Active Filter

An electronic filter is a circuit designed to pass a specified band of frequencies while attenuating
all signals outside this band.

Gain

1.0
0.707

BW

0 0 Frequency
1 f L fr fH ∞
Kinds of Filter
• Analog Filter and Digital Filter
• Passive Filter and Active Filter
• Continuous-Time Filter and Discrete-Time Filter
• Linear Filter and Non-linear Filter

Passive Filter
A passive filter is a kind of electronic filter that is made only from passive components. It does
not require an external power source like active filters. Since most filters are linear, in most cases,
passive filters are composed of just the basic linear elements – resistors, capacitors, inductors.

Active Filter
Active filters are implemented using a combination of passive and active (amplifying)
components, and require an external power source. Operational amplifiers are frequently used in
active filter designs. These can have high Q factor, and can achieve resonance without the use of
inductors.

EEE, AUST 1
Advantages of Active Filter over Passive Filter
• Less Cost: Active filters are very much inexpensive than passive filters due to the variety
of cheaper op-amp and absence of costly inductors.

• Gain and Frequency Adjustment Flexibility: Since the op-amp is capable of providing
a gain (which may also be variable), the input signal is not attenuated as it is in a passive
filter. The active filter is easier to tune or adjust.

• No Loading Problem: Active filters provide an excellent isolation between the individual
stages due to the high input impedance (ranging from a few KΩ to a several thousand MΩ)
and low output impedance (ranging from less than 1Ω to a few hundred Ω). So, the active
filter does not cause loading of the source or load.

• Size and Weight: Active filters are small in size and less bulky (due to the absence of
bulky inductors) and are rugged.

• Non-floating Input and Output: Active filters generally have single ended inputs and
outputs which do not ‘float; with respect to the system power supply or common. This
property is different from that of the passive filters.

Disadvantages of Active Filter

• Performance at high frequency is very poor.
• Limited Gain-Bandwidth product.
• Slew rate of op-amp.
Types of Active Filter
• Low Pass Filter (LPF)
• High Pass Filter (HPF)
• Band Pass Filter or Pass Band Filter (BPF)
▪ Wide Band Pass Filter (WBPF)
▪ Narrow Band Pass Filter (NBPF)
• Band Reject Filter or Stop Band Filter (BRF)
▪ Wide Band Reject Filter (WBRF)
▪ Narrow Band Reject Filter (NBRF)
• All Pass Filter

EEE, AUST 2
Frequency Response of Different Types of Filters

Frequency Response of Different Types of Filters

Filters
Ideal Filter Practical Filter

Gain Gain

1.0 1.0
0.707
Low Pass

0 Frequency 0 Frequency
1 fC 1 fC

Gain Gain

1.0 1.0
0.707
High Pass

0 Frequency 0 Frequency
1 fC 1 fC

Gain Gain

1.0 1.0
0.707
Band Pass

0 Frequency 0 Frequency
1 fL fH 1 fL fH

Gain Gain

1.0 1.0
0.707
Band Stop

0 Frequency 0 Frequency
1 fL fH 1 fL fH

EEE, AUST 3
Decibel (dB)
The decibel (dB) is a relative unit of measurement corresponding to one tenth of a Bel. It is used
to express the ratio of one value of a power or field quantity (intensity) to another, on a logarithmic
scale, the logarithmic quantity being called the power level or field level, respectively. It
expresses them as an exponential function. One bel is a power ratio of 10:1, and is divided into
ten decibels. An increase of three decibels is approximately a doubling of power.
Decibels are often used in measuring telecommunication signals. With electric audio signals,
there are several decibel units, relative to several bases.

• For Power Quantities

When referring to measurements of power quantities, a ratio can be expressed as a level in

decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the measured quantity to
reference value.

Here, the ratio of 𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡 (measured/output power) to 𝑃𝐼𝑛 (reference/input power) is in dB –

𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡
∴ (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (
𝑃𝐼𝑛
) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

(𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑑𝐵
( )
10
∴ (𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 10

• Field quantities and root-power quantities

When referring to measurements of field quantities, it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares
of 𝐹𝑂𝑢𝑡 (measured/output field) and 𝐹𝐼𝑛 (reference/input field). This is because in most
applications power is proportional to the square of field.

In electrical circuits, dissipated power is typically proportional to the square of voltage or current
when the impedance is constant. Taking voltage as an example, the ratio 𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 (measured/output
voltage) and 𝑉𝐼𝑛 (reference/input voltage) is in dB –
𝑃𝑂𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 2 /R
(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( )
𝑃𝐼𝑛 𝑉𝐼𝑛 2 /R
𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 2
= 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( ) = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 ( 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 2
𝑉𝐼𝑛

∴ (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒

(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑑𝐵
( )
20
∴ (𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 10

EEE, AUST 4
-𝟑 dB Point for Cutoff Frequency
The Cutoff frequency or half power point can be measure by 0.5 of power gain or 0.707 of voltage
gain in normal scale. For decibel scale the value became -

