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 Module I

Lecture 1:

Introduction to Control System:

Introduction to Elementary control concept

A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by controlling the output.
The following figure shows the simple block diagram of a control system.

Figure1.1

Here, the control system is represented by a single block. Since, the output is controlled by
varying input, the control system got this name. We will vary this input with some
mechanism. In the next section on open loop and closed loop control systems, we will study
in detail about the blocks inside the control system and how to vary this input in order to get
the desired response.

Examples − Traffic lights control system, washing machine

Traffic lights control system is an example of control system. Here, a sequence of input
signal is applied to this control system and the output is one of the three lights that will be
on for some duration of time. During this time, the other two lights will be off. Based on the
traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of the lights can be determined.
Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights control system
operates on time basis.

Classification of Control Systems

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Based on some parameters, we can classify the control systems into the following ways.

Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as continuous time control systems and discrete
time control systems based on the type of the signal used.
 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are continuous in time. But, in
discrete time control systems, there exists one or more discrete time signals.

SISO and MIMO Control Systems

 Control Systems can be classified as SISO control systems and MIMO control
systems based on the number of inputs and outputs present.
 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems have one input and one
output. Whereas, MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control systems
have more than one input and more than one output.

Lecture 2 :

Open and closed loop system:

Control Systems can be classified as open loop control systems and closed loop control
systems based on the feedback path.

In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is
independent of the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of the open loop control system.

Figure1.2

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Here, an input is applied to a controller and it produces an actuating signal or controlling
signal. This signal is given as an input to a plant or process which is to be controlled. So, the
plant produces an output, which is controlled. The traffic lights control system which we
discussed earlier is an example of an open loop control system.

In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output.

The following figure shows the block diagram of negative feedback closed loop control
system.

Figure1.3

The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference between the input and
the feedback signal. This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead of the direct
input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.

So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant. In this combination,
the output of the control system is adjusted automatically till we get the desired response.
Hence, the closed loop control systems are also called the automatic control systems. Traffic
lights control system having sensor at the input is an example of a closed loop control
system.

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The differences between the open loop and the closed loop control systems are mentioned in
the following table.

Open Loop Control Closed Loop Control

Systems Systems
Control action is
independent of the desired Control action is dependent of
output. the desired output.
Feedback path is not present. Feedback path is present.
These are also called as non- These are also called as
feedback control systems. feedback control systems.
Easy to design. Difficult to design.
These are economical. These are costlier.
Inaccurate. Accurate.

Lecture 3:

Transfer function of open loop and closed loop control systems:

Mathematical Model:

The control systems can be represented with a set of mathematical equations known as
mathematical model. These models are useful for analysis and design of control systems.
Analysis of control system means finding the output when we know the input and
mathematical model. Design of control system means finding the mathematical model when
we know the input and the output.

The following mathematical models are mostly used.

 Differential equation model

 Transfer function model
 State space model

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Let us discuss the first two models in this chapter.

Differential Equation Model

Differential equation model is a time domain mathematical model of control systems.

Follow these steps for differential equation model.

 Apply basic laws to the given control system.

 Get the differential equation in terms of input and output by eliminating the
intermediate variable(s).

Example

Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following figure. This circuit
consists of resistor, inductor and capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in
series. The input voltage applied to this circuit is vi

and the voltage across the capacitor is the output voltage vo

Figure1.4

Mesh equation for this circuit is

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Transfer Function Model of open loop system:

Transfer function model is an s-domain mathematical model of control systems. The

Transfer function of a Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of output and Laplace transform of input by assuming all the initial
conditions are zero.

If x(t)and y(t) are the input and output of an LTI system, then the corresponding Laplace
transforms are X(s) and Y(s)Therefore, the transfer function of LTI system is equal to the
ratio of Y(s)and X(s).

i.e.TransferFunction =Y(s)/X(s)

The transfer function model of an LTI system is shown in the following figure.

Figure1.5

Here, we represented an LTI system with a block having transfer function inside it. And this
block has an input X(s) & output Y(s)

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vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo.

The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system. The
transfer function model of this system is shown below.

Figure1.6

Here, we show a second order electrical system with a block having the transfer function
inside it. And this block has an input Vi(s) & an output Vo(s).

Transfer Function Model of close loop system:

As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback
and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here,
two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.

Figure1.7

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Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is G(s)1+G(s)H(s)

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
positive feedback, i.e., G(s)/(1−G(s)H(s)).

Lecture 4

Block Diagrams:

Basic Elements of Block Diagram:

The basic elements of a block diagram are a block, the summing point and the take-off
point. Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control system as shown in the
following figure to identify these elements.

Figure1.8

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The above block diagram consists of two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s). It
is also having one summing point and one take-off point. Arrows indicate the direction of
the flow of signals. Let us now discuss these elements one by one.

Block

The transfer function of a component is represented by a block. Block has single input and
single output.

The following figure shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer function
G(s).

Transfer Function(s) =Y(s)/X(s)⇒Y(s) =G(s)/X(s)

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of the block with input.

Summing Point

The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside it. It has two or more
inputs and single output. It produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and subtraction of the inputs based
on the polarity of the inputs. Let us see these three operations one by one.

The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y).
Here, the inputs A and B have a positive sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y
as sum of A and B.

i.e.Y = A + B.

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The following figure shows the summing point
with two inputs (A, B) and one output (Y). Here,
the inputs A and B are having opposite signs, i.e.,
A is having positive sign and B is having negative sign. So, the summing point produces the
output Y as the difference of A and B.

Y = A + (-B) = A - B.

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs (A, B, C) and one output
(Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So,
the summing point produces the output Y as

Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.

Take-off Point

The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be passed through more
than one branch. That means with the help of take-off point, we can apply the same input to
one or more blocks, summing points.

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In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the same input, R(s) to two
more blocks.

In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the output C(s), as one of the
inputs to the summing point.

Lecture 5:

Block Diagram Representation of Electrical Systems

In this section, let us represent an electrical system with a block diagram. Electrical systems
contain mainly three basic elements — resistor, inductor and capacitor.

Consider a series of RLC circuit as shown in the following figure. Where, Vi(t) and Vo(t) are
the input and output voltages. Let i(t) be the current passing through the circuit. This circuit
is in time domain.

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 Figure1.9

By applying the Laplace transform to this circuit, will get the circuit in s-domain. The
circuit is as shown in the following figure.

Figure1.10

From the above circuit, we can write

Let us now draw the block diagrams for these two equations individually. And then combine
those block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram of series of RLC
Circuit (s-domain).

Equation 1 can be implemented with a block having the transfer function, 1/(R+sL). The
input and output of this block are {Vi(s)−Vo(s)} and I(s). We require a summing point to get

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{Vi(s)−Vo(s)}. The block diagram of Equation 1 is shown in the following figure.

Equation 2 can be implemented with a block having transfer function, 1/sC. The input and
output of this block are I(s) and Vo(s). The block diagram of Equation 2 is shown in the
following figure.

