HARDWARE PROGRAMME

In computer we have the hard & software. The Hardware is the

physical components of a computer that can be seen, touched and
handled e.g., Central Processing Unit (C.P.U), Keyboard, Monitor etc.
Those that study or practice hardware’s are called technicians or
engineers depending on the level of training they acquired.

COMPUTER REPAIR, MAINTANCE, ASSEMBLING &

CONSULTANCY
Hard ware’s we have in computer are
1. Entire computer unit, which include;
a. CPU e. Monitors I. Scanner’s
b. Cards f. Monitors J. Key Board’s
c. Memory g. Ups k. Mouse
d. Circuit h. Printer L. Joy Stick
m. Speakers n. Digital Camera o. Webs Cam
p. Digital Pen

WE HAVE HARD WARE DEVICES:

1. Input Devices
2. Processing Devices
3. Output Devices

1. INPUT DEVICES: These are devices that are used to give commands to
the computer system they comprise of keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner
digital, camera, web cam, etc.

KEYBOARD: This is connected to the system board through a cable of 4/5

pins; it runs through the circuits and through processor to the motherboard. It
is used to receive signal Input. Keystrokes are for signal input, which are the
numeric and alphabets.

TYPES OF KEYBOARDS

1. Standard keyboard.
2. Enhance keyboard
3. Multimedia keyboard for internet
We have serial or Ps 2 keyboard
COMPONENT OF KEY BOARD

1. Casing
2. Key strokes
3. Magic processor board
4. Nursel/spring
5. Keypad
6. Cable connector

MOUSE AS AN INPUT DEVICE

A mouse is a pointing device. It is the most common type of input device

after the keyboard. A mouse has a ball which moves when the mouse
moves. Sensors detect this movement and this information is passed to the
computer, which translates the movement of the mouse to the movement of
the pointer on the screen. A mouse has buttons to activate this on the
screen. The left mouse button is often used as a shortcut to menus. Touch
pads and trackballs are other examples of pointing devices. It serves as a
support to the keyboard.

TYPES OF MOUSES

1. OPTO MECHINCAL: this type of mouse comes with mouse ball,

vertical & horizontal wheels.

2. OPTICAL MOUSE: this type of mouse is made up of micro board,

which is the optics (i.e., control wheel). Mouse may be communication
port 1&2 for serial or comm. 1&2 for serial. Optical mouse always
comes as PS2 or USB port

3. WIRELESS OR CORDLESS MOUSE: this mouse is optical in

nature; it has no wheel ball rather it has a remote attached to the mouse
port and it also works on limited distance. Cordless mouse is also USB
port. Universal serial port asset speed of a device.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOUSE ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT

PORTS.

1. Serial mouse
2. P s 2 mouse
3. Multimedia mouse
 4. USB mouse
5. wireless mouse

PARTS OF MOUSE

1. p-roller-vertical &horizontal
2. ball
3. buttons
4. mouse gurad
5. lens
6. magic processor board
7. casing

JOY STICK

Joystick is for game; it is also a game device. It is connected through

the game port.

SCANNER AS AN INPUT DEVICE

A scanner is a device that is used to input pictures and text into a computer.
They work by passing a beam of light of the image and sensors collects
information from.
The reflected light. The data produced is an image, which can be changed
using special image editing software. If the image is a page of text, which the
user wants to be able to edit, then special optical character recognition
software must be used to convert the image of letters in text, which can be
edited using word processor.

TYPES OF SCANNERS

1. Handheld Scanner
2. Flat Bed Scanner

1. THE HARDHELD SCANNER: This limited in size of scanning

object except you use merging method to merge your image or pictures.
It will not be effective.

2. THE FLAT BERD SCANNER: Is not limited in size and smaller

areas of scanning image. It has a high resolution. In scanning, the co
 lour ranger can only be limited by the system’s VGA Video graphic
pray. This means the newer the VGA the better the co lour.

DIGITAL CAMERA

Digital camera is an input device that is also used to capture image or object
through the chipset o the process or board on a focal receiver to the memory
that enable picture, images, objects to be capture and later transfer to the
computer as an input device. You need not to connect the digital camera to the
computer before snapping but after snapping you connect then through image
or object are copied into the hard.

