which are explained more fully
later in ‘Ethernet hardware requirements.
 Standard (or thick) Ethernet (10Base5) uses 10 Mbps baseband operation on coaxial cable
with a maximum segment length of 500 m.
 Thin Ethernet (10Base2) uses 10 Mbps baseband operation on coaxial cable with a
maximum segment length of 185 m.
 10BaseT uses unshielded twisted pair cables and operates at 10 Mbps with the use of a
wiring hub onto which each node connects.
 100BaseT is similar to 10BaseT but operates at 100 Mbps.
 1000BaseT (gigabit Ethernet) is similar to Fast Ethernet, but operates at 1000 Mbps.
 1BaseT is similar to 10BaseT but limited to a 1 Mbps data rate. Obsolete.
 Broadband Ethernet (10Broad36) uses FDM with maximum segment length of 3600 meters
(11,800 feet). Obsolete.
 10BaseF is a 10 Mbps baseband system operating on optic fibers.
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
Standard and thin Ethernet use a bus
topology, in which each node attaches
to the communications cable as shown
ETHERNET TOPOLOGY
10BaseT (Ethernet) uses a star configuration in which each node is connected via
two twisted pairs to a wiring hub as shown
ETHERNET PROTOCOL OPERATION
All data transfer is in the form of a packet or frame. It consists of an envelope
containing control information (such as synchronization bytes and addresses) and the
actual message data. Each node examines the destination address and reads the
data if the frame is directed at that node.
ETHERNET PROTOCOL OPERATION

Preamble
This field comprises seven bytes, each with the binary value 10101010. Its purpose is to allow all
receiving MAC units to synchronize with the frame.
Start of frame delimiter
The SFD indicates the start of a frame and has the binary value 10101011.
Destination Address
This may be either 16 bits or 48 bits, depending on how the system is configured. In practice it is
almost always 48 bits. It must be the same length for every node. The node with this address will
read the data.
Source Address
This may be either 16 bits or 48 bits, depending on how the system is configured. In practice it is
almost always 48 bits. This is the address of the node that sent the data.
ETHERNET PROTOCOL OPERATION

Length Indicator
The two-byte length indicator specifies how many bytes are in the data field.
Data
This is the actual message data and can be from 46 to 1500 bytes in length. The
minimum value is determined by the need for collision detection and the maximum
value limits the access time for any one node to 1, 2 milliseconds. If the actual data is
less than 46 bytes it must be ‘padded’ up to 46 bytes.
Frame Check sequence
This is a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check value used for error detection.
FAST ETHERNET
Fast Ethernet systems operate at 100 Mbps on different forms of physical media and
they retain the existing Ethernet MAC layer.
IEEE 802.3u standard defines:
• 100BaseTX, which uses two pairs of category 5 UTP or STP and is the most
commonly used standard.
• 100BaseFX, which uses two pairs of multimode (or single node) fiber.
• 100BaseT4, which uses four pairs of category 3, 4 or 5 UTP. This is no longer used.
The IEEE also has a standard 802.3y that defines 100BaseT2, which was to use two
pairs of category 3, 4 or 5 UTP. This system has not been developed commercially.
INTERNETWORK CONNECTIONS
Repeaters
A repeater is used to connect two
segments of the same LAN, and simply
retransmits an incoming signal. The
repeater also carries out collision
checking. Remote segments may each
have a repeater, joined by a link; also
a repeater may operate between
different types of segment such as
coaxial cable and optical fiber cable.
BRIDGES
A bridge connects two networks,
or two segments of one network.
It acts as a node as far as each
side is concerned. The data link
layer protocol has to be the same
on each side, but the physical
media can be different.
HUB
On a normal hub, all ports are interconnected and hence all users connected to that hub
share the same available bandwidth. Any traffic on a given port will be ‘seen’ by all
users connected to the hub.
SWITCHES
A switching hub (or ‘switch’), on the
other hand, only forwards each packet
to the relevant port, based on the
hardware address information in the
header. A switch therefore acts as a
multi-port bridge.
ROUTERS
A router transfers data between networks that have the same network layer protocols
(such as TCP/IP) but not necessarily the same physical or data link protocols. Routers
maintain tables of addresses in the networks to which they are attached, and route
each packet to the appropriate network depending on its destination address.
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEMS
A network operating system is the software necessary to integrate the various
components of a network into a single entity to which users have access. It manages
the resources of a network, schedules the services and tries to ensure an error free
session for every user. Simply, a NOS is a network resource manager.
NETWORK ARCHITECTURES AND PROTOCOLS
Though there are many Novell network and Windows NT operating systems
architectures in the market, the following three are the most popular.
• OSI/RM
• TCP/IP
• SNA
TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL / INTERNET
PROTOCOL (TCP/IP)
This is the result of a US Department of Defense initiated project to implement a global
network, interconnecting various local area networks or individual computers. In this sense this
is a demonstrated open system model. The architecture is based on a four-layer model. The
layers are:
• Application layer
 This comprises the session, presentation and application layers of the OSI model.

• Services layer (host-to-host)

 This represents the transport layer of the OSI model.

• Internetwork layer
 This represent the network layer of the OSI model.

• Network interface layer

 It represents the physical and datalink layers of the OSI model.
SYSTEM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
SNA is a layered architecture similar to OSI/RM. SNA is part of an IBM corporate design
philosophy, which laid the framework for the data communication development of its products.
• End user layer
 This describes the end user requirement of communication, much like the application layer of OSI.

• Function management layer

 All the requirements of translation in terms of coding or file formats, together with their management, are
described in this layer and are functionally equivalent to the presentation layer of OSI.

• Data flow control layer

 This takes care of the control aspects of creating an end-to-end connection/ session.

• Transmission control
 This describes the end-to-end data transmission details such as reliability and integrity.
SYSTEM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
• Path control layer
 The actual sequencing of information packets and its routing on the network are described in this layer
and is functionally equivalent to the transport and network layers put together of OSI.

• Data link layer

 This is essentially similar to that of OSI.

• Physical layer
 The description of the physical media details as in OSI.
THANK YOU