The overall block diagram of the series of RLC Circuit (s-domain) is shown in the following
figure.

Figure1.11

Similarly, you can draw the block diagram of any electrical circuit or system just by
following this simple procedure.

 Convert the time domain electrical circuit into an s-domain electrical circuit by
applying Laplace transform.
 Write down the equations for the current passing through all series branch elements
and voltage across all shunt branches.
 Draw the block diagrams for all the above equations individually.
 Combine all these block diagrams properly in order to get the overall block diagram
of the electrical circuit (s-domain).

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Block diagram algebra is nothing but the algebra involved with the basic elements of the
block diagram. This algebra deals with the pictorial representation of algebraic equations.

Lecture 6:

Basic Connections for Blocks:

There are three basic types of connections between two blocks.

Series Connection

Series connection is also called cascade connection. In the following figure, two blocks
having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s) are connected in series.

Figure1.12

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That means we can represent the series connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent series connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The transfer
function of this single block is the product of the transfer functions of all those ‘n’ blocks.

Parallel Connection

The blocks which are connected in parallel will have the same input. In the following
figure, two blocks having transfer functions G1(s) and G2(s)are connected in parallel. The
outputs of these two blocks are connected to the summing point.

Figure1.13

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That means we can represent the parallel connection of two blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the sum of the transfer functions of those two
blocks. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent parallel connection of ‘n’ blocks with a single block. The
transfer function of this single block is the algebraic sum of the transfer functions of all
those ‘n’ blocks.

Feedback Connection

As we discussed in previous chapters, there are two types of feedback — positive feedback
and negative feedback. The following figure shows negative feedback control system. Here,
two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s) form a closed loop.

Figure1.14

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Therefore, the negative feedback closed loop transfer function is G(s)1+G(s)H(s)

This means we can represent the negative feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
negative feedback. The equivalent block diagram is shown below.

Similarly, you can represent the positive feedback connection of two blocks with a single
block. The transfer function of this single block is the closed loop transfer function of the
positive feedback, i.e., G(s)/(1−G(s)H(s)).

Lecture 7:

Simplification of a control system using block diagram reduction:

Block Diagram Algebra for Summing Points:

There are two possibilities of shifting summing points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting summing point after the block

 Shifting summing point before the block

Let us now see what kind of arrangements need to be done in the above two cases one by
one.

Shifting Summing Point after the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present before the block.

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Now, shift the summing point after the block. This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Output of the block G(s) is G(s)R(s).

The output of the summing point isY(s) =G(s) R(s) +X(s) (Equation 2)

Compare Equation 1 and Equation 2.The first term ‘G(s) R(s) ′is same in both the equations.
But, there is difference in the second term. In order to get the second term also same, we
require one more block G(s). It is having the input X(s) and the output of this block is given

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as input to summing point instead of X(s) . This block diagram is shown in the following
figure.

Shifting Summing Point Before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the summing point is
present after the block.

Output of this block diagram is -

Y(s) =G(s) R(s) +X(s) (Equation 3)

Now, shift the summing point before the block. This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Output of this block diagram is -

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Y(S)=G(s)R(s)+G(s)X(s) (Equation 4)

Compare Equation 3 and Equation 4,The first term ‘G(s)R(s)′ is same in both equations.
But, there is difference in the second term. In order to get the second term also same, we
require one more block 1G(s). It is having the input X(s) and the output of this block is
given as input to summing point instead of X(s). This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Block Diagram Algebra for Take-off Points

There are two possibilities of shifting the take-off points with respect to blocks −

 Shifting take-off point after the block

 Shifting take-off point before the block

Let us now see what kind of arrangements is to be done in the above two cases, one by one.

Shifting Take-off Point after the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. In this case, the take-off point is
present before the block.

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Here, X(s)=R(s)

and Y(s)=G(s)R(s)

When you shift the take-off point after the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there is
difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get the same X(s) value, we require one more block
1G(s). It is having the input Y(s) and the output is X(s) . This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

Shifting Take-off Point before the Block

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Here, the take-off point is
present after the block.

Here, X(s) =Y(s) =G(s) R(s)

When you shift the take-off point before the block, the output Y(s) will be same. But, there
is difference in X(s) value. So, in order to get same X(s) value, we require one more block
G(s). It is having the input R(s) and the output is X(s) . This block diagram is shown in the
following figure.

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Lecture 8:

Block Diagram Reduction Rules:

Follow these rules for simplifying (reducing) the block diagram, which is having many
blocks, summing points and take-off points.

 Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.

 Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
 Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it towards
right.
 Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it towards
left.
 Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single block.

Note − The transfer function present in this single block is the transfer function of the
overall block diagram.

Example

Consider the block diagram shown in the following figure. Let us simplify (reduce) this
block diagram using the block diagram reduction rules.

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 Figure1.14

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4. The modified
block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for shifting take-off point after
the block G5. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5 . The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

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Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4) G5 and H3. The modified block diagram is shown
in the following figure.

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block diagram is shown in
the following figure.

Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The modified block diagram is
shown in the following figure. This is the simplified block diagram.

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Therefore, the transfer function of the system is

Note − Follow these steps in order to calculate the transfer function of the block diagram
having multiple inputs.

 Step 1 − Find the transfer function of block diagram by considering one input at a
time and make the remaining inputs as zero.
 Step 2 − Repeat step 1 for remaining inputs.
 Step 3 − Get the overall transfer function by adding all those transfer functions.

The block diagram reduction process takes more time for complicated systems. Because, we
have to draw the (partially simplified) block diagram after each step. So, to overcome this
drawback, use signal flow graphs (representation).

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 Module II

Lecture 9

2.1 Introduction:

Process: It is an unit where the physical or chemical change or both occurs among a
numbers of raw materials under certain environmental condition and one or more final
products at desired quality & quantity are obtained.

Process Control: It is the technique by which one or more process variables in a process
maintained at their desired values in order to get product at better quality and linear cost
with better safety operation of plant.

2.2 Servo and Regulatory Control

The objective of any control system is one of the following:

Regulatory Control: Elimination of Disturbances

Servo Control: Making the controlled variable follow the changes in set point

2.2.1 Regulatory Control

In regulatory control, the deviation of the output from the setpoint is minimized by adjusting
the input to the system(controlling variable). A regulatory control system will normally have
a fixed reference or set point. The set point can change, but the changes
are not be very frequent. Set point remains constant for relatively large period of time.

2.2.2 Servo Control

Another commonly used type of control system, which has a slightly different objective
From regulatory control, is called a servo control. In this case, the objective is to force some
parameter to vary in a specific manner. Instead of regulating a variable value to a set point,
the servo control forces the controlled variable value to follow variation of the reference

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value.For example, in an industrial robot arm like the one shown in figure ,
servomechanisms force the robot arm to follow a path from point A to point B.