WEBS CAMERA

WEBS means forum for an exchange of information. Web Camera is also

used to exchange ideas in the computer for this reason. It is called WEBS
Camera because of the Camera. It can be used in Chatting in the Internet and
also in live information or visual information.

PROCESSING DEVICE

Types of processing device we have are

1. MOTHER BOARD 11. HARD DISK DRIVE
2. CPU 12. FLOPPY DISK DRIV E
3. MEMORY 13. RIBBON
4. CACHE 14. SCSI
5. VGA CARD 15. CD-ROM DRIVE
6. SOUND CARD 16. POWER PACK
7. MODERN CARD 17. LAN CARD
8. TV CARD 18. CASEN
9. USB CARD 19. WIRELESS CARD
10.ISDN CARD

MOTHER BOARD

Mother Board is one of the most important devices of the computer. It is made
up of chipsets and other logical devices or component. It is on the
motherboard that other cards derive their functions.
TWO TYPES OF MOTHER BOARD

1. OPEN BOARD – daughter cards are not indicted.

2. ON BOARD – daughter cards are indicted.
The open Boards use a lot of daughter cards and also has a detachable
processor while the onboard means that those devices that appear on open
board e.g., VGA, Sound, LAN, and Modern etc are right now logically built
into the board itself as chipsets.
On motherboard we have slots, which may be CPU slots for card or
socket. We have the PCI (Peripheral connection interface), which runs in 16
bits, and 32 bits data transfer modem and the ISA (Industrial, Standard,
Architecture) it is longer than the PCI but works, in 8-16 bits optional.
AGP slots runs with cards of 32 to 64 bits on the motherboard you can also
find the memory bank. Some motherboards may have 2,3,4 banks. The
memory bank on the motherboard must be filled at least 2 out of 4 banks or 1
out of 2 banks for the system to be faster in running programs.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

This is the basic part of a computer that sends

Signals to the input and output devices. It is called the brain or the co-
ordinate. It consists of the following components
(1). Processor Unit (2). Memory Unit (3). Control Unit
(4). Arithmetic and Logical Unit.

PROCESSOR UNIT

It is a very small component that directs and controls

the computer system, it is the heartbeat of the computer
system, it is also attached to the mother board.

TYPES OF CPU

We have two types of CPU namely;

1. Pin CPU
2. Pin less CPU
3. Socket CPU

PIN CPU-this are type of CPU that comes with pin on the processor on itself.

PINLESS CPU- it doesn’t deal with pin on the processor but has pin on the
socket (slot).
SOCKET CPU-this type of CPU deals with slots. It can be attached under the
board.
The CPU controls the Arithmetic, logical sequencing & front side (FSB)
Interaction with Cache. The CPU’s sockets are made up of pins, which are
logically built to the core areas. Not every CPU socket will feat every socket
hence you must analyze your board for the type of CPU that will feat in, so is
applicable to CPU slots.
CPU speed is measured in mega hertz. MEGA stands, for million & HERTZ
Stand for Cycle for clock speed.
Many companies manufacture CPU e.g., IBM, INTEL, AMERICAN
MEGATREND, AMD, CYRIX ETC.
The cycle of a CPU determines the processing speed of the entire computer
units.
CPU ranges in Accordance with the manufactures like 8088 from Intel 80186,
80/286 (25-33 MHz) 80/386 (38-40 MHz) 80486, 80586, step by step

Pentium 1 with speed (70 –100MHZ)

Pentium 2 with speed (133-200MHZ)
Pentium 3 with speed (300-1000MHZ)
Pentium 4 with speed (1.2GHZ – 3.0GHZ, CORE 2 DUAL ETC)
Mega Hertz = MHz means Million
Gig Hertz = GHZ means Billions
Kilo Hertz = KHZ means Thousand
Because the CPU is to coordinate the activities of the system, it has
become important for the CPU manufacturers from time to time to upgrade
the stepping of the CPU to meet up with market demand especially in
software market. INTEL & AMD are the strongest, highest processor in
the market and contain some components on it for voltage regulation.

