University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering

Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

Chapter Four
Steady-State Operation
Operating characteristics of control systems are determined by solving
their mathematical differential equations of operation. Steady state and
Transient (Dynamic) state are two conditions where time response of a control
system could be investigated separately. In steady state operation the
equilibrium state is attained such that there is no change with respect to time
of any system variables. A control system remains at this equilibrium state until
it is excited by a change in the desired input or in an external disturbance. A
transient condition exists as long as some variable changes with time.
Steady State Equation (Algebraically):
General Block Diagram Representation of a feedback control system with
two inputs and one output shown in Figure,
Disturbance Signal
Disturbance Function
Reference Input Control Elements
Elements Elements ( ) Controlled System
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
Command ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
Controlled
Signal
Feedback Elements Variable
( )
( )

General mathematical differential equation of operation,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
For more general,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
According to the principles of superposition method it could be expressed as,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
For steady-state operation and will have constant values. By letting
the steady state constants are,
[ ( )] , [ ( )] , [ ( )]
Steady-state equation,

1
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
The steady-state general block diagram representation is described as shown,
System to be
Controller
Controlled

‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

For optimum control theory . Then the coefficient of reference input

must be unity,
|
Where, constant is the scale factor of input dial,

Also, coefficient of external disturbance is equal to zero,

|

It is satisfied only when is infinite when an integrator of control element

gives a ( ⁄ ) term. This type of controller is called an Integral Control System.
Example 1: Determine the steady-
state constants and the steady state
response for the control system
shown in Figure. Select constant ( ) ( )
such that the coefficient of desired ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
input is unity.
Solution: Steady-state constants,
| |

( )( )
Block-diagram representation of steady-state condition,

-5

‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
( ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
)
2
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

Then,
( )( )( ) ( )( )
( )( )( ) ( )( )( )
Steady-state response of control system,

In which it could be represented as,

( ) ( ) ( )
Steady-State Equation (Graphically):
Steady-state equation and steady-state constants could be determined
graphically from steady-state operating curves which can be obtained as,
System to be Controlled
Controller

‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

1. Steady-state equation of the operating controller,

( )
a) Constant command signal or ,
| | | Slope of controller operating lines
b) Constant output signal or ,
| | | Vertical spacing between lines of constant
For an appropriate selected ,
|

c) Constant manipulating signal or ,

| | | Horizontal spacing between lines of constant ,
Horizontal spacing between lines of constant is,
|
( ⁄ )
2. Steady-state equation of the operating system to be controlled,
( )
3
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
a) Constant external disturbance or ,
| | | Slope of the system to be controlled lines
b) Constant output signal or ,
| | | Vertical spacing between lines of constant
For an appropriate selected ,
|
c) Constant manipulating signal or ,
| | | Horizontal spacing between lines of constant
Horizontal spacing between lines of constant is,
( ) |
Finally the teady-state operating lines for controller and system to be
controlled are combined as in the following Figure,

Also the steady-state equation is directly determined graphically from the

steady-state lines,
( ) Linearization yields,
| |

| |

Example 2:
Reference operating point of a control system shown in Figure is
, , and . Determine the steady-state equation algebraically
and sketch steady state operating curves. Then determine graphically the
equation for steady state operation. Select constant such that the
coefficient of the desired input is unity.

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

Solution:
Steady-state constants are,
| |

( )( )
 Slope of the controller operating lines,
| | | ( )( )

 Vertical spacing between lines of constant

| | | ( )( )

Select then, |
 Horizontal spacing between lines of constant

| | |

| , Since, then,
 Slope of the system to be controlled operating lines,
| | |

 Vertical spacing between lines of constant ,

| | | ( )

| , Since, , Then,
 Horizontal spacing between lines of constant ,
| | | ( )

| , Since, , Then,
Steady-state operating curves shown in Figure,

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

| |

| |

| |

Steady-state equation,

Example 3: A typical family of steady-state operating curves for a

proportional temperature control system shown in Figure,
a) Determine the equation for steady-state operation about point .
b) If this were an open-loop rather than a closed-loop system, what would be
the steady-state equation of operation?
⁄

6
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Solution:
1) Since, ( ), linearization gives,
| |

| |

| |

Equation of the steady-state operation,

In which it could be represented as,

( ) ( ) ( )
2) For open-loop control system, controller lines should be horizontal
because ,
| |

| |

Example 4: A typical family of

steady-state operating curves for a
unity feedback ( ) speed control
system is shown in Figure. At the
reference operating condition (point
A) , and
.
1. Determine the steady-state
constants and the equation for
steady-state operation.
2. With held fixed at its reference value, what is the change in speed
when the load T changes from the reference value to ?
3. By what factor should the slope of the controller lines be changed so as to
reduce this change by a factor of 50 ?
Solution:
1) The steady state constants:
| | Slope of the controller operating lines
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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

For , then
| | Vertical spacing between lines of constant

| Since , then

| | Slope of the system to be controlled operating lines

| ,

| | Vertical spacing between lines of constant

| ,
Steady-state block diagram shown in Figure,

( )

( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

This equation also could be obtained using as:

| |

| |

| | |

| | |

2) Since is held fixed at reference value then,

Change in speed ,
( )
3) To decrease the change in speed by a factor of 50:

| | | ( )