Figure:2.1

2.3 Basic Block Diagram of Process Control

Basic block diagram of any feedback control loop is-

So a basic feedback control loop consists of the following blocks-

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2. Feedback unit: Feedback unit consists of
a) Detecting & Measuring Unit
b) Signal Conditioning Unit
c) Transmitting Unit

a) Detecting & Measuring Unit: Clearly, to control a variable in a process, we must have
information about the variable itself. Such information is found by measuring the variable.
In general, a measurement refers to the conversion of the variable into some corresponding
analog of the variable, such as a pneumatic pressure, an electrical voltage or current, or a
digitally encoded signal. A sensor is a device that performs the initial measurement and
energy conversion of a variable into analogous digital, electrical, or pneumatic information.

b) Signal Conditioning Unit: Further transformation or signal conditioning may be required

to complete the measurement function. The result of the measurement is a representation of
the variable value in some form required by the other elements in the process-control
operation.

c) Transmitting Unit: This unit converts the output of the signal conditioning unit into a
signal which can be transmitted to a remote controller or display unit without any distortion.

2. Signal Converter Unit: It is optional & required if signal conversion is necessary.

3. Controller Unit: Controller unit consists of

a) Comparator
b) Control unit
a) Comparator: Comparator compares the measured value with the reference value and
accordingly generates error signal.

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b) Control unit: The purpose of control unit is to examine the error and determine what
action, if any, should be taken.

4. Final Control Element: A final control element is defined as a mechanical device that
manipulates controlling variable to get the controlled variable at desired value.

Lecture 10:

2.4 Characteristic parameters of a process:

Process Equation, Process Quantity, Process Potential, Process Resistance, Process
Capacitance, Process Lag, Self Regulation

Process Equation:
A process-control loop regulates some dynamic variable in a process. The controlled
variable generally depends on many other parameters in the process .One of these other
parameters is to be selected as controlling parameter. Process equation is the equation that
defines the controlled variable is the function of which other parameters of the process.

Process Load:
From the process equation, or knowledge of and experience with the process, it is possible
to identify a set of values for the process parameters that results in the controlled variable
having the set point value. This set of parameters is called the nominal set. The term process
load refers to this set of all parameters, excluding the controlled variable. When all
parameters have their nominal values, we speak of the nominal load on the system. The
required controlling variable value under these conditions is the nominal value of that
parameter. If the set point is changed, the control parameter is altered to cause the variable
to adopt this new operating point. The load is still nominal, however, because the other
parameters are assumed to be unchanged. Suppose one of the parameters changes from
nominal, causing a corresponding shift in the controlled variable. We then say that a process
load change has occurred.

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Transient: Another type of change involves a temporary variation of one of the load
parameters. After the excursion, the parameter returns to its nominal value. This variation is
called a transient. A transient causes variations of the controlled variable, and the control
system must make equally transient changes of the controlling variable
Process Lag:
At some point in time, a process-load change or transient causes a change in the controlled
variable. The process-control loop responds to ensure that, some finite time later, the
variable returns to the setpoint value. Part of this time is consumed by the process itself and
is called the process lag.
Self-Regulation:
A significant characteristic of some processes is the tendency to adopt a specific value of
the controlled variable for nominal load with no control operations. The control operations
may be significantly affected by such self-regulation.

Figure: 2.2
The tank consists of an input pipeline where from water falls at a particular rate and it also
has a output pipeline through which water is flowing at a particular flow rate. If
the inflow rate just matches the outlet rate,then the liquid in the tank is fixed at some
nominal level. If the inflow rate increases slightly, the level rises and at a certain level again

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level gets fixed as inflow rate again becomes equal to the outflow rate(As the water level
height increases)

Others parameters are Process Quantity, Process Potential, Process Resistance, Process
Capacitance

Lecture 11:

Role of controllers in process industry:

Process control systems make sure industrial processes are carried out efficiently,
consistently and with as little variation as possible. They're installed in industrial settings to:

 help maintain throughput, quality, yield and energy efficiency

 make sure working practices are carried out safely and profitably

Systems measure, monitor and control manufacturing processes and activities. They identify
and correct any abnormalities or variations from specified values, either manually or
automatically. The aim is to make sure that production is consistent and that as little energy
is wasted as possible.

Lower level controls can't handle complex situations like equipment faults. These have to be
dealt with either manually, by an operator, or by other controls at a higher level of the
hierarchy.

Benefits of an efficient process control system

Your business could benefit from a well-designed control system in many ways, including:

 energy savings - energy wastage is reduced when your plant and machinery are
efficiently operated

 improved safety - control systems automatically warn you of any abnormalities

which minimises the risk of accidents

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  consistent product quality - variations in product quality are kept to a minimum and
reduce your wastage

 lower manufacturing costs - detecting faults early means throughput, yield and
quality are maintained

 improved environmental performance - systems can give an early warning of a rise

in emissions

2.5 Modes of Control Action:

Controllers can be divided in –
i) Discontinuous Mode
ii) Continuous Mode

2.5.1 Discontinuous Mode of Controller:

ON/OFF/ Two position/Bang-Bang Controller:

The most common discontinuous controller mode is the ON/OFF controller.
The analytic equation can be written as

This relation shows that when the measured value is less than the setpoint, full controller
output results. When it is more than the setpoint, the controller output is zero.

Neutral Zone: In virtually any practical implementation of the two-position controller,

there is an overlap as increases through zero or decreases through zero. In this span, no
change in controller output occurs. This is best shown in figure, which plots controller
output versus error of a two-position controller. We see that until an increasing error

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changes by above zero, the controller output will not change state. In decreasing, it must fall
below zero before the controller changes to the 0% rating. The range , which is referred to as
the neutral zone or differential gap, is often purposely designed above a certain minimum
quantity to prevent excessive cycling.

Figure: 2.3

Multiposition Mode:

To reduce the cycling behavior of the Two-position control mode, several intermediate
settings of the controller output is introduced. This discontinuous control mode is used in an
attempt also to reduce overshoot and undershoot of the two-position mode. This mode is
represented by

Three position Controller can be represented by

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Floating-Control Mode:

In floating control, the specific output of the controller is not uniquely determined by the
error. If the error is zero, the output does not change but remains (floats) at whatever setting
it was when the error went to zero.

Lecture 12:

Time Proportional Control:

In this control action the output of the controller is either 100%(ON) or 0% (OFF) like ON-
OFF controller but the ON time or OFF time differs according to the error.