CAUTIONS FOR CPU

1. Make sure that the processor is the right one for the board.
2. Make sure that the processor has heat sink or fan on it.
3. Don’t detach the CPU from the board while the system is still on; make
sure that you disconnect the power from the power pack exp, ATX
board.
4. Check for proper jumpering for power of the CPU Core Voltage input
and output voltage.
5. Shut down the computer system properly; do not on or off the system
anyhow because you have to allow the fan on the CPU to stop.
A CPU can be upgraded but must be the same match for the slot or
sockets.
 PROBLEMS OF CPU.

System hanging.
System not powering.
Can power but not booting.

BATTERY: The type of battery used by the computer system is known as the
complementary metal oxide semi conductor (CMOS) battery, which regulates
the computer modular operating system. The CMOS battery takes care of the
setting of the board parameters e.g., the time and date of the computer system.
The type of battery that the motherboard carries is the Litton battery with 3v
capacity series CR 2002.When the CMOS battery is low or spoilt, the CMOS
configuration settings on the motherboard will be lost and will need to be reset
before the commencement of work for the day.

BIOS (BASIC INPUT OUPT SYSTEM)

Bios are a chipset that controls every input to the board and every output,
input to the board and every output that goes out of the board. Manually every
day before works commence, you will check it. Bios contain ROM program.

JUMPERS

Jumpers are meant to close or open a circuit connected to the device e.g., hard
disk drives, cd rom drives or Jumper 7 (located at the motherboard) is for
enabling and disabling the board parameters (i.e., restore default).
1&2 Clear CMOS (Disable)
2&3 users’ default (Enable)
After enabling or disabling a jumper, the settings need to be saved to the cmos
for the settings to be effective and for future use. You can also jump your
sound card, VGA card, modem cards etc.

MEMORY
Memory in computing is the part of computer where information is stored; the
amount of space in a computer for storing information either permanently or
temporally.

TWO TYPES OF MEMORY

1. Permanent storage device (ROM)
2. Temporal Storage device (RAM)
 Permanent Storage Device: This is a type of memory that is capable of
storing information permanently. E.g., of such devices are:

a. Hard disk
b. Cache
c. Rom (Read only Memory)
d. Magnetic Tapes, etc.

HARD DISK

Hard disk is a permanent storage device. It is always tied to the system i.e.,
why it is called fixed hard disk. The composition of the hard disk includes the
board, cylinders, the heads and sectors. The cylinders are spherical in shape
coated with magnetic substances from data.
* The Head is the starting point for every cylinder.
* The sectors are the division to which the cylinder could be divided. The
storage of the hard disk is measured in bytes. The older hard disk has low
capacity while the modern one has the higher capacities while the modern one
has the higher capacities files are permanently sacred in the hard disk. Every
hard disk from the factory is per-formatted. So, for you to save work, it must
first of all be formatted in a higher-level way. During formatting, the
operating system (OLS) will now prepare the hard disk into cylinders, head
and sectors. High processor board will carry a higher hard disk while a low
processor will carry a lower hard disk. If a higher hard disk says 20GB
connected to Pentium 1 series processor, it might have a draw back because of
a rotation per mint (RPM) compared to the processor clock speed. So, it is
necessary to identify the processor of the system before attaching to a system.
Most hard disk gets crashed or bisector early because of processor speed and
unnecessary power failure or constant power failure.
The company that manufactures hard disk includes, Sea Gate,
Quantum, Maxtor, fusion, International Business Machine (IBM) etc.
STRUCTURE OF THE HARD DISK

Track

Head

The read and write head starts from head & sector.
You can also know the capacity of your hard disk. By multiplying the
cylinder-Head and sector by size.

JUMPER OF THE HARD DISK

A. Master indicates that the O/S will start the computer from the hard disk.
The master being the source does not depend on any other hard disk to
boot the system.
B. Slave hard disk cannot boot up the system to windows, hence to save or
copy information to and from the slave you must go through the master
first. Slave hard disk is used as a backup of the master hard disk.
C. Cable Select enables a system to select by itself in other words it enables
the system to automatically configure the hard disk jumper depending on
the boot of the system. Cable selects may be necessary when you are
confused on the jumper of the system you will then the hampering of the
system you will then configure it as slave or master. Normally the pins for
jumper are eight (8) in number s

NOTE: Always follow the hard disk instruction for jumping.