8
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Since,
( )( )
| |

Solving for

Slope of the controller lines must be increased by a factor of 99

Equilibrium:
Equilibrium point is the intersection of
line of command signal for controller and
load line for the system to be controlled as
shown in Figure. In which, manipulated variable
being supplied by controller is the same that
required to maintain system output at
reference point. At equilibrium point the
amount of manipulated variable supplied by
controller is same as that required to maintain
the system output at . When output is
changed to which is higher than then point decreases until equilibrium
is attained at point because
Response for changing command signal and load (Graphically):
Response of any control system for changing in command signal and load
could be investigated graphically using steady-state operating curves.
1. Finite slope of controller lines:
 When is changed from to ( ) with
load is constant, a new operating point for
controller is at B while system to be controlled
remains at A. Since , output
increases (dynamically) and new equilibrium point
of operation is existed at point ,
| | |

 When is changed from to ( )

with constant , a new point of operation for
system to be controlled at while the
controller remains at . Since,

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
output decreases (dynamically) and new equilibrium point of operation is
existed at C.
| | |

2. Infinite slope (vertically) of controller lines:

 When is changed from to ( ) with load
is constant, a new operating point for controller
and system to be controlled is at (new equilibrium
point). Manipulated variable supplied is equal to the
quantity required without dynamically movement,
| | |

 When is changed from to ( ) with

constant , a new point of operation for system to
be controlled and the controller is at (new
equilibrium point). Manipulated variable supplied is
equal to the quantity required without dynamically
movement,
| | |

3. Zero slope (horizontally) of controller lines:

 When is changed from to ( ) with
load is constant, a new operating point for
controller is at while system to be controlled
remains at .
Since, , output increases (dynamically)
and new equilibrium point of operation is existed
at point ,

| | |

 When is changed from to ( )

with constant , a new point of operation for
system to be controlled is at while the
controller remains at .

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Since, , output decreases (dynamically) and new equilibrium
point of operation is existed at C.
| | |

Types of Control Systems:

Slope of controller lines ( ), varies from zero for an open loop control
system ( ) to infinity for an integral control system ( ). A
proportional control system has finite slope.
1. Proportional Control Systems (P Controller):
In proportional control systems the coefficient
of external disturbance (load) term is finite
with finite slope of controller lines as shown in
Figure. Speed control of gas turbine for jet plane
shown in Figure is proportional control system.
3000
Throttle Lever
System to be
2000
Controlled
1000
Desired Speed
Proportional Controller
Pivot

Valve
Drain
Supply
Piston
Pressure
Drain
Flow Increase
Control Flow
Decrease
Fuel Flow to
Valve Flow
Engine
( )
( )( ) ( )( )
Mathematical equation for steady-state operation is obtained by letting :

Also steady-state overall block diagram representation is obtained,

11
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

Since and , then slope of the controller lines is finite and it is

proportional control system.
Since ,
[ ]

The term ⁄ | is the scale factor for the speed setting dial,
Example 5:
A typical family of steady-state operating curves for a proportional speed
control system of a diesel or turbine shown in Figure. Determine:
a) Steady-state equation of operation in the vicinity of point .
b) If this were an open-loop rather than a closed-loop system, what would be
the steady-state equation of operation about point .

Solution:
a) Since, ( )

| |

| |

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

| |

b) Controller lines of open-loop control system are horizontal because ,

| |

| |

2. Integral Control Systems:

Integral control system has an integrating component yields ( ⁄ ) term
therefore their controller lines of steady-state operating curves have an
infinite slope (vertically). Proportional controller could be inverted to an
integral controller by eliminating the walking beam linkage and using
hydraulic integrator as shown in Figure.

3000
Throttle Lever Desired
2000 Speed

1000

( ), Linearization,
Pivot
( ⁄ )
Valve Then,
Drain

Supply
Pressure
Piston Let ⁄
( )
Drain ( )
Increase Flow For negligible load,
Flow Control Valve ( )
Decrease Flow
Fuel Flow
to Engine

Overall block diagram representation for speed control system is:

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

Error Signal

( ⁄ )

( ⁄ )
Using the rule of combining blocks in cascade and let ( )

Error Signal

Mathematical differential equation of operation,

( ) ( )
Steady-state block diagram representation could be obtained by letting ,

Error Signal

Also, steady-state equation,

Since and , then slope of controller lines is infinite (vertical

lines) and this speed control system is considered as an integral control system.
From the integral element ⁄ , the steady-state operation constant is:

( ) , since, ( )

or,
So, no steady state error in integral control system,
then

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

Speed (output variable) is independent of change in load torque (external

disturbance variable) for an integral control system as shown in Figure. It is an
easy matter to adjust the scale factor for the input speed dial so that the
coefficient of the desired input is unity ,

3. Proportional Plus Integral Control Systems:

A proportional plus integral controller as shown in Figure combines desirable
transient characteristics of a proportional controller and the feature of no
steady-state error of the integral controller.
Desired
3000
Speed
Throttle Lever
2000

1000

Unit 2 Unit 1

( )

To flow control valve

 Proportional action is provided by unit 1,

Block Diagram Representation of Hydraulic Servomotors,
( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

Using the rule of combining blocks in cascade yields,

15
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( )

Using the rule of eliminating feedback loop yields and let, ,

Then proportional equation is,

 Integral action is provided by unit 2, ( ⁄ )

( ⁄ )

( ⁄ )
( )

This equation could be represented by a block diagram,

( ⁄ )

Using the rule of combining blocks in parallel,

( ⁄ )

Using the rule of combining blocks in cascade,

( ⁄ )
( )

Overall block diagram for the proportional plus integral control system,

( ⁄ )
( )

Using the rule of combining blocks in cascade,

16
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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( ⁄ )
( )

The steady –state constants could be evaluated as,

( ⁄ )
[ ( )] * ( )+

[ ( )] [ ]

[ ( )]
And steady-state block diagram representation could be obtained by letting
,