(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.707) = −3 𝑑𝐵

(𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 (0.5) = −3 𝑑𝐵

Gain
In electronics, gain is a measure of the ability of an amplifier to increase the power or amplitude
of a signal from the input to the output port by adding energy converted from some power supply
to the signal. It is usually defined as the mean ratio of the signal amplitude or power at the output
port to the amplitude or power at the input port. It is often expressed using the logarithmic decibel
(dB) units ("dB gain"). A gain greater than one (greater than 0 dB), that is amplification, is the
defining property of an active component or circuit, while a passive circuit will have a gain of
less than one.
The term gain can refer to the ratio of output to input voltage (voltage gain), current (current gain)
or electric power (power gain).
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

Transfer function
In engineering, a transfer function (also known as system function or network function) of an
electronic or control system component is a mathematical function which theoretically models
the device's output for each possible input.
Transfer functions, which are commonly given in the Laplace domain, gives the relationship
between output and input in terms of amplitude and phase shift which also depends on the input
frequency. Transfer functions for components are used to design and analyze systems assembled
from components, particularly using the block diagram technique, in electronics and control
theory.
𝑉𝑂𝑢𝑡 (𝑠) 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑠+ 𝑏2 𝑠2 + … +𝑏𝑀 𝑠𝑀
𝐻(𝑠) = =
𝑉𝐼𝑛 (𝑠) 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑠+ 𝑎2 𝑠2 + … +𝑎(𝑁−1) 𝑠 (𝑁−1) + 𝑠𝑁

EEE, AUST 5
−20dB/Decade Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Rf = R

+VCC
2
7
6
R 741 VO
4
3
-VCC
Ei C

Voltage gain, Voltage gain,

VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = -20 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3

0.1 -20

0.01 -40

-60
0.001
1 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M f (Hz)

Phase Angle
θ⁰

10⁰
0⁰
-10⁰
-20⁰
-30⁰ -20 dB/decade Low Pass Filter
-40⁰
-50⁰
-60⁰
-70⁰
-80⁰
-90⁰
~~

~~

1 100 200 250 400 500 800 1K 2K 2.5K 4K 5K 8K 10K f (Hz)

EEE, AUST 6
Here the voltage across capacitor 𝐶 equal to the output voltage 𝑉𝑂 , because this circuit is a voltage
follower circuit. 𝐸𝑖 divides between 𝑅 and 𝐶. The capacitor voltage equal to 𝑉𝑂 and which is –
1/𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑉𝑂 = × 𝐸𝑖
𝑅 +1/𝑗𝜔𝐶

Here 𝜔 is the frequency of 𝐸𝑖 in radians per second (𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓) and 𝑗 is equal to √−1.
The obtained closed-loop voltage gain 𝐴𝐶𝐿 is-
𝑉𝑂 1
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
𝐸𝑖 1 +𝑗𝜔𝑅𝐶

The cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐶 is,

1 𝐶 𝜔
𝑓𝐶 = =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋
Here 𝜔𝐶 is the cutoff frequency in radians per second and 𝑓𝐶 is the cutoff frequency in hertz. 𝑅
is in ohms (Ω) and 𝐶 is in farads (F). Rearrange the above equation to solve for 𝑅 -
1 1
𝑅= =𝜔
2𝜋𝑓. 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶𝐶

Design Procedure

Following steps accomplish the design of Low Pass Filter –

1. Choose the cutoff frequency (𝑓𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝐶 ).

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶, usually between 0.001 𝜇𝐹 and 0.1 𝜇𝐹.
3. Calculate the 𝑅 from above equation.
4. Choose 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅

Filter Response

The value of 𝐴𝐶𝐿 at 𝑓𝐶 is found by 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶=1.

1 1
∴ 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.707∠ − 45°
1 + 𝑗1 √2∠45°
EEE, AUST 7
Therefore, the magnitude of 𝐴𝐶𝐿 at 𝑓𝐶 is -
1
|𝐴𝐶𝐿 | = = 0.707 = −3𝑑𝐵
√2

And the phase angle of 𝐴𝐶𝐿 at 𝑓𝐶 is –

∠𝐴𝐶𝐿 = −45°

Introduction to the Butterworth Filter

In many Low Pass Filter applications, it is necessary for the closed-loop gain to be as close to 1
(unity) as possible within the passband. The Butterworth filter is best suited for this type of
application. The Butterworth filter is also called a maximally flat or flat-flat filter.

Figure shown in below the ideal (gray dotted line) and the practical (colour lines) frequency
response for three types of Butterworth filters. As the roll-offs become steeper, they approach the
ideal filter more closely.

Two active filters of −20dB/decade could be coupled together to give a roll-off of −40dB/
decade.

• This would not be the most economical design, because it would require two op amps.