HARD DISK HEAD CRASH

In a nutshell, a head crash is a physical damage of a hard disk when the faulty
electronics or mechanism causes the read –write head to land on the rotating
platter instead f retracting to its safe zone, hence by damaging and grinding
away the magnetic film on the disk surface.
A read-write head or simply the head is a tiny electromagnet suspended by an
armature that is prissily positional above every disk platter. The head acts as
an interface between the physical storage media and the rest of electronics
components of the disk by transforming electric signals into magnetic pulses
to store data into a disk in reverse, it reads the patterns of magnetic flux and
converts them into electrical signals which are further encoded into binary
bits to be processed by the computer.

How Does A Hard Disk Crash Happen?

When the platter is rotating at rates between 5,400 to 15,000 revolutions per
minutes, a thin film of air suspends the read/write head extremely closely
above the disk surface. The distance called the head is typically measured in
millions of inches. So, it is possible that heads can make contact with the
media on the hard disk when they are faulty disk mechanism.

DUST DEBRIS.

A hard disk is never 100% seal if it is then, it is not possible to create the
necessary air flow from the disk working mechanism. When dust enters and
contaminated to the hard disk. It can obstruct the movement of the head
resulting in a crash as the clearances between the sizes of a smoke particle.

MECHNICAL SHOCK

A sock applied to a disk while it’s in active state may cause the head to
bounce and slide against the platter hence forth scratching it.

POWER SURGE.

Another reason is the effect of using poor power supply which has the same
problem as power surges and power cuts resulting in unpredictable movement
of read write head mechanism causing the crash.

WEAR AND TEAR.

Hard disk is complex and extremely delicate electromechanical devices that

subjects to wear and tear over time. They have a fairly predictable life span
even within a controller environment just like other mechanized devices.
 PROTECTION MEASURES AGAINST HDD CRASH.

With the advancement of technology platters manufactured today are guarded

with anti vibration technology to prevent the head from making contacts with
the rotating platter when a drive is shocked or jested. Protective layers are also
implemented on the magnetic surfaces of newer disks to with stand a certain
amount of head-crash abuse before permanent damage sets in for instances,
laptop computer hard disk is manufactured with better shock resistance
capability as these machines are typically on the moving. However, it is
always recommended to avoid moving your computer while the disk is still in
operations.

CACHE MEMORY

Cache memory is the special type of buffer (G) memory that holds a copy of
data or instructions in main memory if they are likely to be needed by the next
processor. It generally increases the speed at which data and instructions can
be accessed and therefore the speed at which the task is completed. Cache
enhances software operation. A board with high cache of says 256KB –
512KB perform better than a board of 128 or 64KB.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM): This is a name giving to chips that store
information or instructions that do not change. An example would be the
instructions and data used when a computer is first turned on. The contents of
ROM memory are retained when the computer is turned off, therefore it is
non-volatile. The data or programmed stored in ROM cannot be altered only
read. Instructions that are stored in memory are called firmware or
macrocodes. Examples of computers that use ROM memory are the special-
purpose computers used in automobiles and appliances.

MAGNETIC TAPE: this is a type of memory that is made with tape

coated magnetic material.

MAGNETIC DISK: This is the type of memory that is made with plastic
coated magnetic material

ALPHAPETICATION OF DRIVES

1. Floppy = A: 0r 3 1/2 floppy A:

2. Zip drive = B:
3. HDD = C:
4. CD ROM = D:
 5. CD Writer =E: etc.
Any of the drives that come into the system takes its own alphabet.

FLOPPY DISK

Floppy diskette is auxiliary storage devices because it is a temporal storage

device.

TYPES OF FLOPPY DISKETTE

1. 5 1/4 Floppy diskette

2. 3 1/2 floppy diskette
DS- Double density
HD-High density
The capacity for 3 1/2 diskette is (1.44mb, 2.88MB) the floppy diskettes
are made up of tracks and sector

FLOPPY DRIVE

Floppy drive is the device that accepts floppy diskette.