Figure2.4

2.5.2 Continuous Mode of Controller:

Proportional Control Mode:

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In the proportional mode a smooth & linear relationship exists between the controller
output and the error. Thus, over some range of errors about the setpoint, each value of error
has a unique value of controller output in one-to-one correspondence. The range of error to
cover the 0% to 100% controller output is called the proportional band, because the one-to-
one correspondence exists only for errors in this range. This mode can be expressed by

KP = proportional gain between error and controller output (% per %)

P0 = controller output with no error (%)

Proportional Band (PB): The range of error to cover the 0% to 100% controller output is
called the proportional band. The proportional band is defined by the equation

PB =100/KP

Figure: 2.5

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Offset: An important characteristic & disadvantage of the proportional control mode is that
it produces a permanent residual error in the operating point of the controlled variable when
a change in load occurs. This error is referred to as offset. It can be minimized by a larger
constant, which also reduces the proportional band.

Application: Proportional control generally is used in processes where large load changes
are unlikely or with moderate to small process lag times.

Lecture 13:

Integral-Control Mode:
The integral mode eliminates offset error by allowing the controller to adapt to changing
external conditions by changing the zero-error output. Therefore, this mode is represented
by an integral equation

Or,

Where, p(0) is the controller output when the integral action starts. The gain expresses how
much controller output in percent is needed for every percent-time accumulation of error.

Therefore, Integral action is provided by summing the error over time, multiplying that sum
by a gain, and adding the result to the present controller output. If the error becomes positive
or negative for an extended period of time, the integral action will begin to accumulate and
make changes to the controller output.

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 Figure:2.6
Integral time or Reset Time: The integral gain, is often represented by the inverse, which is
called the integral time,or the reset time.

Integral Saturation: Integral Windup occurs when the integral controller reaches its limit and
no more affecting the controlled system. In this case, the integral term continues
accumulating and increasing the controller output.

Lecture 14

Derivative-Control Mode:

Derivation controller action responds to the rate at which the error is changing ,that is, the
derivative of the error.This mode is represented by the expression

KD = Derivative gain( how much percent to change the controller output for every percent-
per-second rate of change of error)

38
 Figure:2.7
Derivative action is not used alone because it provides no output when the error is
constant,which is not desirable. A small change in error will affect largely on controller’s
output. The high derivative gain will result in heavy overshoots and overall system’s
stability.

Derivative controller action is also called rate action and anticipatory control.

2.6 Composite Control Modes

It is possible to combine several basic modes to get advantages of each mode. Which is
known as composite mode of controller.In some cases, an added advantage is that the modes
tend to eliminate some limitations they individually possess. Commonly used Composite
modes are-

Proportional-Integral Control (PI):

39
This is a control mode that results from a combination of the proportional mode and the
integral mode. The analytic expression for this control process is found from a series
combination
Where, PI(0) = integral term value when control action starts

The main advantage of this composite control mode is that the one-to-one correspondence
of the proportional mode is available and the integral mode eliminates the inherent offset.

Figure:2.8

When the error is zero, the controller output is fixed at the value that the integral term had
when the error went to zero.If the error is not zero, the proportional term contributes a
correction, and the integral term begins to increase or decrease the accumulated value
depending on the sign of the error and the direct or reverse action.

40
Lecture 15:

Proportional-Derivative Control Mode (PD):

A second combination of control modes has many industrial applications. It involves the
serial (cascaded) use of the proportional and derivative modes. The analytic expression for
this mode is

This mode cannot eliminate the offset of proportional controllers. It can handle fast process
load changes as long as the load change offset error is acceptable.

Figure:2.9

41
Three-Mode Controller (PID):

One of the most powerful but complex controller mode operations combines the
proportional, integral, and derivative modes. This system can be used for virtually any
process condition. The analytic expression is

This mode eliminates the offset error of the proportional mode and still provides fast
response.It comprises of all the advantages of all three modes as well as eliminates the
disadvantages.

Lecture 16:

2.7 Electronic Controllers

In Electronic controller op amps are used as the primary circuit element. Discrete electronic
components also are used to implement this function, but the basic principles are best
illustrated using op amp circuits.
2.7.1 Error Detector
The detection of an error signal is accomplished in electronic controllers by taking the
difference between voltages. One voltage is generated by the process signal current passed
through a resistor. The second voltage represents the set point. This is usually generated by

42
 Figure:2.10

The current output from the sensor is used to produce a voltage, IR, across the resistor, R.
This is placed in series opposition to the set point voltage(VSP), tapped from a variable
resistor connected to a constant positive source . The result is an error voltage,which is then
used in the process controller to calculate controller output.

Figure:2.11

2.7.2 ON-OFF Controller:

A two-position controller can be implemented in different way. A method using op amp

implementation of ON/OFF control with adjustable neutral zone is given in figure.

43
 Figure:2.12

For this circuit, we assume that if the controller input voltage, in, reaches a value, then the
comparator output should go to the ON state, which is defined as some voltage,VH . When
the input voltage falls below a value VL, the comparator output should switch to the OFF
state, which is defined as 0 V. The comparator output switches states when the voltage on its
input,V1, is equal to the setpoint value,VSP . Analysis of this circuit shows that the high
(ON) switch voltage is

VH = Vsp

and the low (OFF) switching voltage is

Figure:2.13

Lecture 17

2.7.3 Proportional Mode:

Implementation of this mode requires a circuit that has a response given by

44
Where

P0 = controller output with no error

ep = error in percent of variable range

KP = proportional gain

Aanalog electronic equation for the output voltage is

Vout = GPVe + V0

Where, Vout = output voltage

Ve = error voltage

GP = R2/R1 = gain

V0 = output with zero error

Figure:2.14

Problem: A controller is scaled so that 0–10 V corresponds to a 0–100% output. If and full-
scale error range is 10 V, find the values of and to support a 20% proportional band about a
50% zero-error controller output.
R2 = 10 k_ V0 R1

45
The value of V0 is 50% of 10 V, or 5 V, to provide the zero-error controller output.

To design for a 20% proportional band means that a change of error of 20% must cause the
controller output to vary 100%. Thus, from Vout = GPVe + V0

we note that when the error has changed 20% of 10 V, or 2 V, we must have full controller
output change. Thus,

Lecture 18

2.7.4 Integral Mode:

The integral mode is represented by the equation

P(0) = controller output when control action starts

ep = deviations in percent of full-scale variable value

KI = integration gain (s-1)

46
p(t) = controller output in percent of full scale

This function is easy to implement when op amps are used as the building blocks.The
corresponding equation relating input to output is

The values of R and C can be adjusted to obtain the desired integration time. The initial

controller output is the integrator output at t=0 .

Electronic I controller:

Figure:2.15
47
Lecture 19:

2.7.5 Derivative Mode:

The derivative mode is never used alone because it cannot provide a controller output when
the error is zero. It is implemented with op amps so it can be combined with other modes.
The control mode equation of derivative mode-

The above equation can be represented by

From a practical perspective, this circuit cannot be used because it tends to be unstable, it
may

begin to exhibit spontaneous oscillations in the output voltage. The reason for this instability
is the very large gain at high frequencies where the derivative is very large.