Voltage gain, Voltage gain,

VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = -20 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3
Passband
Slope = -40 dB/decade
0.1 -20
Slope = -60 dB/decade

0.01 -40

-60
0.001
1 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M f (Hz)

EEE, AUST 8
−40dB/Decade Low Pass Butterworth Filter (LPF)

C2= 2C

Rf = 2R

+VCC
2
7
6
R1 = R R2 = R 741 VO
4
3
-VCC
Ei C1 = C

Voltage gain, Voltage gain,

VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = -40 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3

0.01 -40

~~ ~~
-80
0.0001
~~
~~

100 1K 10K 100K f (Hz)

Phase Angle
θ⁰

20⁰
0⁰
-20⁰
-40⁰
-40 dB/decade Low Pass Filter
-60⁰
-80⁰
-100⁰
-120⁰
-140⁰
-160⁰
-180⁰
~~

~~

1 100 200 250 400 500 800 1K 2K 2.5K 4K 5K 8K 10K f (Hz)

EEE, AUST 9
Design Procedure

Following steps accomplish the design of Low Pass Filter –

1. Choose the cutoff frequency (𝑓𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝐶 ).

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶1 = 𝐶 , usually between 0.001 𝜇𝐹 and 0.1 𝜇𝐹.
3. Make 𝐶2 = 2𝐶
4. Calculate the 𝑅 from equation –
0.707 0.707
𝑅= =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶. 𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝐶

5. Choose 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅
6. Choose 𝑅𝑓 = 2𝑅

−60dB/Decade Low Pass Butterworth Filter (LPF)

Here −60dB/decade filter is design by cascaded a −40dB/decade Low Pass Filter with a
−20dB/decade Low Pass Filter.

- 40 dB/decade Low Pass Filter - 20 dB/decade Low Pass Filter

C2 = 2C

Rf1= 2R Rf 2 = R

+VCC +VCC
2 2
7 7
6 6
R1 = R R2 = R 741 R3 = R 741 VO
4 4
3 3
-VCC -VCC
Ei 1
__
C1 = C C3 = C
2

EEE, AUST 10
 Voltage gain, Voltage gain,
VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = -60 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3

0.1 -20

0.01 -40

-60
0.001
100 1K 10K f (Hz)

Phase Angle
θ⁰

30⁰
0⁰
-30⁰
-60⁰
-60 dB/decade Low Pass Filter
-90⁰
-120⁰
-150⁰
-180⁰
-210⁰
-240⁰
-270⁰
~~

~~
1 100 200 250 400 500 800 1K 2K 2.5K 4K 5K 8K 10K f (Hz)

Design Procedure

Following steps accomplish the design of Low Pass Filter –

1. Choose the cutoff frequency (𝑓𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝐶 ).

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶3 = 𝐶 , usually between 0.001 𝜇𝐹 and 0.1 𝜇𝐹.
1
3. Make 𝐶1 = 𝐶 and 𝐶2 = 2𝐶
2
4. Calculate the 𝑅 from equation –
1 1
𝑅= =𝜔
2𝜋𝑓. 𝐶𝐶 𝐶𝐶

5. Choose 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅3 = 𝑅
6. Choose 𝑅𝑓1 = 2𝑅 and 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅

EEE, AUST 11
 • For best results the value of 𝑅 should be between 10 Ω and 100 𝐾Ω
Comparison of Magnitudes

Types of Low Pass Butterworth Filter

𝝎
−20dB/Decade −40dB/Decade −60dB/Decade

0.1𝜔𝐶 1.0 1.0 1.0

0.25𝜔𝐶 0.97 0.998 0.999

0.5𝜔𝐶 0.89 0.97 0.992

𝜔𝐶 0.707 0.707 0.707

2𝜔𝐶 0.445 0.24 0.124

4𝜔𝐶 0.25 0.053 0.022

10𝜔𝐶 0.1 0.01 0.001

Comparison of Phase Angles

Types of Low Pass Butterworth Filter

𝝎
−20dB/Decade −40dB/Decade −60dB/Decade

0.1𝜔𝐶 −6° −8° −12°

0.25𝜔𝐶 −14° −21° −29°

0.5𝜔𝐶 −27° −43° −60°

𝜔𝐶 −45° −90° −135°

2𝜔𝐶 −63° −137° −210°

4𝜔𝐶 −76° −143° −226°

10𝜔𝐶 −84° −172° −256°

EEE, AUST 12
High Pass Butterworth Filter (HPF)
A High Pass Filter is a circuit that attenuates all signals below a specified cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐶 and
passes all signals whose frequency is above the cutoff frequency. Thus, a High Pass filter perform
the opposite function of the Low Pass Filter.
Voltage gain, Voltage gain,
VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = 20 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3
Passband
0.1 Slope = 40 dB/decade -20
Slope = 60 dB/decade

0.01 -40

-60
0.001
1 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M f (Hz)

Figure shown in below the ideal (gray dotted line) and the practical (colour lines) frequency
response for three types of High Pass Butterworth filters. As the roll-offs become steeper, they
approach the ideal filter more closely.