Steady-state equation,

This equation refers that the steady-state operation of proportional plus

integral control system is the same as of an integral control system alone in
which it follows that is zero during steady-state operation,

Also,

17
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Chapter Five
Laplace Transforms
In the method of Laplace transformation, differential equations are
transformed into algebraic equations with variable s while time solution or
transient response is obtained by Laplace Inverse. Laplace transformation ( )
of a function of time ( ) is,
Hint:
( ) [ ( )] ∫ ( ) ∫

1. Step function:
Step function shown in Figure, is ( ) where is
( )
height while ( ) is a unit step function whose height
is one. Laplace transform of step function, ( )

( ) [ ( )] ∫ ( ) |

Laplace transform for a unit step function where ,

( ) [ ( )]
2. Pulse function:
Pulse function as shown in Figure.
( )
( ) {
Laplace transform of pulse function is,
( ) [ ( )] ∫ ( ) ∫ ∫ ( ) 0

( ) ∫ ( )| ( )

Laplace transform for a unit pulse function where ,

( ) [ ( )] ( )
3. Impulse function:
An impulse function is a limited case of pulse function in which approaches
to zero. It is designated by ( ) whose area is . Where, ( ) is
unit impulse function whose area is unity. Since Laplace transform of pulse
function is,
( ) ( )
Laplace transform of impulse function where , Hint:

18
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

( ) [ ( )]

Which is impossible but it could be obtained using L’hopital rule,

( )[ ( )]
( ) [ ( )]
( )( )
4. Exponentially decaying function:
Exponentially decaying function ( ) is shown in Figure. Laplace
transform of exponentially decaying function is, ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
∫ ∫
( )
t
| 0

5. Exponentially Increasing function:

Exponentially increasing function ( ) is shown ( )
in Figure, Laplace transform of exponentially decaying
function is,
( )
t
0
( ) ( ) ∫ |

6. Sinusoidal Function:
( )
A sinusoidal function shown in Figure is
expressed as, ( )
Hint:
∫ ( )

Laplace transform of sinusoidal function,

( ) [ ] ∫

Table 5-1 Laplace transforms of most functions arise in control problems.

Type of Function ( ) ( ) Type of Function ( ) ( )

exponentially
Step Function ( )
increasing function
Unit Step Function ( )
( )
Sinusoidal
Impulse Function ( ) ( )
Function
Sinusoidal
Unit Impulse Function ( ) ( )
Function

19
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Sinusoidal
unit ramp Function ( )
Function ( )
Sinusoidal
Exponential Function ( )
Function ( )
exponentially
decaying function

Laplace Transform Properties:

1. [ ( )] [ ( )] ( )
2. [ ( ) ( )] [ ( )] [ ( )] ( ) ( )
3. [ ( )] ( ) ( )
4. [ ( )] [ ( )] ( )
[ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
5. [ ( )] [ ( )] ( ) [ ( ) ( ) ( )] ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
6. [ ( )] ( ) ( )
7. [ ( )] ( )
∫ ( )
8. [∫ ( ) ] | ( )
Laplace Transform Theorems:
1. Initial-Value Theorem:
Initial-value theorem is used to determine the value ( ) at zero time from
Laplace transform ( );
( ) ( ) ( )
2. Final-Value Theorem:
Final-value theorem is used to determine the value ( ) at infinity from
Laplace transform ( );
( ) ( ) ( )
Transient Response:
Transient response means that a ( )
control system changes from some initial Transient Response
operating condition to final condition as
shown in Figure. Transient responses or
the time solution could be determined by
solving the general mathematical ( )
differential equation,
( ) ( )

21
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
are constants and,
( ) Transient response function or output function
( ) Forcing function or excitation function (input function)
Let,
( )
( )
( ) Characteristic function
( ) Characteristic equation
Exponent is the highest power of in the characteristic function,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Different methods are used to solve this equation and obtain time solution.
Solution with Laplace Transform Method:
General mathematical differential equation of operation,
( )
( ) ( )
( )
Laplace Transform,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
Since,
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( ) () ( )
Where, ( ) and ( ) are polynomials in . ( ) may be factored as,
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
Transient response ( ) is obtained by solving the general transformed equation
( ) where zeros of polynomial ( ) may be distinct or repeated,
1. Distinct Zeros:

Techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion,

( )

Laplace inverse gives the transient response of a control system,

( )
Where constants for distinct zeros may be evaluated as,
( )
*( ) + [( ) ( )]
( )
21
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
2. Repeated Zeros:
When transformed function ( ) has a repeated zero occurs times:
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )( ) ( )
Techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion,
( )
( ) ( )
Laplace inverse yields the transient response of the control system:

( ) * +
( ) ( )
Where constants for repeated zeros may be evaluated as:
( )
*( ) + [( ) ( )]
( )
( )
, *( ) +- { [( ) ( )]}
( )
( )
, *( ) +- , [( ) ( )]-
( )
Example 1:
Determine the transient response or the time solution of the following
differential equation when all initial conditions are zero,
( ) ( )
The forcing function is an exponentially decaying ( ) . Also using Initial
and Final value Theorems to determine value of transient response at zero time
( ) and value of steady-state response ( )
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Laplace transforms,
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] ( ) [ ( ) ( )] ( )
Since all the initial conditions are zero:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) Characteristic equation

22
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) [ ( )] [ ] [ ]
Laplace transformed equation,
( )
( )
( )( )( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion,
( ) [( ) ( )]

( )
[( ) ]
( )( )( )
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )( )
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )( )
( )
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( )
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )( )
Verification,
( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Example 2:
Determine the transient response or the time solution of the system
described by the following differential equation,
( )
( ) ( )