In order to make a practical circuit, a modification is provided that essentially “clamps” the
gain above some frequency to a constant value. The actual transfer function for this circuit
can be shown to be given by

48
Circuit can be implemented-

Figure:2.16

2.8 Composite Controller Modes

Composite modes are implemented easily using op amp techniques. Basically, this consists
of simply combining the mode circuits introduced in the previous section.

2.8.1 Proportional-Integral Mode:

A simple combination of the proportional and integral circuits provides the proportional-
integral mode of controller action.

The resulting circuit

is shown in figure.

49
 Figure:2.17

Problem: Design a proportional-integral controller with a proportional band of 30% and an

integration gain of 0.1%/(%–s). The 4- to 20-mA input converts to a 0.4- to 2-V signal, and
the output is to be 0–10 V. Calculate values of , Gp, GI, R2, R1 and C, respectively.

Answer: A proportional band of 30% means that when the input changes by 30% of range,
or

0.48 V, the output must change by 100%, or 10 V. This gives a gain of

Gp =R2/R1 =10 V/0.48 = 20.83

A of 0.1%/(% – s) says that a 1% error for 1 s should produce an output change of 0.1%.One

percent of 2.6 V is 0.016 V, and 0.1% of 10 V is 0.01 V, so

GI =1/R2C =0.01/0.016 = 0.625 s-1

Or R2C= 2.6 s

Consider any value of C and find R2 .From the value of GP find value of R1 using the value
of R2.

Lecture 20:

2.8.2 Proportional-Derivative Mode:

A powerful combination of controller modes is the proportional and derivative modes. This
combination is implemented using the circuit

50
 Figure:2.18

The output of the circuit is-

Or,

Where, is used to clamp the output.

So, the resulted output relates with the PD controller equation

51
Problem:A proportional-derivative controller has a 0.4- to 2.0-V input measurement range, a
0 to 5V output, Kp = 5%/% , and KD = 0.08%per (%/min). The period of the fastest
expected signal change is 2.5 s. Implement this controller with an op amp circuit.

2.8.3 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Mode:

The ultimate process controller is the one that exhibits proportional, integral, and derivative
response to the process-error input. This mode is characterized by the equation

This equation can be represented by

This can
be implemented

52
 Figure:2.19

Lecture 21:

2.9 Pneumatic Controllers:

The pneumatic controller is based on the nozzle/flapper as the basic mechanism of

operation, much as the op amp is used in electronics.

Proportional Controller:

A proportional mode of operation can be achieved with the system shown in figure .If the

input pressure increases, then the input bellows forces the flapper to rotate to close off the

nozzle. When this happens, the output pressure increases so that the feedback bellows exerts

a force to balance that of the input bellows. A balance condition then occurs when torques

exerted by each about the pivot are equal, or

Where,

P = pressure with no error

psp = setpoint pressure

x2 = feedback lever arm (m)

A2 = feedback bellows effective area (m2)

53
pout = output pressure (Pa)

x1 = level arm of input (m)

A1 = input and setpoint bellows effective area (m2)

pin = input pressure (Pa)

Where,

Figure:2.20

Lecture 22:

2.9.2 Proportional-Integral

54
This control mode is also implemented using pneumatics by the system shown in figure. In

this case, an extra bellows with a variable restriction is added to the proportional system.

Suppose the input pressure shows a sudden increase. This drives the flapper toward the

nozzle, increasing output pressure until the proportional bellows balances the input as in the

previous case. The integral bellows is still at the original output pressure, because the

restriction prevents pressure changes from being transmitted immediately. As the increased

pressure on the output bleeds through the restriction, the integral bellows slowly moves the

flapper closer to the nozzle, thereby causing a steady increase in output pressure (as dictated

by the integral mode). The variable restriction allows for variation of the leakage rate, and

hence the integration time.

55
 Figure:2.21

2.9.3 Proportional-Derivative

This controller action can be accomplished pneumatically by the method shown in figure. A

variable restriction is placed on the line leading to the balance bellows. Thus, as the input

pressure increases, the flapper is moved toward the nozzle with no impedance, because the

restrictions prevent an immediate response of the balance bellows. Thus, the output pressure

rises very fast and then, as the increased pressure leaks into the balance bellows, decreases

as the balance bellows moves the flapper back away from the nozzle. Adjustment of the

variable restriction allows for changing the derivative time constraint.

Figure:2.22

Lecture 23

2.9.4 Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller

56
The three-mode controller is actually the most common type produced, because it can be
used to accomplish any of the previous modes by setting of restrictions. This is simply a
combination of the three systems presented. By opening or closing restrictions, the three-
mode controller can be used to implement the other composite modes. Proportional gain,
reset time, and rate are set by adjustment of bellows separation and restriction size.

Figure:2.23

Sample Questions:

2. The temperature of water in a tank is controlled by a two-position controller. When

heater is off the temperature drops at 2 K per minute. When the heater is on the temperature

rises at 4 K per minute. The set point is 323 K and the neutral zone is +4% to -4%of the set
point. There is a 0.5-min lag at both the on and off switch points. Find the period of
oscillation and plot the water temperature versus time.

2. Consider the proportional-mode level-control system of figure. Valve A is linear, with a

flow scale factor of 10 m3/h per percent controller output. The controller output is nominally

57
50% with a constant of KP = 10% per %. A load change occurs when flow through valve B
changes from 500 m3/h to 600 m3/h. Calculate the new controller output and offset error.

3. Atemperature controller controls temperature from 100° to 200°C. Asensor provides an

output of 2 to 8 V for this temperature range. The controller output drives a heater with

an output of 0 to 5 volts. What circuit gain is needed if the controller of is to be used with a
proportional gain of 4%/%?

4. Plot the graph of a PI controller output as a function time. The error to the controller is
shown in fig. Kp=5, KI=2.0 s-1, PI(0)=20%. 5

E(%)

1 2 3 t

5. What is ‘Neutral zone’? In which controller it occurs?

6. Draw the basic block diagram of a process control loop and explain the blocks in it. 5

7. Draw and explain the working principle of Electronic ON-OFF controller

58
 MODULE III

Lecture 24:

3.1 Final Control Element: Actuators

A valve actuator is a device that produces force to open or close the valve utilizing a power
source. This source of power can be manual (hand, gear, chain-wheel, lever, etc.) or can be
electric, hydraulic or pneumatic. Basic actuators turn valves to either fully opened or fully
closed positions. But modern actuators have much more advanced capabilities. They not
only act as devices for opening and closing valves, but also provide intermediate position
with high degree of accuracy. The valve actuator can be packaged together with logic
control and digital communication ability to allow remote operation as well as allowing
predictive maintenance data.