1)5,1/4 and 3,1/2 floppy drive is 360KB or

72OKB capacity of 3 1/2 floppy drives is
1.44MB, 2.88 MB of disk.

Each Floppy Disk Drive is Made Up

1. Read and Write head
2. Motor
3. Knob
4. Data Port
5. Power Port
6. Lever
7. Processor Control Board (PCB)
 RIBBONS

Ribbons are used to connect a device to the motherboard. It is a

communication bridge between two components. E.g., Of Ribbon Connection
Are?
1. From Hard Disk to the Motherboard
2. From the floppy to the motherboard
3. From CD Rom to hard disk or Motherboard
4. From VGA Ribbon to Motherboard
5. From mouse ribbon to motherboard.
6. Ribbon can also be used in other processor control board like scanners,
printers and monitors.

NOTE: That wrong polarity of ribbon connecting can cause device to

malfunction.
* The number one wire of the ribbon is always marked with Red or similar
colors. The wrong connection of ribbon can make a system not to detect the
hard disk or could cause the CD-ROM to malfunction by refusing to eject the
CD-ROM when the button is pressed floppy every motherboard you buy must
come with its ribbon.

CD ROM DRIVES

CD –ROM drive is an advancement in storage technology just as floppy drive

in and auxiliary storage Device so also is the CD-ROM but in a higher
density. A typical CD–ROM Drive has a capacity for 650 MB to 800Mb
ROM (Plates)
CD = Compaq disk /Rom (read only Memory)
A CD-ROM Drive Comprise of
1. Lens 7. Ribbon & Connector
2. Motor 8. Speaker in & out Audio Connector
3. PCB 9. Jumper for Drive (MS, SL, CS)
4. Puller
5. Knob for eject

The CD Rom drive is measured in rotating per minute rated as X e.g., 4X,
8X, 12X, 16X, 24X, 32X, 38X, 42X, 46X, 52X, 56X,
 TYPES OF CD –ROM DRIVES

1. CD ROM DRIVE
2. CD /DVD DRIVE
3. CD REWRITABLE DRIVE
4. CD-DVD –COMBO DRIVE
FORMATING A NEW HARD DISK
Formatting is the division of the hard disk into tracks & sectors.

2. Temporal Storage Device: This is where data or jobs are kept

temporary inside the computer system before processing; this
means if there is a power failure while working, all the information or
data on the temporal memory will be lost. Examples of such devices
are:

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM):

Ram is the name giving to integrated circuits, or chips that are used for
main memory. It is temporary memory that allows you to run applications.
When a computer is turned off, data stored in ram memory are erased,
therefore RAM memory is volatile. Programs that need to be saved need
to be transferred to the secondary memory before the power is turned off. A
new type of memory called flash ram or flash memory can now retain data
even when the power is turned off. Many applications require specific amount
of ram to work, fortunately, more memory can be added. Examples of
temporal device are: -
a. RAM (Random access Memory)
b. SIMM (Single Inline Memory Modules)
c. DIMM (Direct inline Memory Modules)
d. DRAM (Single Data Random Access Memory)
e. DDRAM (Double Data Random access Memory)
SIMM Comes in 30, 32, 72 pins for 386 or 486 boards
DIMM Use 84 pins and above.
All Memory are measured in bytes, bytes stand for characters then 8 bits =
1byte = 1character
A bit is the smallest identifiable unit in information storage or Data storage.
Memory works for program whereas processor works for the Board. The
higher the memory in your system the faster the programs in your system.
 MEASUREMENT OF MEMORY

Memory can be measured in: -Memory is measured in bytes, which can also
be measured in binary numbers.

HOW TO KNOW THE CAPACITY OF MEMORY

1. It can be known through a paper pasted on the memory indicating the

size of the memory.
2. It can also be dictated when you insert the memory on the board, while
the system boots it will show the capacity of the memory.
3. It can also be known through this way, click on start, click on control
panel, and double click on system.