20dB/Decade High Pass Filter (HPF)

Rf = R

+VCC
2
7
6
C 741 VO
4
3
-VCC
Ei R

EEE, AUST 13
 Voltage gain, Voltage gain,
VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = 20 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3

0.1 -20

0.01 -40

-60
0.001
1 10 100 1K 10K 100K 1M f (Hz)

Phase Angle
θ⁰

100⁰
90⁰
80⁰
70⁰
60⁰
20 dB/decade High Pass Filter
50⁰
40⁰
30⁰
20⁰
10⁰
0⁰
~~

~~
1 100 200 250 400 500 800 1K 2K 2.5K 4K 5K 8K 10K f (Hz)

Here the voltage across resistance 𝑅 equal to the output voltage 𝑉𝑂 , because this circuit is a
voltage follower circuit. 𝐸𝑖 divides between 𝑅 and 𝐶. The resistance voltage equal to 𝑉𝑂 and which
is –
1
𝑉𝑂 = × 𝐸𝑖
1−𝑗(1/𝜔𝑅𝐶)

Here 𝜔 is the frequency of 𝐸𝑖 in radians per second (𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓) and 𝑗 is equal to √−1.

The obtained closed-loop voltage gain 𝐴𝐶𝐿 is-

𝑉𝑂 1
𝐴𝐶𝐿 = =
𝐸𝑖 1−𝑗(1/𝜔𝑅𝐶)

EEE, AUST 14
When 𝜔 approaches to 0 rad/s in above equation, 𝑉𝑂 approaches to 0 V. at high frequencies as 𝜔
approaches infinity, 𝑉𝑂 equals to 𝐸𝑖 . Since the circuit is not ideal filter, the frequency response is
not ideal, shown in the above frequency response curve. The solid colour lines are actual response,
while the dashed gray dotted lines show the straight-line approximation. The magnitude of the
closed-loop gain equals 0.707 when 𝜔𝑅𝐶 = 1.
The cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐶 is,
1 𝐶 𝜔
𝑓𝐶 = =
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 2𝜋
Here 𝜔𝐶 is the cutoff frequency in radians per second and 𝑓𝐶 is the cutoff frequency in hertz. 𝑅
is in ohms (Ω) and 𝐶 is in farads (F). Rearrange the above equation to solve for 𝑅 -
1 1
𝑅= =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶. 𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝐶

Design Procedure

Following steps accomplish the design of High Pass Filter –

1. Choose the cutoff frequency (𝑓𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝐶 ).

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶, usually between 0.001 𝜇𝐹 and 0.1 𝜇𝐹.
3. Calculate the 𝑅 from above equation.
4. Choose 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅

Filter Response

The value of 𝐴𝐶𝐿 at 𝑓𝐶 is found by 2𝜋𝑓𝑅𝐶=1.

1 1
∴ 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = = = 0.707∠45°
1 − 𝑗1 √2∠−45°

Therefore, the magnitude of 𝐴𝐶𝐿 at 𝑓𝐶 is -

1
|𝐴𝐶𝐿 | = = 0.707 = −3𝑑𝐵
√2

And the phase angle of 𝐴𝐶𝐿 at 𝑓𝐶 is –

∠𝐴𝐶𝐿 = 45°

EEE, AUST 15
40dB/Decade High Pass Butterworth Filter (HPF)

1
R2 = __ R
2

Rf = R

+VCC
2
7
6
C1 = C C2 = C 741 VO
4
3
-VCC
Ei R1 = R

Voltage gain, Voltage gain,

VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = 40 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3

0.01 -40

~~ ~~
-80
0.0001
~~
~~

10 100 1K 10K f (Hz)

Phase Angle
θ⁰

200⁰
180⁰
160⁰
140⁰
40 dB/decade High Pass Filter
120⁰
100⁰
80⁰
60⁰
40⁰
20⁰
0⁰
~~

~~

1 100 200 250 400 500 800 1K 2K 2.5K 4K 5K 8K 10K f (Hz)

EEE, AUST 16
Design Procedure

Following steps accomplish the design of High Pass Filter –

1. Choose the cutoff frequency (𝑓𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝐶 ).

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶 , usually between 0.001 𝜇𝐹 and 0.1 𝜇𝐹.
3. Calculate the 𝑅 from equation –
1.414 1.414
𝑅= =
2𝜋𝑓𝐶. 𝐶 𝜔𝐶 𝐶

4. Choose 𝑅1 = 𝑅
1
5. Choose 𝑅2 = 𝑅
2
6. Choose 𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅

60dB/Decade High Pass Butterworth Filter (HPF)

Here 60dB/decade filter is design by cascaded a 40dB/decade High Pass Filter with a -
20dB/decade High Pass Filter.