23
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Forcing function ( ) is a unit step function, and all initial conditions are zero.
Also using Initial and Final value Theorems to determine value of transient
response at zero time ( ) and value of steady-state response ( )
Solution:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Laplace transforms,
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] ( ) [ ( ) ( )] ( )
Since all the initial conditions are zero:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) Characteristic equation
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
Since ( ) is a unit step function, ( ) ⁄ , Laplace transformed equation,
( )
( )
( )( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion,
( ) [( ) ( )]
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( )
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
24
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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Verification,
( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( )

Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,

( ) ( ) ( )

Example 3:
Determine the time solution of the following differential equation when all
initial conditions are zero and forcing function is a ramp function as ( ) ,
( ) ( )
Also using Initial and Final value Theorems to determine value of transient
response at zero time ( ) and value of steady-state response ( )
Solution:
Since all the initial conditions are zero,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) [ ( )] [ ] [ ]
Laplace transformed equation,
( )
( )( )
Using the techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion:
( )
( ) ( )
( )
[( ) ( )]

[ ]
( )( )
{ [( ) ( )]}

{ [ ]} { [ ]}
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
{ [ ]} * +
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
25
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( )
An alternative technique to evaluate in order to avoid differentiation,
( )
( )( )
This equation is valid for any value of . For ,
( )
( )( )( )
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Verification,
( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Example 4:
Determine the time solution of the following differential equation when all
initial conditions are zero and forcing function is a ramp function as ( ) ,
( )
( ) ( )
Also using Initial and Final value Theorems to determine value of transient
response at zero time ( ) and value of steady-state response ( )
Solution:
Since all the initial conditions are zero:
( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) Characteristic equation
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
26
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Since, ( ) , ( ) [ ( )] [ ] [ ]
Laplace transformed equation,
( )
( )
( )( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion,
( )
( )
[ ]
( )( )
( ) ( )
{ [ ]} { [ ]}
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
⁄ ⁄
( )
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( )

An alternative technique to evaluate in order to avoid differentiation,

( ) ⁄
( )
( )( )
This equation is valid for any value of . For ,
⁄
( )
( )( )( )

Using Initial -Value Theorem,

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )

27
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

Verification,
( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Example 5: Determine the time solution of the following differential

equation when all initial conditions are zero and ( ) :
( )
( )
( ) ( )
Also using Initial and Final value Theorems to determine value of transient
response at zero time ( ) and value of steady-state response ( )
Solution: Since all initial conditions are zero, Laplace Transform yields,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) [ ( )] [ ]
Laplace transformed equation,
( )
( ) ( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion,
( )
( ) ( )
[( ) ]
( ) ( )
{ [( ) ]} {[ ]}
( ) ( ) ( )

, [( ) ]- { [ ]}
( ) ( ) ( )
[( ) ]
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( ) [ ]

28
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

An alternative technique to evaluate and to avoid differentiation,

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Solve equations simultaneously,

Using Initial -Value Theorem to determine the value of transient response at

zero time,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Using Final -Value Theorem to determine the value of the steady-state
response,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Verification,
( ) [ ]
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( ) ] ( ) ( )
[
Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,
( ) ( ) ( ) ] ( ) ( )
[

Example 6:
In block-diagram representation for a proportional control system shown in
Figure, . Determine
the transient response and its values at zero time ( ) and at steady-state
response ( ) by using Initial and Final value Theorems when all initial
conditions are zero for each of the following cases,
a) is a step function of constant value , and
b) is a step function of constant value , and

29
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( )

( ) ( ) ( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

Solution:
General differential equation of operation for a control system with two
inputs and one output is:
( ) ( ) ( )

Then,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
Substitute numerical values,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
Since all initial conditions are zero, Laplace transforms could be obtained by
replacing D by s:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
a) Since is a step function of constant value ,and then ( ) and
( )
( )
( )( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion,
( ) [ ]
[( ) ( )]

[( ) ]
( )( )

[( ) ]
( )( )
31
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

[( ) ]
( )( )
( ) [ ]
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( ) ( )
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Verification,
( ) ( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ( ) ( )
)
Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,
( ) ( ( ) ( )
)
b) Since is a step function of constant value , and then ( )
and ( )
( )
( )
( )( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion,
( ) [ ]
[( ) ( )]
( )
*( ) +
( )( )
( )
*( ) +
( )( )
( )
*( ) +
( )( )
( ) [ ]
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( ) ( )
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
31
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) * +
( )( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) * +
( )( )
Verification,
( ) ( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ( ) ( )
)
Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,
( ) ( ( ) ( )
)
Example 7:
Block-diagram representation for an integral speed control system shown in
Figure. The output speed is , the desired input speed is , and the load
torque is . For and all initial conditions are zero,
determine the transient response of the control system for each of the
following cases:
a) is a step function of constant value , and
b) is a step function of constant value , and
( )
( ) ( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

Solution:
General differential equation of operation for a control system with two
inputs and one output is:
( ) ( ) ( )

Then,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Substitute numerical values yields;
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
32
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Since all initial conditions are zero, Laplace transforms could be obtained by
replacing D by s:
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
a) Since is a step function of constant value , and then
( ) and ( )
( )
( )( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion:
( ) [ ]

* ( )(
+
)
*( )
( )(
+
)

[( ) ]
( )( )
( ) [ ]
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( ) ( )
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )

Verification,
( ) ( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

b) Since is a step function of constant value , and then

( ) and ( )
( )
( )( )

33
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Using techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion:
( ) [ ]

[( ) ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( ) [ ]
Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,
( ) ( )
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
Verification,
( ) ( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )

Example 8:
The system shown in Figure is initially at equilibrium, with and
. A step-function disturbance ( ) ( ) is then initiated at time .
Determine the response ( ) for
( )
( ) ( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

Solution:
Q1:
For the system shown in Figure, determine the response ( ) when,
a) ( ) ( ), ( ) and ( ) ( )
b) ( ) , ( ) ( ) and ( ) and ( )
34
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

General differential equation of operation for a control system with two

inputs and one output,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Since the system is initially at equilibrium means that at ,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Laplace transforms,
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( ) [ ( ) ( )]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Since ( ) , then ( ) [ ]
Also ( ) ( ) is a step function disturbance, ( ) [ ( )]

( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( )( )
Techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion,
( )

* +
( )( )

*( ) +
( )( )

*( ) +
( )( )
( )

Inverse Laplace gives transient response or time solution,

( )
35
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Using Initial -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Using Final -Value Theorem,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
Verification,
( )
Value of transient response at zero time,
( ) ( ) ( )

Value of steady-state response as time approaches infinity,

( ) ( ) ( )

Performance of Control System:

Steady state error is used to measure the accuracy of a control system.
It is the difference between the reference input and actual output as time
approaches infinity. Consider the simple (SISO) control system shown in
Figure, ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
For all initial conditions are zero, Laplace transformed equation as shown in
Figure,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
( ) ( )
Using Final-Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
1. Unit step input [ ( ) ( ) ( ) ⁄ ]
( ) ⁄
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) Positional error constant

2. Unit ramp input [ ( ) ( ) ⁄ ]

36
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
⁄
[ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) Velocity error constant

1. Unit parabolic input [ ( ) ( ) ⁄ ]
⁄
[ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) Acceleration error constant

Where, , , and , are called error coefficients
Example 9:
For control system shown in Figure, ( ) ( ) ( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬ ( )
determine the response to a unit step
function, a unit ramp function, and a unit
parabolic function when all initial conditions
are zero. What is the steady-state error to each of these inputs?
Solution:
Since all initial conditions are zero, Laplace block diagram representation as
shown in Figure,
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬ ( )
( )
( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( )( )
1. A unit step input, ( ) ( ) and ( )
( )
( )( )
Partial fraction expansion,
( )

[ ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
37
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
Laplace inverse gives response to a unit step input,
( )
Steady state error for a unit step input is determined as:
( ) ( )
( )
Also steady-state error could be obtained as,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Steady-state error,
( ) ( ) ( )

2. A unit ramp input, ( ) and ( )

( )
( )( )
Partial fraction expansion,
( )

[( ) ( )]

[ ]
( )( )
[( ) ( )]

[( ) ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
( )( )
For,
⁄
( )
( )( )( )

( )
Laplace inverse gives response to a unit ramp input,
( )
Steady state error for a unit ramp input is determined as:

38
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

( ) ( )
( )

Also steady-state error could be obtained as,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Steady-state error,
( ) ( ) ( )

3. A unit parabolic input, ( ) and ( )

( )
( )( )
Partial fraction expansion,
( )

[( ) ( )]

[( ) ]
( )( )
[( ) ( )]

[( ) ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
( )( )
For and
( )
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( )
Solve equations simultaneously,

( )
Laplace inverse gives response to a unit parabolic input,
( )
39
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Steady state error for a unit parabolic input is determined as:
( ) ( )
( )

Also steady-state error could be obtained as,

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( )
Steady-state error,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Example 10:
A mass-spring damper system is shown in Figure:
a. Write the mathematical differential
equation of operation.
b. Using Laplace transform to solve the
equation when ( ) , ( ) , ,
, , and .
c. Determine the steady state error when ( )
d. Determine the steady state error for a unit step input, unit ramp input
and unit parabolic input.
Solution:
A grounded chair representation as shown in Figure,
a) Mathematical differential equation,

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
b) Laplace transforms, ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
[ ( ) ( ) ( )] [ ( ) ( )] ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
Since, , ( ) [ ] ,

41
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

( )
( )( )
Partial-Fraction-Expansion Technique:
( )
[( ) ( )]

[( ) ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
Laplace inverse yields time solution or transient response,
( )
c) Steady-state error
( ) ( ) ( )
For open loop control system, ( )
( )
( ) ( ) * +
( ) ( )
Also steady-state error could be obtained as,
( ) ( ) Open loop control system
Steady-state error,
( ) ( )
d) 1- Unit step input [ ( ) ( ) ]
For open loop control system, ( )
( ) ( )

Also steady-state error could be obtained as,

( ) ( ) ( ) Open loop control system
Steady-state error,
( ) ( )
2. Unit ramp input [ ( ) ]
For open loop control system, ( )
( ) ( )

41
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

Also steady-state error could be obtained as,

( ) ( ) Open loop control system
Steady-state error,
( ) ( )
3. Unit parabolic input [ ( ) ]
For open loop control system, ( )
( ) ( )

Also steady-state error could be obtained as,

( ) ( ) Open loop control system
Steady-state error,
( ) ( )
Steady-State Error For Two Inputs-One Output Control System:
Consider a control system with two inputs-one output shown in Figure,
( )

( ) ( ) ( )
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
( ) ‫) ( اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Since,
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )* +
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
For all zero initial conditions, Laplace transformed block diagram shown in
Figure and the transformed equation is:
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ‫) ( اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬ ‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬

‫اكتبالمعادلةهنا‬
( )