Figure. 3.1: Control Valve with Actuators

3.1.1 Type of Actuators:

 Pneumatic Actuators
 Electric Actuators
 Hydraulic Actuators

59
But Pneumatic and Electric Actuators are most commonly used.
Pneumatic: Pneumatic actuators utilize an air signal from an external control device to
create a control action via a solenoid. These are commonly available in two main forms:
piston actuators and diaphragm actuators.
Electric:

Electric actuators are motor driven devices that utilize an electrical input signal to generate a
motor shaft rotation. This rotation is, in turn, translated by the unit’s linkage into a linear
motion, which drives the valve stem and plug assembly for flow modulation. In case of
electric signal failure, these actuators can be specified to fail in the stem-out, stem-in, or last
position. Commonly used motors for electric actuators include steppers and servos.

Figure.: 3.2: Pneumatic Actuator Figure.: 3.3: Electric Actuator

Difference between Pneumatic and Electric Actuators:

The major difference between pneumatic and electronic actuators is the speed of
operation.The two technologies are so different that one cannot be a drop-in replacement for
the other.Each has inherent advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of Pneumatic Actuators:

 The biggest advantage of the pneumatic actuators is their failsafe action. By

design ofthe compressed spring, the engineer can determine if the valve will
fail closed oropen, depending on the safety of the process.

60
  Provide high force and speed, which are easily adjustable and are
independent ofeach other
 Have a delayed response which makes them ideal for being resilient against
smallupsets in pressure changes of the source.
 Most economical when the scale of deployment matches the capacity of
thecompressor.
 Provide inherent safety and are ideal for hazardous and explosive
environment.
Limitations of Pneumatic Actuators:

 Maintenance and operating costs can be high, especially if a serious effort

has notbeen made to quantify and minimize the costs. Maintenance costs
includereplacement cylinder costs and plugging air-line leakages whereas the
operatingcosts include the cost of compressed air, i.e. electricity for the
compressor.
Advantages of Electric actuators:

• Provide precise control and positioning in comparison to pneumatic

actuators.
• Response time is essentially instantaneous.
• High degree of stability.
• Help adapt machines to flexible processes.
• Low operating cost. Controllers and drivers low voltage circuitry consume
power to afar lesser degree.
Limitations of Electric Actuators:

• The primary disadvantage of an electric actuator is that, should a power

failure occur,the valve remains in the last position and the fail-safe position
cannot be obtainedeasily unless there is a convenient source of stored
electrical energy.
• Higher cost than pneumatic actuators.

61
 • The actuator needs to be in an environment that is rendered safe. Generally
notrecommended for flammable atmospheres.

Lecture 25

3.2Control Valves

The control action in any control loop system is executed by the final control element. The
most common type of final control element used in chemical and other process control is the
control valve. A control valve is normally driven by a diaphragm type pneumatic actuator
that throttles the flow of the manipulating variable for obtaining the desired control action.
A control valve essentially consists of a plug and a stem. The stem can be raised or lowered
by air pressure and the plug changes the effective area of an orifice in the flow path. When
the air pressure increases, the downward force of the diaphragm moves the stem downward
against the spring. So, valve is a mechanical device that controls the flow and pressure of
fluid within a system or Process. So basically, it controls flow & pressure.Final control
elements are necessary to control the Process variable. Valves are used to control the flow of
fluid in process system.

Figure.: 3.4

Different Parts of Control valve

62
 Figure. 3.5: Detailed Diagram Of Control Valve

 DIAPHRAGM CASE-Use to enclose the diaphragm to form a pressure

chamber, one above the diaphragm and one at the bottom of the diaphragm.
The sealing surfaces of the slope away from the diaphragm at the outer edge
to insure a pressure tight seal inside the bolt circle at the inner edge.
 DIAPHRAGM-A flexible piece of material that flexes in response to the
pneumatic signal from the controller. The moulded diaphragm in
combination with deep diaphragm case provides a remarkably constant
effective area throughout the valve travel.
 DIAPHRAGM PLATE-A metal plate that fits the moulded diaphragm and
transmit the diaphragm force to the stem.
63
 ACTUATOR SPRING-Opposes the air pressure force on the diaphragm to
control the movement of the actuator. It also pushes the actuator to back up
to original position when air pressure fails.
 ACTUATOR STEM-A metal rod that connects the diaphragm plate to the
valve stem.

 SPRING SEAT-A piece of metal that holds the actuator spring in position.

 SPRING ADJUSTER-A hexagon heads adjuster and is easily accessible to

adjust the compression of the actuator spring. Adjusting the tension of the
actuator spring will determine the initial movement of the actuator when
pneumatic signal is applied.

 YOKE-A structure by which the diaphragm case or cylinder assembly is

supported rigidly on the bonnet assembly.

 STEAM CONNECTOR-Is a split nut threaded to engage the actuator on

one end and the valve stem on the other end. The two halves are bolted
together to provide a connection that prevents loosening due to torque
reactions of valve stem.
 TRAVEL INDICATOR-The travel indicator is a stainless steel with its
edges cupped downward to add rigidity and also provide a definite position
reference.
 TRAVEL INDICATOR SCALE-A graduated scale attached to the yoke for
indication of valve travel.
 VALVE STEM-A rod connected to the actuator stem and extended through
the bonnet assembly to permit positioning the valve plug.

64
  YOKE LOCK NUT-Is a rugged lock nut use to fastened the actuator and the
valve body. The arrangement of fastening the two parts provide the correct
alignment of actuator and body plus adequate strength.
 PACKING FLANGE-Use to hold the packing material inside the packing
box.
 PACKING FOLLOWER-Use to guide and compress the packing material
through the bonnet hole.
 PACKING - Use to provide seal and prevent leaks through the bonnet
hole.To know more about stem packing
 PACKING BOX-Enclosed the sealing components where the valve stem
enters the bonnet or valve body.
 BONNET -The bonnet enclosed the valve plug in the valve body.
 VALVE PLUG -A movable part which provides a variable opening in a
port.
 SEAT RING-Comes in contact with the valve plug to seal the valve tight
during close position.
 VALVE BODY-A housing for internal parts having inlet and outlet flow
connections. The term valve body or even just body, frequently is used in
referring to the valve body together with its bonnet assembly and included
trim parts. More properly this group of components should be called the
valve body assembly.

Lecture 26

3.2.1 Classifications of Control Valves:

Control valves are available in different types and shapes. They can be classified in different
ways; based on: (a) action, (b) number of plugs, and (c) flow characteristics.

3.2.2 Valve Characteristics:

The control valve characteristics refers to the relationship between the volumetric
flowrate F (Y-axis) through the valve & the valve travel or opening position m
(Xaxis), as the valve is opened from its closed position to various degree of opening.

65
There are three most common control valve characteristics viz Linear, Equal % and
Quick-Opening.

a) A control valve is labelled LINEAR if its inherent flow characteristics can be

represented by a straight line on a rectangular plot of flowrate F (or % F, or Cv or % Cv)
versus % travel m at the ideal condition of constant valve pressure drop.

b) A control valve is said to be EQUAL % if equal increment of valve travel or

opening m (or Z) produces equal PERCENT (%) increment in flow F. If this occurs
at the ideal condition of constant valve pressure drop , the valve is said to be
inherently EQUAL %.

c) The Quick-Opening characteristic control valve has a flat disk instead of a contoured
valve plug. Its flow (or Cv) increase rapidly to its maximum flow with minimum initial
valve opening.