40 dB/decade High Pass Filter 20 dB/decade High Pass Filter

1
R2 = __ R
2

Rf 1= 2R Rf 2 = R

+VCC +VCC
2 2
7 7
6 6
C1 = C C2 = C 741 C3 = C 741 VO
4 4
3 3
-VCC -VCC
Ei R1 = 2R R3 = R

EEE, AUST 17
 Voltage gain, Voltage gain,
VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei
Slope = 60 dB/decade
1.0 0
0.707 -3

0.1 -20

0.01 -40

-60
0.001
100 1K 10K f (Hz)

Phase Angle
θ⁰

300⁰
270⁰
240⁰
210⁰
60 dB/decade High Pass Filter
180⁰
150⁰
120⁰
90⁰
60⁰
30⁰
0⁰
~~

~~
1 100 200 250 400 500 800 1K 2K 2.5K 4K 5K 8K 10K f (Hz)

Design Procedure

Following steps accomplish the design of High Pass Filter –

1. Choose the cutoff frequency (𝑓𝐶 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝐶 ).

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶3 = 𝐶 , usually between 0.001 𝜇𝐹 and 0.1 𝜇𝐹.
3. Calculate the 𝑅 from equation –
1 1
𝑅= =𝜔
2𝜋𝑓. 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶𝐶

EEE, AUST 18
 4. Choose 𝑅3 = 𝑅
1
5. Choose 𝑅1 = 2𝑅 and 𝑅2 = 𝑅
2
6. Choose 𝑅𝑓1 = 2𝑅 and 𝑅𝑓2 = 𝑅

• For best results the value of 𝑅 should be between 10 Ω and 100 𝐾Ω

Comparison of Magnitudes

Types of High Pass Butterworth Filter

𝝎
20dB/Decade 40dB/Decade 60dB/Decade

0.1𝜔𝐶 0.1 0.01 0.001

0.25𝜔𝐶 0.25 0.053 0.022

0.5𝜔𝐶 0.445 0.24 0.124

𝜔𝐶 0.707 0.707 0.707

2𝜔𝐶 0.89 0.97 0.992

4𝜔𝐶 0.97 0.998 0.999

10𝜔𝐶 1.0 1.0 1.0

EEE, AUST 19
Comparison of Phase Angles

Types of High Pass Butterworth Filter

𝝎
20dB/Decade 40dB/Decade 60dB/Decade

0.1𝜔𝐶 84° 172° 256°

0.25𝜔𝐶 76° 143° 226°

0.5𝜔𝐶 63° 137° 210°

𝜔𝐶 45° 90° 135°

2𝜔𝐶 27° 43° 60°

4𝜔𝐶 14° 21° 29°

10𝜔𝐶 6° 8° 12°

Band Pass Filter (BPF)

A Band Pass Filter is a frequency selector. It allows one to select or pass only one particular band
of frequencies from all other frequencies that may be present in a circuit. Its normalized frequency
response on shown below. This type of filter has a maximum gain at resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 . All
Band Pass Filters will have a gain of 1 or 0dB at 𝑓𝑟 . There is one frequency below 𝑓𝑟 where the
gain falls to 0.707. It is lower cutoff frequency, 𝑓𝐿 . At higher cutoff frequency, 𝑓𝐻 , the gain also
equals to 0.707.

Gain |Gain|dB

1.0 0
0.707 -3

BW

0 0 Frequency
1 f L fr fH ∞
EEE, AUST 20
Bandwidth
The range of frequencies between 𝑓𝐿 and 𝑓𝐻 is called Bandwidth, 𝐵 –
𝐵 = 𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿
The bandwidth is not exactly centered on the resonant frequency. It is for reason that we use
historical name “resonant frequency” rather than “center frequency” to describe 𝑓𝑟 .
If we know the values of 𝑓𝐿 and 𝑓𝐻 , the resonant frequency can be found from –

𝑓𝑟 = √𝑓𝐿 𝑓𝐻
If we know the resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 , and the bandwidth 𝐵, the cutoff frequencies can be found
from –

√ 𝐵2 𝐵
𝑓𝐿 = + 𝑓𝑟2 −
4 2
𝑓𝐻 = 𝑓𝐿 + 𝐵
Quality Factor
The quality factor 𝑄 is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth as –
𝑓𝑟
𝑄=
𝐵
𝑄 is a measure of the Band Pass Filter’s selectivity. A high 𝑄 indicates that a filter selects a
smaller band of frequencies, which means more selective.

Narrow-Band and Wide-Band Filters

A wideband filter has a bandwidth that is two or more times the resonant frequency. That is 𝑄 ≤
0.5 for wideband filters. In general, wideband filters are made by cascading a Low Pass Filter
circuit with a High Pass Filter circuit. This topic is covered in the next section. A narrowband
filter 𝑄 > 0.5 can usually be made with single stage.

Wideband Filters by Cascading

When the output of one circuit is connected in series with the input of a second circuit, the process
is called Cascading gain stages. Figure shown in below the first stage is a 10 KHz Low Pass Filter.
Its output is connected to the input of a 100 Hz High Pass Filter. The cascaded pair of active
filters now form a Band Pass Filter from input 𝐸𝑖 to output 𝑉𝑂 .
• Note that it makes no difference if the High-pass is connected to the Low-pass or vice
versa.
EEE, AUST 21
 • Design of a Band Pass Filter by cascading can be done by selecting combination of
−20dB/decade, −40dB/decade or −60dB/decade Low Pass Filter with 20dB/decade,
40dB/decade or 60dB/decade High Pass Filter,

• In general, a Wideband filter (𝑄 ≤ 0.5) is made by cascading a Low and High Pass Filter.
Cutoff frequencies of the Low and High pass section must not overlap, and each must have
same Passband gain.