CAUTIONS FOR THE MEMORY

1. Bring out the memory and use mentholated spirit to clean the pin, capacity
Bios etc. keep for about 2 hrs dry or day to dry. But before you insert it back,
blow off the dust in the banks before inserting the memory again to avoid
affecting it again.

DIAGRAM OF A MEMORY

HOW TO KNOW WHEN MEMORY IS BAD

1. It cannot boot the system

2. It will not give normal count (e.g., 256mb of ram gives 64mb)
3. The memory will beep for 3 times
4. A bad memory cannot load any O/S or program e.g., when system
hangs or give error massage you know that the memory is bad.
For a program to run especially operating system, system must meet the
memory requirement for windows e.g.
Win 3.1 requires from 2mb and above
Win 95 requires from 4 MB ad above
Win 97 & 98 requires from 8mb and above
Win ME may requires from 32mb and above
Win 2000 may require from 64mb and above
Win XP may require from 64mb and above
NOTE: It is better to have higher memory for application programs to run
effectively.

HOW TO PURCHASE MEMORY

SIMM = 1MB –8MB
DIMM = 8MB – 32MB
S DRAM =32-64 –128-256 -512
DDR = 64 – 128-256 512MB RAM.

MEMORY SLOTS

EDO RAM memory slot

SDIMMs Memory slot
DDR Memory Slot
DIMMs Memory Slot
The speed of a memory is measuring in nano second and its volume is in
bytes.

CAUTION

Do not try to mismatch memory

VGA CARD
Video Graphical Array or Adapter can be onboard
or can be an Adaptor a card. VGA enhances the
display of the screen in other words; it is the bridge
between the CPU and the monitor. VGA Card
comes in variety; it can be ISA, PCI or AGP
Advantages of onboard VGA depends on the
onboard memory.

DEMERITS OF VGA` CARDS

1. It will refuse to display on the monitor

2. It will give a beeping sound via the buffer
3. It will boot and the screen will be blank half way.
 SCSI CARD

SCSI means small computer system interface. It is a system card designed to

spring up process device.
SCSI card, which acts as add –on –card for the board. The configuration of
pins in the SCSI Card is quite different from the conventional cards. Most
boards come with IDE or SCSI cards.

SOUND CARD

Sound Audio processing card is used to capture chipsets and then processes
the audio in form of sound transmission, it travels in Hertz

HOW TO INSERT SOUND CARD

It can be onboard or adapter. In any well-installed sound card, you must have
the mic connection port, the speaker ports and in and out ports also.

INSERTING METHOD

1. Insert the card to the system slot whether ISA or PCI Slot
2. The system will detect the card as a new hardware
3. Insert the driver that it comes with weather CD driver or a diskette
4. The O/S will automatically search for the inserted driver to install the
software then click next until it installs the software.
5. If properly installed the Audio will function else it will not function.

MODEM CARD

Modem means Modular De-modular that has to do with analog digital card;
this is a device that is used in converting telephone language to computer
language from Nitel in Nigeria to public phone of data in computer world.

TWO TYPES OF MODEMS

1. INTERNAL & EXTERNAL MODEM: Digital is faster than Analog.

Digital goes straight while Analog goes rigorously Analog Digital.
Dates always are in Bits this modem have a data rating in kilobytes.
The line is bought through the Nitel line to the back of the modern card. The
cable that comes at the back of modern card is called BJU. Modern is for
telephone dial-up and Internet connectivity. To install a modern card the
modern must have its driver.

RANGE OF MODERN

It ranges from 32.6K BPS or 56BPS KBPS (Kilobytes per second)

INSTALLING A MODERN CARD

1. Uncouple the system and insert the modern card in a slot at the mother
board
2. Reboot the system
3. New hardware found massage will appear on the screen
4. Then insert the CD driver that it comes with.
5. The O/S will ask you whether you want to install automatically or
manually
6. The system will install the driver and make it ready for use.