Figure.: 3.6

3.2.3 Valve Size (Capacity):

Valves are sized according to their Cv value. For liquid service, the equation for Cv is:

66
 CV=

The required flow and pressure drop information used to size a valve is based on the process
operations and equipment. Once the Cv value is known, the rated* Cv can be determined
from the manufacturer's data books. A general guideline is that valves should be sized so
that maximum flow is obtained at about 90% valve open. Valves should be able to provide
normal flow condition at around 60% to 70% of the travel. Valve should provide minimum
flow when about 10% open. The control valve need not be of the same size as the pipe. It is
better to make an error in under sizing a control valve than to oversize it.

As a good engineering practice, the rated Cv of the valve shall be in accordance with
following criteria:

If normal flow is specified:

• Calculated Cv – Based on the normal flow
• Selected Cv – Based on 2.4 x normal flow

If maximum flow is specified but is equal to or less than 2.4 x normal flow
• Calculated Cv – based on normal flow
• Selected Cv – based on 2.5 x normal flow

When maximum flow is specified but is greater than 2.4 x normal flow
• Calculated Cv – Based on normal flow
• Selected Cv – Based on 2.1 x maximum flow

Lecture 27

3.2.4 Single Seated Valve

67
Only one plug is present in the control
valve, so it is single seated valve. The
advantage of this type of valve is that, it
can be fully closed and flow variation
from 0 to 100% can be achieved. But
looking at its construction, due to the
pressure drop across the orifice a large
upward force is present in the orifice
area, and as a result, the force required
moving the valve against this upward
thrust is also large. Thus this type of
valves is more suitable for small flow rates.
Figure.3.7: Single Seated Valve

3.6.5 Double Seated Valve:

There are two plugs in a double-

seated valve; flow moves upward in
one orifice area, and downward in
the other orifice. The resultant
upward or downward thrust is almost
zero. As a result, the force required
to move a double-seated valve is
comparatively much less. But the
double-seated valve suffers from one
disadvantage. The flow cannot be
shut off completely, because of the
differential temperature expansion of
the stem and the valve seat. If one
plug is tightly closed, there is

Figure.3.8: Double Seated Valve

usually a small gap between the other plug and its seat. Thus, single-seated valves are
recommended for when the valves are required to be shut off completely. But there are

68
many processes, where the valve used is not expected to operate near shut off position. For
this condition, double-seated valves are recommended.

3.2.5 Valve selection:

To decide what type of valve will be used for a given process characteristic;

o Never use a valve that is less than half the pipe size;
o Avoid using the lower 10% and upper 20% of the valve stroke. The valve is
much easier to control in the 10 to 80% stroke range.
o There are 5 main parameters to consider when selecting a valve:
 Cv
 media compatibility
 pressure
 temperature
 process fitting

Lecture 28

3.2.6 Cavitation:

Cavitation is the formation and collapse of

vapor bubbles (cavities) in the liquid flow
streams caused by changes in pressure and
velocity. There are four primary negative side
effects of uncontrolled cavitation in control
valves: high noise, excessive vibration,
material damage, and deterioration of flow
effectiveness. Physical damage to valve trim is
usually characterized by a pitted, rough
appearance. Figure. 3.9: Cavitation Effect
Flashing:

69
At the point where the fluid’s velocity is at its highest, the pressure is at its lowest.
Assuming the fluid is incompressible (liquid), if the pressure falls below the liquid’s vapor
pressure, vapor bubbles form within the valve and collapse into themselves as the pressure
increases downstream. This leads to massive shock waves that are noisy and will certainly
ruin the equipment.
Requirements for occurrence of flashing:
• The fluid at the inlet must be in all-liquid condition, but some vapor must be
present at the valve outlet;
• The fluid at the inlet may be in either a saturated or a subcooled condition;
and
• The valve outlet pressure must be either at or below the vapor pressure of the
liquid.
• Flashing effects
• Material damage is associated with the formation of sand-blasted surfaces;
• Decreased efficiency - valve ability to convert pressure drop across the valve
into mass flowrate is compromised.

Flashing cannot be eliminated in the valve if the downstream pressure is less than the vapor
pressure of liquid. However, the damage can be minimized by:

• Hard face trim (using hard facing materials such as Satellite or Tungsten
Carbide), more erosion resistant body material.
• Increasing size of the valve, therefore reducing the velocity
• Using angle valve – flow over plug

Noise:

Valve components will tend to vibrate whenever they are subjected to high velocity
turbulent flow. Standard control valves will therefore tend to be noisy on high pressure drop
applications particularly where flow rates are high, since the low pressure experienced
downstream of the seat ring (at the vena contracta) is accompanied by very high velocities
reaching as high as the speed of sound. If noise level is less than 100 dBA, the most
70
economical way to reduce noise wouldbe to use some form of path treatment such as
insulation, heavier walled pipe, or a silencer. Noise level greater than 100 dBA may create
dangerous pipe vibration. Path treatment alone is not likely to be effective, so some form of
source treatment (such as labyrinth plugs or multi-step angle valves or using some flow
restrictor in series with the valve) is needed.

Lecture 29

3.2.7 Control Valve Accessories:

Control valves alone cannot achieve the purpose, there are many accessories used to work
with the control valve to accomplish the task, help to ensure accuracy, There are different
types of accessories used for control valves:

1. Valve positioners are devices used to put

the valve in the correct position by
increasing or decreasing the air load
pressure on the actuator. A positioner is a
motion-control device designed to actively
compare stem position against the control
signal, adjusting pressure to the actuator
diaphragm or piston until the correct stem
position is reached. A properly functioning

positioner ensures the control

valve will be “well-behaved”
and obedient to the command
signal.

Figure. 3.10: Valve Positioner

71
 2. Current to pressure converter (I/P) are device which converts incident current
signal into a corresponding standard pressure signal.An I/P converter in common
convert a 4-20mA current signal to 3-15 Psi pneumatic signal that a pneumatic
positioner can interpret and send to the control valve. The air supply for the I/P
converter must be approximately 20 psi so that the converter can control the pressure
between 3-15 psi. I/P converters are electrical devices, so plant personnel must
choose one that has the appropriate electrical characteristics and certifications for the
zone in which it will be installed.