• The Low Pass Filter’s cutoff frequency must be 10 or more times the High Pass Filter’s
cutoff frequency.

• For cascaded Low and High Pass Filters, the resulting Wideband filter will have the
following characteristics-

o The lower cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐿 , will be determined by the High Pass Filter.
o The higher cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐻 , will be determined by the Low Pass Filter.
o Gain will be maximum at resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 , and equal to the passband gain of
either filter.

Here we use −40dB/decade Low Pass Filter cascading with 40dB/decade High Pass Filter to
design a Band Pass Filter. So the cutout frequency for −40dB/decade Low Pass Filter is 10
KHz, which is Higher cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐻 for the Band Pass Filter. The cutout frequency for
40dB/decade High Pass Filter is 100 Hz, which is Lower cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐿 for the Band Pass
Filter.
- 40 dB/decade Low Pass Filter 40 dB/decade High Pass Filter

CL2= 2CL 1
__
RH 2= R
2 H

RLf = 2RL RH f = RH

+VCC +VCC
2 2
7 7
6 6
RL 1= RL RL2 = R L 741 CH1 = CH CH 2 = CH 741 VO
4 4
3 3
-VCC -VCC
Ei CL 1= CL RH1 = RH

EEE, AUST 22
 Voltage gain, Voltage gain,
VO
ACL = ___ ACL (dB)
Ei

1.0 0
0.707 Slope = -40 dB/decade -3
Slope = 40 dB/decade
Bandwidth
0.1 -20

0.01 -40

-60
0.001
1 10 f L = 100 f r = 1K f H = 10K 100K 1M f (Hz)

Design Procedure

Low Pass Filter for Higher Cutoff Frequency (𝒇𝑯 )

1. Cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐿𝐶 = 𝑓𝐻 = 10 KHz

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶𝐿1 = 𝐶𝐿 = 0.01 𝜇𝐹.
3. Make 𝐶𝐿2 = 2𝐶𝐿 = 0.02 𝜇𝐹
4. Calculate the 𝑅𝐿 from equation –

0.707 0.707 0.707

𝑅𝐿 = = 2𝜋𝑓. 𝐶 = 2𝜋×(10×103 )×(0.01×10−6 ) = 1.1252 𝐾Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐿. 𝐶𝐿 𝐻 𝐿
𝐶

5. Choose 𝑅𝐿1 = 𝑅𝐿2 = 𝑅𝐿 = 1.1252 𝐾Ω

6. Choose 𝑅𝐿𝑓 = 2𝑅𝐿 = 2. 2504 𝐾Ω

High Pass Filter for Lower Cutoff Frequency (𝒇𝑳 )

1. Cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐻𝐶 = 𝑓𝐿 = 100 Hz

2. Choose the capacitance 𝐶𝐻1 = 𝐶𝐻2 = 𝐶𝐻 = 0.1 𝜇𝐹.
3. Calculate the 𝑅𝐻 from equation –

1.414 1.414 1.414

𝑅𝐻 = = 2𝜋𝑓. 𝐶 = 2𝜋×(100)×(0.1×10−6 ) = 22.504 𝐾Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐻. 𝐶𝐻 𝐿 𝐻
𝐶

EEE, AUST 23
 4. Choose 𝑅𝐻1 = 𝑅𝐻 = 22.504 𝐾Ω
1
5. Choose 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑅 = 11.252 𝐾Ω
2 𝐻
6. Choose 𝑅𝐻𝑓 = 𝑅𝐻 = 22.504 𝐾Ω

Narrow Band Filters

A narrowband filter circuit uses only one op. amp, as shown in figure below. The filter’s input
resistance is established approximately by resistor 𝑅. If the feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 is made two
times the input resistor 𝑅, the filter’s maximum gain will be 1 or 0𝑑𝐵 at resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 .
By adjusting 𝑅𝑟 one can change the resonant frequency without changing the bandwidth or gain.

Gain |Gain| dB

1.0 0
0.707 -3

BW

0 0 Frequency
0.1 f r f L fr fH 10 f r

C2 = C

Rf = 2R

R1 = R C1 = C +VCC
2
7
6
741 VO
Ei Rr 4
3
-VCC

EEE, AUST 24
The performance of the unity-gain narrowband filter is determined by only a few simple
equations. The bandwidth 𝐵 in hertz is determined by resistor 𝑅 and the two capacitors 𝐶 by –
0.1591
𝐵=
𝑅𝐶
Where,
𝑓𝑟
𝐵=
𝑄
Gain is a maximum of 1 at 𝑓𝑟 , provided that feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 is twice the value of input resistor
𝑅.
The resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 is determined by resistor 𝑅𝑟 according to –
𝑅
𝑅𝑟 =
2𝑄2 −1

If you are given component values for the circuit, its resonant frequency can be calculated from–

0.1125 𝑅
𝑓𝑟 =
𝑅𝐶
√1 + 𝑅𝑟

Narrow Band Reject Filters or Notch Filters

The notch or band-reject filter is named for the characteristics shape of its frequency response
curve shown in figure below (Narrow Band Reject Filter). Unwanted frequencies are attenuated
in the stopband bandwidth 𝐵. The desired frequencies are transmitted in the passband that lies
either side of the notch.