PROBLEM ASSOICATED WITH MODERM

1. Modems are open or prone to dangers during lightning

2. Moderns are likely to short circuit if not properly handled
3. Modern will not connect if other country codes are used instead of the
user country
4. Power upsurge can damage the modern

LAN CARD

Local area network card can also be called Network interface card (NIC)

Network card (NC)

LAN Card is used as a physical device in Networking; cables are

connected through the computer and Network card. Most Network cards
runs on 10 by 100 BPS, which stands for million bytes per second on 100-
meter, range MBPS
RX receiving and Exchange
TX transfer and Exchange
 TYPES OF LAN CARD

1. PCL LAN CARD

2. ISA LAN CARD
3. WIRELESS LAN CARD

TV CARD

TV card is an integrated Card that enables the system monitors to be used as a

channel or means to connect you to TV channels. A VGA Card can also have
TV cards on it. You card install the software and then use your monitor as
TV.

U S B CARD

Universal serial Bus/Board is a device that enhances the new technology

system. It is a plug & play device (PNP). It can be informed of a card or a
cable. The USB card or cable works faster than any other conditional card or
cables i.e., 2.X speed of other related devices. It is universal in nature that is
why it be used for mouse, printer, keyboard, scanner.etc
A typical USB Card must have a driver, some new technology system and
devices comes only with USB port.
USB Cable or card carries an option in or out during processing. Old
model motherboard e.g., does not have the onboard USB facility. Hence to
connect a USB device you must purchase a USB Card to install.
* Multi 10 Card is an old ISA Card formally used for 386, 286 formally used
to connect hard disk, floppy, mouse. It was useful then because that mouse
286, 386 has no on-board mouse, hard disk, and floppy connector. Every card
must be inserted on the PCI or ISA Slot.

ISDN CARD

Integrated service for Direct Network (ISDN). It is a dial up Internet

telephone service that can be used for voice and data. Hence to connect to the
Network of this service, you must have an ISDN card in your computer.
The card can be Internal or external, most of the external ones use USB
Configuration. It is different from modem in the sense that it is regarded as a
Network device. The providers of such services in Nigeria are the Nigerian
Telecommunications Ltd (NITEL). NITEL is able to provide such service
because they are apex or gateway of communication.
* The ISAN card runs on a higher board rate more than ordinary modem. The
slowest speed for a typical ISDN Card is 64KBPS. The card must be installed
with the driver that came with it. After the installation, you configure the Card
for Internet.
* The Internet ISDN card comes as a PCI card the highest speed of an ISDN
card is 128KBPS.

POWER PACK

Power Pack is a device that connects power from DC or AC power outlet

devices to enable them function electronically. Power pack can be a
distribution point for MONITOR, system Printer, Scanners, and every other
device that uses current. It is made up of the primary & secondary unit. The
primary side/part is an input side while the secondary part is the output side.

TWO TYPES OF POWER PACK

1. At power pack is manual in power relay (Advanced Technology)

2. ATX power pack is Automatic in power relay (Advanced Technology
Extended)
ATX power pack act with the operating system on Display power
management system (DPMS) but AT Does not have such facilities. Diodes
connect power from AC to DC.
ATX has about 20 pins with colored cables. In ATX the fellow wire carries
more voltage that others + or – 5v. The more power that goes to the board + or
– 12v or + or – 15v you will be careful while slotting the ATX pack to the
board and do not change polarity.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH POWER PACKS

1. When the power pack is subjected to high voltage than the fuse and
capacities, resistors etc cannot contain, it will blow up such components
2. Wrong polarity
3. Dust Accumulation in power packs will cause bridge to power pack
hence you should make your computer is dust free
4. Inappropriate connections of ribbons cables can also cause the power
pack to malfunction.

SOLUTIONS
1. Change some components that are bad
2. Troubleshoot the power pack, which mean checking for component,
which are bad and change them.
 ASSEMBLING CARDS

In a system where you have LAN, modern VGA, US6 and sound card you
can put VGA in I or in 3 or VGA in I, modern in 3. If you did not insert the
right card 60 its sitting, there will be conflicting. Try to insert your cards in
a slot.
During the process of assembling the system you should be careful on
how arrange the cards in such that they can properly adapt non-conflicting
IRQ the cards.
Dual forts in first out (FIFO)
Last forts in first out (LIFO)

COMPUTER ASSEMBLING

It is the process of identifying components that have common connecting

function and joining them to achieve particular objectives. It is also a
process of rejoining devices as anointing.
Before assembling a system, you must be Familiar with the system a
components as wrong connection of component to component will result
acute malfunction.