3. Limit switches are an indicator, which indicates

when a specific position is reached. Limit
switches are used most often to indicate the fully
open or fully closed position but can be set at
er
intermediate points if desired. A limit switch also
can be connected with alarm or indicator light.
The switch can be connected to any safety
circuits. A non-conducting electromagnetic
system triggers when a position is reached to
activate internal contact of a circuit. Each switch
adjusts individually and can be supplied for either alternating current or direct
current systems. Figure. 3.11: Limit Switch

4. A volume booster amplifies the

air flow, which is a mechanical
relay. Every pneumatic
instrumentassociated with the
control valve has a limit of flow
capacity. For pneumatic
actuator, volume booster works

72
 as a relay between a system with low flow volume and one with high flow volume.
Volume boosters used on control valves are normally applied with a bypass or gain
adjustment to provide stability. The volume booster normally has a built-in deadband
where a certain amount of signal change is necessary to activate the volume booster.
Figure. 3.12: Volume Booster

5. The position transmitter senses the valve stem

position continuously and the position is feed
backed to the control system. And the position is
compared with the desired position and gives a
proper control action by the processor. The
position transmitter is an electrical device. There
are, however, no contact switches. Instead, a
Fig. 3.12: Position Transmitter
position sensor is used to follow the valve position and send a signal to an
amplification circuit, which then provides the transmitter output, the position
transmitter produce a signal in range 4-20mA.

Air Filter Regulator:

Air Filters are used to remove liquid water
and particulate matter from compressed air
sources. These are ‘mechanical filters’ and
do not remove oil vapours or chemical
contaminants in vapour form. Air Filters are
characterized by the flow capabilities, the
micron size of the filter media and the media
type; screen, sintered plastic or metal or other
material. Filters will accumulate debris and
must be cleaned and the media replaced on a
regular basis. The service life of the media is
generally based on no more than a 5 psig pressure
Fig. 3.13: Air Filter Regulator

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drop across the device.

I/P Converter:

I/P Transducer accept an electrical input signal and produce a proportional pneumatic
output. In this session we are going to discuss about how I/P transducer works. The Flapper
of the Flapper-Nozzle instrument is connected to Pivot so that it can move up and down and
a magnetic material was attached to other end of flapper and it is kept near the
electromagnet.

Figure. 3.14: I/P converter

As the magnet gets activated.the flapper moves towards the electromagnet and the nozzle
gets closed to some extent. So the some part of 20 P.S.I supplied will escape through nozzle
and remaining pressure will come as output. If the current signal is high, then power of the
magnet will increase, then flapper will move closer to the nozzle, so less pressure will
escape through nozzle and output pressure increases.

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 Lecture 30:

3.3 Feed forward control

If a measured disturbance enters a process, the control input can be adjusted to compensate
for effect of the disturbance on the output. Perfect compensation would cause the controlled
output to show no deviations from its set-point even as a disturbance has entered the
process. This compensation to mitigate the transient effect of a measured disturbance on the
controlled output is referred to as feed-forward control. A very simple example of feed-
forward control is driving a car. Adjusting the hot and cold water knobs for the right
temperature water from the shower is an example of feedback control.

Figure. 3.15: Block diagram of feed forward control

Comparison between feedback and feed forward control system:

Sr. Point of
Feedback control system Feed Forward Control system
no Difference

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Sr. Point of
Feedback control system Feed Forward Control system
no Difference

Systems in which corrective action is Systems in which corrective action

1 Definition taken after disturbances affect the is taken before disturbances affect
output the output

Necessary
2 Not required Measurable Disturbance or noise
requirement

Corrective action taken before the

Corrective action taken after the
Corrective actual disturbance occurs on the
3
action disturbance occurs on the output.
output.

4 Block Diagram

Control
Variables are adjusted depending on Variables are adjusted based on
5 Variable
errors. prior knowledge and predictions.
adjustment

Use of flow meter as feed forward

6 Example Use of roll sensor as feedback
block in temperature control

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Sr. Point of
Feedback control system Feed Forward Control system
no Difference

element in ship stabilization system. systems.

Lecture 31:

3.4 Ratio Control

Ratio control, as the name suggests, is used for maintaining the ratio between two streams.
The independent stream is referred to as the wild stream. The ratio controller adjusts the
flow of the other stream to keep it in ratio to the wild stream. The wild stream flow
measurement is multiplied by theratio set-point to obtain the flow set-point for the
manipulated stream. The calculated flowset-point is input to the flow controller on the
manipulated stream. Ratio control isimplemented as a feed-forward strategy where two
flows are increasedin tandem so that the change in the wild stream is compensated for
before it affects the process output.The implementation of ratio control, can be done using
three configurations, they are:

Fig. 3.16: configuration1

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Figure. 3.17: configuration 2 Figure. 3.18: configuration

Applications of ratio control:

Typical applications for ratio control include:

 Blending two or more components. One ingredient may be set for the master
production rate; other ingredients are then radioed to this master ingredient.

 Air-fuel ratio control for a combustion process. In a simple air-fuel ratio control
system, the fuel flow may be controlled by a temperature or pressure controller. A
measure of the fuel flow is then used to determine the set point of the air-flow
controller.

 Controlling a product stream to feed rate, as a means of composition control. This is

a common control technique for distillation towers.

Lecture 32:

3.5 Cascade Control:

 The primary disadvantage of conventional feedback control is that the corrective

action for disturbances does not begin until after the controlled variable deviates
from the set point. In other words, the disturbance must be “felt” by the process
78
 before the control system responds. Feed forward control offers large improvements
over feedback control for processes that have large time constant and/or delay.
However, feed forward control requires that the disturbances be measured explicitly
and that a model be available to calculate the controller output. Cascade control is an
alternative approach that can significantly improve the dynamic response to
disturbances by employing a secondary measurement and a secondary feedback
controller. The secondary measurement point is located so that it recognizes the
upset condition sooner than the controlled variable, but the disturbance is not
necessarily measured.

 Cascade control is arguably one of the most useful concepts in chemical process
control. The cascade control scheme consists of two control loops, namely the
master loop and the slave loop, with the master loop setting the set-point for the
slave loop.

Figure 3.19. : Block diagram Cascade Control

79
Common example of Cascade Control:

Figure. 3.20: Jacketed CSTR

Lecture 33:

3.6 Multivariable control

Multivariable control system defines a system in which the variable the variable interacts
strongly. This kind of system must have more than one input and more than one output. A
disturbance in any input causes a change of response from at least one output. This kind of
system have as many inputs and outputs as needed to control the process. A system with an
equal number of inputs and outputs is said to be square. A disturbance in any variable can
cause a change in response in any output in its signal path. Depending on the system design,
these paths can be direct or indirect.

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Figure. 3.7: Block Diagram of multivariable control

Each manipulated variable can affect both controlled variable.

Block Diagram for 2x2 Multiloop Control:

Text Books:

1) Control Systems: Engineering, 5th Edition [I. J. Nagrath, M. Gopal]

2) D. Patranabis, Principles of Process Control, TMH , New Delhi, 2nd Ed.
3) D. P. Eckman, Automatic Process control, John Wiley, New York
4) Surekha Bhanot, Process Control Principal & Application , Oxford
5) G. Stephanopoulos, Chemical process Control, PHI
6) C. D. Johnson, Process Control Instrumentation Technology, PHI

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