42
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Steady state error using Final-Value Theorem,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Error coefficients could be determined as:
For unit step input,
( ) ( ) ( ) Positional error constant
For unit ramp input,
( ) ( ) ( ) Velocity error constant
For unit parabolic input,
( ) ( ) ( ) Acceleration error constant
Example 11:
For feedback control system shown in Figure, all the initial conditions are zero
and
( )
( ) ( )

Determine the transient response and the steady-state error for each of
the following:
a. ( ) is a unit step function and ( )
b. ( ) is a unit step function and ( )
c. ( ) is a unit ramp function ( ) and ( )
d. Both ( ) and ( ) are unit step functions.
e. ( ) is a unit step function and ( ) is a unit ramp function ( )
Solution:
( ) ( )
( )

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
Since all initial conditions are zero, Laplace transforms, ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
43
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
a) ( ) is a unit step function and ( ) , then ( ) and ( )
( )
( )( )
Partial Fraction Expansion,
( )
* + *( ) +
( )( ) ( )( )

[( ) ]
( )( )
⁄ ⁄
( )
Transient response is obtained by Laplace Inverse,
( )
Steady state error,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Since, ( ) and ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

Another way (for a unity feedback only)

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [ ]
Steady state error,
( )

b) ( ) is a unit step function and ( ) , then ( )

( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )
Partial Fraction Expansion,
( )

[( ) ]
( )( )
44
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

[( ) ]
( )( )
( )
Transient response is obtained by Laplace Inverse,
( )
Steady state error,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Since, ( ) and ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
⁄ ⁄

Another way (for a unity feedback only)

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [ ]
Steady state error,
( )

c) ( ) is a unit ramp function ( ) and ( ) , then ( ) and

( )
( )
( )( )
Partial Fraction Expansion,
( )

[ ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
⁄
( )
( )( )( )

45
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

( )
Transient response is obtained by Laplace Inverse:
( )
Steady state error,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Since, ( ) and ( )

[ ]
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

⁄
Another way (for a unity feedback only)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [ ]
Steady state error,
( ) ( ) ( )

d) Both ( ) and ( ) are unit step functions,

( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )

( )
( )( ) ( )( )

( )
( )( ) ( )( )

( )
( )( )
Using the techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion:
( )

[ ]
( )( )

[( ) ]
( )( )
46
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

[( ) ]
( )( )

( )
Laplace Inverse,
( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
Steady state error,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Since, both unit step input ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
( )

Another way (for a unity feedback only)

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [ ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ ) ] ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
Steady state error,
( ) ( ⁄ ) ( ⁄ )
e) ( ) is a unit step function and ( ) is a unit ramp function ( ) , then
( ) and ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )( )

( )
( )( ) ( )( )

( )
( )( ) ( )( )

( )
( )( )
Using the techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion:
47
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

( )

[ ]
( )( )

[( ) ]
( )( )

[( ) ]
( )( )
⁄
( )
Laplace Inverse,
( )
Steady state error,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
* +
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
⁄

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
⁄
⁄
Another way (for a unity feedback only)
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [ ]
Steady state error,
( ) ( ) ( )

48
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
Chapter Six
Transient Response (Laplace Transforms)
Complex Conjugate Zeros: Imaginary
Laplace transformed polynomial equation ( ) ( ) () Axis
may have complex zeroes usually occur in pairs which conjugate
each other. Complex conjugate zeros have same real parts and
| |
equal but opposite imaginary parts as shown in the Figure.
Real
Where, | | √ is the magnitude of the vector while Axis
is the angle or the direction of the vector.
| |
( ) [ ( )][ ( )]( )( ) ( )
Multiplication of complex conjugate zeros yields,
[ ( )][ ( )]
In which, is used to determine zeros for any quadratic equation.
For example,

√
√
The magnitude of the complex zero is,

| | | √ | √( ) (√ ) √
The angle or the direction of the complex zero is,
√
( ) ( √ ) ( )

Another example:

( )
Laplace transforms equation of control system,
( )
( )
[ ( )][ ( )]( )( ) ( )
Using techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion yields:
( )
[ ( )] [ ( )]
Transient response Laplace Inverse (general form),
Imaginary
( ) ( ) ( )
Axis ( )
This can be expressed as,
| ( )|
( ) | ( )| ( )
Where, Real
( ) [( ) ( )] Axis

Complex constants ( ) have magnitudes and direction as shown in Figure, | ( )|

49 ( )
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( )
| ( )| √[ ( )] [ ( )]
( )
Example 1: Determine the transient response or the inverse transformation of the following
transformed equation:
( )
( )( )
Solution:

( )
[ ( )][ ( )]( )
Using techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion yields:
( )
[ ( )] [ ( )]
Where,
[( ) ]
( )( )
Laplace Inverse yields:
( ) ( ) ( )

Transient response could be expressed as:

( ) | ( )| ( )

( ) | ( )| ( )
( ) [( ) ( )]
( ) [( ) ]
( )( )
Magnitude of ( ),
| |
| ( )| | |
| | √
Angle is obtained as:
( ) ( ) ( )

( )

Magnitude of ( ),
| ( )| | | √
Angle is obtained as:
( ) ( ) ( )

Transient response or time solution of the control system,

( ) ( )
The term [ ( )] is an exponentially damped sinusoidal term introduced by a
pair of complex conjugate zeros.