Gain |Gain| dB

1.0 0
Stop Band
0.707 -3

0
0 Frequency
0.1 f r f L fr fH 10 f r

EEE, AUST 25
Notch filters usually have a passband gain of unity 0𝑑𝐵. The equation for 𝑄, 𝐵, 𝑓𝐿 , 𝑓𝐻 and 𝑓𝑟 are
identical to those of its associate Band Pass Filter.

Wideband Reject Filters with Parallel Circuit

Design a Wideband Reject Filter by connection parallel a Low Pass Filter with a High Pass Filter.
The lower cutoff frequency 𝑓𝐿 is determining by the Low Pass filter and the higher cutoff
frequency 𝑓𝐻 is determining by the High Pass Filter. Output is taken across the output between
Low Pass and High Pass Filters.
• This circuit provide a floating output, across two different points (not across ground or
reference point).
1
__
RH 2 = R
2 H

RH f = RH

40 dB/decade High Pass Filter

+VCC
2
7
CH 2 = CH 6
CH 1 = CH 741
4
3
-VCC
RH1 = RH

RLoad VO
CL2 = 2CL

Ei
RLf = 2RL

+VCC
2
7
6
RL1 = RL RL2 = RL 741
4
3
-VCC
CL 1= CL
- 40 dB/decade Low Pass Filter

EEE, AUST 26
Band Reject Filters Using Subtraction Circuit
Both Notch or Wideband Reject Filter is made by subtracting the output of a Band Pass Filter
from the original signal. For frequency in the Notch filter’s passband, the output of the Band Pass
Filter section approaches zero.
For Narrow Band Reject Filter, the input 𝐸𝑖 is transmitted via adder input resistor 𝑅1 to drive
𝑉𝑂 to a value equal to −𝐸𝑖 . Thus 𝑉𝑂 = −𝐸𝑖 in both lower and upper passbands of the Notch Filter.
Suppose that the frequency of 𝐸𝑖 is adjusted to resonant frequency 𝑓𝑟 of the Narrow Band Pass
filter component. 𝐸𝑖 will exit from the passbands as −𝐸𝑖 and then is inverted by 𝑅1 and 𝑅𝑓 to
drive 𝑉𝑂 to +𝐸𝑖 . However, 𝐸𝑖 is transmitted via 𝑅2 to drive 𝑉𝑂 to −𝐸𝑖 . Thus 𝑉𝑂 responds to both
inputs of the adder and becomes 𝑉𝑂 = 𝐸𝑖 −𝐸𝑖 = 0 volt at 𝑓𝑟 . Finally, we need an inverter to invert
the final output of the Narrow Band Reject Filter.
In practice, 𝑉𝑂 approaches zero only at 𝑓𝑟 . The depth of the notch depends on how closely the
resistors and capacitors are matched in the Band Pass Filter and judicious fine adjustment of
resistor 𝑅1 at the inverting adder’s output.
Rf = R Rf inv= R
-E i at f r

Narrow R1 = R +VCC R i inv= R +VCC

2 2
Band Pass 7 7
6 6
Filter 741 741 VO
Ei R2 = R
4 4
3 3
-VCC -VCC

For Wide Band Reject Filter, the input 𝐸𝑖 is applied to a Wide Band Pass Filter which is design
for required cutoff frequencies. The output of the Wide Band Pass Filter is 𝐸𝑖 , at resonant
frequency 𝑓𝑟 . So, we need an inverter to invert the input 𝐸𝑖 to −𝐸𝑖 before the inverter adder circuit.
The output of the inverting adder is the final output of the Wide Band Reject Filter Using
Subtraction Circuit.
E i at f r
Rf = R
Wide Band
Pass Filter
R1 = R +VCC
2
7
Rf inv= R 6
VO
741
Ei R2 = R 4
R i inv= R +VCC 3
2 -VCC
7
6
741
-E i
4
3
-VCC

EEE, AUST 27
Another way: The inverting adder circuit can be replaced by a Basic Differential Amplifier
circuit for performing the subtraction or addition operation.

Changing the Gain

Active Filters can be design to changing the circuit gain with resume the filtering capacity. This
is one of the important advantages of using Active Filters. Here, Op-Amp are use to design Active
Filters, so its very easy to amplify the output by changing the gain. All the filter circuits (except
the Narrow Band Pass Filter) are non-inverting configuration mode. Therefore, we can change
the gain by making a non-inverting amplifier configuration connecting an input resistance 𝑅𝑖 to
‘2’ no. pin of the op-amp. The circuit diagram and calculation are shown below –

• −20dB/Decade Low Pass Filter (LPF)

Rf = R

Ri +VCC
2
7
6
R 741 VO
4
3
-VCC
Ei C

• 40dB/Decade High Pass Filter (HPF)

