Instrumental/Operant Conditioning/Skinner’s behaviourist perspective

Operant conditioning was first described by behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may occasionally
hear it referred to as Skinnerian conditioning or Skinnerian perspective. As a behaviorist, Skinner believed
that it was not really necessary to look at internal thoughts and motivations in order to explain behavior.
Instead, he suggested, we should look only at the external, observable causes of human behavior.

Operant conditioning relies on a fairly simple premise: Actions that are followed by reinforcement will be
strengthened and more likely to occur again in the future. If you tell a funny story in class and everybody
laughs, you will probably be more likely to tell that story again in the future.

If you raise your hand to ask a question and your teacher praises your polite behavior, you will be more likely
to raise your hand the next time you have a question or comment. Because the behavior was followed by
reinforcement, or a desirable outcome, the preceding action is strengthened.

Conversely, actions that result in punishment or undesirable consequences will be weakened and less likely
to occur again in the future. If you tell the same story again in another class but nobody laughs this time, you
will be less likely to repeat the story again in the future. If you shout out an answer in class and your teacher
scolds you, then you might be less likely to interrupt the class again.

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of
reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement, the behavior increases.

1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after the behavior. In
positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of praise or a
direct reward. If you do a good job at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a
positive reinforcer.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or outcomes after the display of
a behavior. In these situations, a response is strengthened by the removal of something considered
unpleasant. For example, Wearing sunglasses to avoid sunlight.

Punishment in Operant Conditioning

Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a decrease in the behavior it follows.
There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these cases, the behavior decreases.

1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application, presents an unfavorable

event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example
of punishment by application.
2. Negative punishment (Omission of reinforcement), also known as punishment by removal, occurs
when a favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a child's video
game following misbehavior is an example of negative punishment.

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a number of factors that can influence
how quickly and how well new things are learned. Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were
reinforced played a role in the speed and strength of acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of
reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors were modified.

Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the operant conditioning process:
 1. Continuous reinforcement involves delivering a reinforcement every time a response occurs.
Learning tends to occur relatively quickly, yet the response rate is quite low. Extinction also occurs
very quickly once reinforcement is halted.
2. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are reinforced only after a
specific number of responses have occurred. This typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
3. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement. Reinforcement occurs only after
a certain interval of time has elapsed. Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the
reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement has been delivered.
4. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that involve reinforcing behavior
after a varied number of responses. This leads to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.
5. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement Skinner described. This
schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends
to lead to a fast response rate and slow extinction rate.

Examples of operant conditioning: We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us.
Consider the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher, or employees
finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. More examples of operant conditioning in action include:

• After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the audience. This acts as
a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for more performance roles.
• You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head whenever he performs the
behavior correctly. This is another positive reinforcer.
• A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then they do not have to
take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students
are negatively reinforced to attend class regularly.
• If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates your performance in front
of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher, making it less likely that you will finish projects
late in the future.
• A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take away her phone for the
rest of the day. This is an example of a negative punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken away.

In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an increase in behavior. Operant
conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior via the removal of a desirable outcome or the application
of a negative outcome.

Difference between Classical conditioning and Instrumental/Operant conditioning

Classical Conditioning
• First described by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist
• Focuses on involuntary, automatic behaviors
• Involves placing a neutral signal before a reflex

Operant Conditioning
• First described by B. F. Skinner, an American psychologist
• Involves applying reinforcement or punishment after a behavior
• Focuses on strengthening or weakening voluntary behaviors
•
Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

One of the simplest ways to remember the differences between classical and operant conditioning is to focus
on whether the behavior is involuntary or voluntary.
The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that classical conditioning involves
associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a
voluntary behavior and a consequence.

In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves
no such enticements. Also, remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while
operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to
be rewarded or punished.

For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior that can then be either rewarded
or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of
already naturally occurring event.

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Examples

Today, both classical and operant conditioning are utilized for a variety of purposes by teachers, parents,
psychologists, animal trainers, and many others.

• Example of classical conditioning: In animal conditioning, a trainer might utilize classical

conditioning by repeatedly pairing the sound of a clicker with the taste of food. Eventually, the sound
of the clicker alone will begin to produce the same response that the taste of food would.
• Example of operant conditioning: In a classroom setting, a teacher might utilize operant
conditioning by offering tokens as rewards for good behavior. Students can then turn in these tokens
to receive some type of reward, such as a treat or extra playtime. In each of these instances, the goal
of conditioning is to produce some sort of change in behavior.

This article is written by Kendra Cherry, MSEd for Verywellmind