51
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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Measure of Transient Response:

A very good measure of transient response or transient behavior may be obtained
directly from location of zeros of ( ) ( ) ( ) on s-plane. General form of transient
response in the case of real zeros is:
( )
A negative zero located on left of imaginary axis yields an exponentially decreasing
term while a positive zero located on right of imaginary axis yields an exponentially
increasing term. A zero at the origin results a constant term as shown,

Transient response of a control system with complex conjugate zeros is:

( ) | ( )| ( )
An exponentially damped sinusoidal term may be existed from complex conjugate
zeros of ( ) Real part of complex conjugate zero is exponential factor, when zeros lie to
left of imaginary axis a decreasing sinusoidal term results while an increasing
sinusoidal term results when zeros are located to the right of imaginary axis as shown

51
University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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in Figure. When zeros are located on the imaginary axis, a sinusoid of constant
amplitude results.

Example 2:
The block-diagram representation of a hydraulic
( ) ( )
system which provides the power for a numerically
( )
controlled machine tool is shown in Figure. The forcing
function is a unit step input ( ) ( ) and all the initial
conditions are zero. Determine the response ( ) and the
steady-state error for a unit step input when,
( ) ( ) ( )
Solution:
Since all the initial conditions are zero, the block-diagram could be represented by Laplace
transforms as shown in the Figure. Transfer function is,
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )
Since ( ) ( ), then ( )

( )
( )
Steady-state error for a unit step input is determined as:
( ) ( )
( )

a) For,
( )
( ) ( )( )
Since zeros are distinct, using techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion:

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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( )

[ ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )
[( ) ]
( )( )

( )

Laplace inverse of transformed equation yields transient response,

( )
b) For,
( )
( ) ( )
Using techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion:
( )
( )
[( ) ]
( )
[ ]
( )
( )
( ) ( )
For,
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( )
Laplace inverse of transformed equation yields transient response,
( ) * +
( ) ( )
( ) [ ]
c) For,
( )
( )

( )
[ ( )][ ( )]
Since zeros are complex conjugate, using techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion:
( )
[ ( )] [ ( )]

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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Where,
[ ]
( )
Laplace Inverse yields:
( ) ( ) ( )

Transient response could be expressed as:

( ) | ( )| ( )

( ) | ( )| ( )

( ) [( ) ( )]

( ) [( ) ]
( )
Magnitude of ( ),
| |
| ( )| | |
| | √( )
Angle is obtained as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Transient response or time solution of the control system,

( ) ( )
The term * ( )+ is an exponentially damped sinusoidal term introduced by a
pair of complex conjugate zeros.
Input Magnitu Type of
Zeros Transient Response
Function de of K Zeros
Distinct
a) ( )
Zeros
Unit Step Repeated
b) Input
( ) [ ]
Zeros
( ) ( ) Complex
c) Conjugate ( ) ( )
Zeros

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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Example 3:
For the system shown in Figure, the forcing function
( ) ( )
is ( ) and all of the initial conditions are
zero. Determine the response ( ) and steady-state
error for each of the following cases:
( ) ( )
Solution:
( ) ( )
Since all the initial conditions are zero, block-diagram
could be represented by Laplace transforms. Using
the rule of combining blocks in cascade yields,
Transfer function is,
( ) ( ) ( )
( )( )
( ) ( )( )
( )( )

( ) ( )
Since, ( ) then ( )

( )
( )( )
( )
( )
( )( ) ( ) ( )
Using techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion:
( )
( )
[( ) ]
( ) ( )
[( ) ]
( ) ( )

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
For,
( )
( ) ( ) ( )

( )
( )
Laplace inverse of transformed equation yields transient response,
( ) * +
( ) ( )
( ) [ ]
( )
( )
( )( )

( )
[ ( )][ ( )]( )
Using techniques of Partial-Fraction-Expansion:
( )
[ ( )] [ ( )]
Where,
[( ) ]
( )( )
Laplace Inverse yields:
( ) ( ) ( )

Transient response could be expressed as:

( ) | ( )| ( )

( ) | ( )| ( )

( ) [( ) ( )]

( ) [( ) ]
( )( )
Magnitude of ( ),
| |
| ( )| | | √
| | √( ) √
Angle is obtained as:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Transient response or time solution of the control system,
( ) √ ( )

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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The term [√ ( )] is an exponentially damped sinusoidal term introduced by a
pair of complex conjugate zeros. The steady-state error could be determined from transient
or dynamic response:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) [√ ( ) ] √ ( )
Steady state error, ( ) √ ( ) ( ( ) )
Input Magnit
Type of
Function ude of Zeros Transient Response
Zeros
K
Repeated
a) Exponentially ( ) [ ]
Zeros
decaying
Complex
Input
b) Conjugate ( ) √ ( )
( )
Zeros

Damping Ratio and Natural Frequency:

Since a pair complex conjugate zeros introduces an
exponentially damping sinusoidal term, it can be expressed in
terms of damping ratio and natural frequency rather than
and .
[ ( )][ ( )] Real
 Undamped Natural Frequency: Axis
| | √( ) ( ) √

 Damping Ratio:
From the figure shown,
( )
( ) Actual amount of damping

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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For critical damping , ( ) Critical amount of damping
Damping ratio is the ratio of actual amount of damping to critical amount of damping.