1
R2 = __ R
2

Rf = R

Ri +VCC
2
7
6
C1 = C C2 = C 741 VO
4
3
-VCC
Ei R1 = R

EEE, AUST 28
 • −60dB/Decade Low Pass Filter (LPF)

- 40 dB/decade Low Pass Filter - 20 dB/decade Low Pass Filter

C2 = 2C

Rf 1 = 2R Rf 2 = R

+VCC Ri +VCC
2 2
7 7
6 6
R1 = R R2 = R 741 R3 = R 741 VO
4 4
3 3
-VCC -VCC
Ei 1
__
C1 = C C3 = C
2

• 𝑹𝒊 Calculation

For a non-inverting amplifier, the gain is –

𝑅𝑓
𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴𝐶𝐿 = (1 + )
𝑅𝑖
Here,
𝑅𝑓 = Feedback resistance for −20dB/Decade Low Pass Filter and 40dB/Decade High
Pass Filter. And

𝑅𝑓 = 𝑅𝑓2 = Feedback resistance for −60dB/Decade Low Pass.

• The value of feedback resistance (𝑅𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑓2 ) is fixed by calculating the cutoff frequency.
So, only input resistance 𝑅𝑖 can be variable fore different values of gain.

Example, for gain =10, 𝑅𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑓2 fixed. So, the value of resistance 𝑅𝑖 is -

𝑅𝑓
𝑅𝑖 =
𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛−1

EEE, AUST 29
 Pole and Zero
In mathematics, signal processing and control theory, a pole–zero plot is a graphical
representation of a rational transfer function in the complex plane which helps to convey
certain properties of the system such as:

• Stability
• Causal system / Anti-causal System
• Region of convergence (ROC)
• Minimum phase / Non minimum phase

A pole-zero plot shows the location in the complex plane of the poles and zeros of the transfer
function of a dynamic system, such as a controller, compensator, sensor, equalizer, filter, or
communications channel. By convention, the poles of the system are indicated in the plot by
an ‘X’ while the zeroes are indicated by a circle or ‘O’.

A pole-zero plot can represent either a Continuous-Time (CT) or a Discrete-Time (DT)

system. For a CT system, the plane in which the poles and zeros appear is the s plane of the
Laplace transform. In this context, the parameter s represents the complex angular frequency,
which is the domain of the CT transfer function. For a DT system, the plane is the z plane,
where z represents the domain of the Z-transform.

𝐵(𝑠) ∑𝑀
𝑚=0 𝑏𝑚 𝑠
𝑚 𝑏0 + 𝑏1 𝑠+ 𝑏2 𝑠2 + … +𝑏𝑀 𝑠𝑀
𝐻(𝑠) = = 𝑁 =
𝐴(𝑠) 𝑠 + ∑𝑁−1
𝑛=0 𝑎𝑚 𝑠
𝑛 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑠+ 𝑎2 𝑠2 + … +𝑎(𝑁−1) 𝑠 (𝑁−1) + 𝑠𝑁

• 𝐵 and 𝐴 are polynomials in 𝑠

• 𝑀 is the order of the numerator polynomial
• 𝑏𝑚 is the m-th coefficient of the numerator polynomial
• 𝑁 is the order of the denominator polynomial
• 𝑎𝑚 is the n-th coefficient of the denominator polynomial

Either M or N or both may be zero, but in real systems, it should be the case that 𝑀 ≤ 𝑁 ;
otherwise the gain would be unbounded at high frequencies.

Poles
The roots of the denominator are called Poles. The poles of the system are indicated in
the plot by an ‘X’.
Zeros
The roots of the numerator are called Zeros. The poles of the system are indicated in the
plot by an ‘O’.

EEE, AUST 30
Example –
10𝑠+4
𝐻(𝑠) = 2
𝑠 +8𝑠+10
Here,
Zeros are, 10𝑠 + 4 = 0, or 𝑠 = −0.4
Poles are, 𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 10 = 0, or 𝑠 = −1 + 𝑗1.22 and 𝑠 = −1 − 𝑗1.22
Plot in s – plane

jω
2j

×
j

σ
-2 -1 0

-j
×

-2j

System Stability
• If two poles are in the left half side of the s-plane, then the system is ‘Stable’.
• If any pole is in the right half side of the s-plane, then the system is ‘Unstable’.
• If two poles lie in the imaginary axis, then the system is “Oscillatory”.

EEE, AUST 31
Filter Types from Pole-Zero
1
• LPF : 2 poles and no zeros. 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 +8𝑠+10

𝑠2
• HPF : 2 poles and 2 zeros at origin. 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 +8𝑠+10
𝑠+1
• BPF : 2 poles and 1 zeros. 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 +8𝑠+10

𝑠 2 +1
• BRF : 2 poles and 2 zeros. 𝐻(𝑠) =
𝑠 2 +8𝑠+10

jω jω
2j 2j

× ×
j j

σ σ
-2 -1 0 -2 -1 0

-j -j
× ×

-2j -2j

LPF HPF

jω jω
2j 2j

× ×
j j

σ σ
-2 -1 0 -2 -1 0

-j -j
× ×

-2j -2j

BPF BRF

EEE, AUST 32