The exponentially damping sinusoidal term can be expressed in terms of damping ratio and
natural frequency ,
[ ( )][ ( )]
[ ( )][ ( )]
 Damped Natural Frequency:
√ √ √
A pair of complex conjugate zeros can be specified in and as:
√
Transient response is expressed in terms of damping ratio and natural frequency ,
( ) | ( )| ( √ )
√
( )
Note, when the damping ratio is greater than one, the zeros are no longer complex
conjugate but are real. The response is no longer sinusoidal but is exponential. Consider the
following general plot of a pair of complex conjugate roots:

1. When a decreasing exponential sinusoidal term results and the roots lie to the
left side of imaginary axis where in which Positive value of
yields a decreasing sinusoidal response term.
2. When an increasing exponential sinusoidal term results and the roots lie to the
right side of imaginary axis where in which Negative value
of yields an increasing sinusoidal response term.
3. When a sinusoidal term of constant amplitude results and the roots lie on the
imaginary axis where in which zero value of yields a sinusoidal term
of constant amplitude.
Example 4: Determine the general equation for the transient response of a second-order
system to a unit step function change which occurs at . The operational form of the
differential equation is:

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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( ) ( )
Assume that all the initial conditions are zero. Then solve for ?
Solution: Since all initial conditions are zero then Laplace transforms,
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
[ ( √ )][ ( √ )]
Techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion,
( )
( √ ) ( √ )
Transient response for control system with complex conjugate zeros could be expressed as:
( ) | ( )| ( )
In which it can be expressed damping ratio and natural frequency :
( ) | ( )| ( √ )
√
( )
( ) *( ) +
( )

( ) *( ) +
( ) √

( )
√ √
√
( ) √
√ √
| ( )| | √ |
( )
( )
√ √ √

* +
( )
The general equation for the transient response,
√
( ) ( √ )
√
This transient response equation is valid for
But for ,
( )
( ) ( )
Using the techniques of Partial Fraction Expansion:
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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( )
( )

*( ) +
( )

, *( ) +- , * +-
( )

* +
( )

( )
( )
Laplace inverse yields:
( ) ( )
Example 5:
Determine the damping ratio , undamped natural ( )
( )
frequency , and damped natural frequency for the
( )
system shown in Figure. What is the response ( ) of this
system to a unit step function excitation ( ) ( ) when
initial conditions are zero.
Solution:
Transfer function is,
( ) ( )
( )
( )

( ) ( )
Since, ( ) ( ) then ( )

( )
( )

Undamped natural frequency

Damping ratio
√ √ ( ) √ Damped natural frequency
√ ( ) ( )√ ( )
√
Transient response is expressed in terms of damping ratio and natural frequency :
( ) | ( )| ( √ ) ( )
√
√
( ) [( ) ]
( ) √ √ √
( ) √

| ( )| | √ | √( ) ( √ )
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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali
( ) √
( )

[ ]
( )

( ) ( ) ( )( )
(( )√ ( ) )
( )√ ( )
( ) ( √ )
√
Influence of damping ratio on transient response:
The response of a second-order system to a unit step function for various values of
the damping ratio

Transient Response Specifications:

A typical response of a second-order control system to a step input function is shown in
Figure:
 Rise time is the time at which the response first attains its final steady-state value.
Thus final steady-state value occurs firstly at rise time .
(√ ) (√ )
√
 Peak time is the time at which the response reaches its maximum overshoot.
Maximum value of ( ) occurs when:

√
 Maximum percent overshoot is:
( √ )

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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 settling time is the time required before the response does not oscillate more than
some small percentage such as 2 0r 5 percent from the final steady-state value.

Example 6:
For the feedback control system shown in ( ) ( )
figure, determine the natural frequency, ( )
damping ratio, damped natural frequency,
rise time, peak time, percent overshoot,
and approximate 5 percent settling time.
Solution:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )

In which:

 Natural frequency
 Damping ratio
 Damped natural frequency:
√ √ ( )
 Rise time,
(√ ) (√ ( ) )

 Peak time,

 Percent overshoot,
( √ ) ( ( ) √ ( ) )

 Approximate 5% settling time,

( )
Routh’s Stability Criterion:
Routh’s stability criterion is a method for determining whether or not any of the roots of
the characteristic equation are in the right half-plane.
 Write the characteristic equation in the general form:

 Arrange the coefficients of the characteristic equation as:

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

0
0
0
0
 The row of is evaluated as:

 The coefficient d is obtained as:

 Process should be continued until one more row is obtained than the order of the
differential equation.
Example 7:
Consider the characteristic function and examine the stability

Solution:

0
Since the number of changes of sign of the coefficients in the first row is two then two
roots located to the right of the imaginary axis.
A zero in the First Column:
When one of the coefficients in the first column is zero, it may be replaced by a very small
number for the purpose of computing the remaining coefficients in array.
Example 8:
Consider the characteristic function and examine the stability

Solution:

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
Mechanical Engg. Dept. 2022-2023 Assist. Prof. Dr. Karim H. Ali

0
0

6 0
Since is a very large negative number when is positive and is a very large positive
number when is negative. Therefore two sign changes in first column and characteristic
equation has two roots located to the right of imaginary axis.
A row of zeros:
A row of zeros occurs in Routh’s array means that the characteristic equation has:
 A pair of real roots with opposite signs.
 Complex conjugate roots on the imaginary axis.
 A pair of complex conjugate roots with opposite real parts.
The following procedure should be implemented:
 Auxiliary equation ( ) is formed using coefficients of the row above row of zeros.
 Derive the auxiliary equation with respect to and replace the coefficients of row of
zeros by coefficients of the derived auxiliary equation.
 Continue solving according to the Routh’s Criterion techniques.
Example 9:
Determine the stability of the control system whose characteristic equation is:

Solution:

Auxiliary equation is formed from the row above the row of zeros,
( )
( )

One sign changes from positive to negative, therefore there is one root of the characteristic
equation is located in right half-plane and system is unstable.

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University of Baghdad Advanced Control for Energy Systems College of Engineering
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Example 10:
Determine the stability of the control system whose characteristic equation is:

Solution:

Auxiliary equation is formed from the row above the row of zeros,
( )
( )

There are two sign changes, therefore two roots of the characteristic equation are located
in the right half-plane and the system is unstable.

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