ITEMS FOR COMPUTER ASSEMBLING

1. CASEN which might be AT or ATX, Tower or flat type of case

NOTE: the type of motherboard you buyer determines the type of case you
buy. We have:
1. AT CASEN
2. ATX CASEN
New Casein you buy must have:
1. Power Pack
2. Power cable
3. Screws
4. Extra brackets
After assembling a system test it before you couple the system. Which
means are you couple the system. Which means after testing outside
disconnect and stage of your assembling you must test before slotting
ribbons.
 ASSEMBLING
INDICATORS ON MOTHERBOARD
TYPES OF INDICATORS ARE

1. Power Indication (Port)

2. Hard disk Indicator (HDD)
3. Power Switch (person)
4. Speaker (SPK)
5. Reset (RST)
6. Turbo (Turbo)
In AT mother Board power indicator, you don’t power through the
board but through the knob because you have a direct power through
the knob.

As IN ATX the power through the board

POLARITY FOR CABERS

Black (BI) –Ve
Brown (BR) + Ve
Red (R) –Ve
White (N) + Ve
NB: you should know that connecting of indicators helps the engineer
to
1. Trouble shoot the computer
2. Operator to understand the working aspect of the system such as
when the hard disk light is blinding, power the hard disk light is
blinking, power on etc.
After Assembling and it tests step is installing of OLS.

OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

It is a program that acts as an inter face (Go between) for the user and the
system. The level of language you see on the screens called the high-level
language and then converted to low languages or machine language so that the
system will understand.
The O/S also acts as an interpreter between the user and the machine because
the machine will not understand the high-level language but before the
computer understands it must be decoded or converted to machine language.
 THE OS IS DIVIDED INTO TWO.

1. Non graphics OS.

2. Graphics OS

EXAMPLES OF NON-GRAPHICS OS.

1. Windows
2. Network
3. Wireless

EXAMPLES OF GRAPHICS OS
1. Mac
2. Linux
3. Zen ox
4. Unix

HOW TO INSTALL OPERATING SYSTEM

Thing to do before installing O/S

1. Partition the hard disk before formatting or you go on to formatting
hard disk before installing the operating system.
2. If it has an already version of O/S you can up Grade the operating
system

HOW TO PARTITION A HARD DISK

1. Formatting (dividing the hard disk into tracks and sectors)

2. Verifying
3. Checking clusters
You can have full partitioning meaning to use the whole of the hard disk
Diver partitioning (part by bard) you can partition the hard disk when the
HDD is old and may have some problems.

FORMARTTING

Formatting is the process of preparing the HDD to receive data. Data cannot
stay in the HDD because during the formatting process the hard disk cylinder
will divide into tracks and sectors
NOTE: BEFORE FORMATTING A COMPUTER, YOU MUST SET
YOUR BIOS, SOME KEYS USED TO ENTER SETUP, F12, F2, AND
DEL.
Now the computer will ask you press any key to boot from cd/DVD, press
the key without wasting time

(DOS) DISK OPERATING SYSTEM

Dos are the priest operating system that started the method of booking
computer from the permanent Medium. MS DOS as it is called is the most
popular on in the market. Dos itself is a command interpreter.

INTERNAL COMMANDS

These are those commands that are visible in the dos directory

EXTERNAL COMMAND

These are those commands that are not visible in Dos Directory but if you
issue such commands it works.
Examples of Internal Command are:
C:/Dos Dir
Command. (Com) Enter– Extension
Copy. Exe * Backup
Print. Exe ANSI Restore
Delete
Rename
Auto exe
Tree
Deltree
X copy 32
Edit
EXTERNAL COMMAND
US – Clear Screen
Dir – directory
Wild card - *
MD – make directory
RD – Remove
CD – Change
/ - Root
CD. – Step out to root
: - File extension
CD * - step out

Assignment
1. Formulate a technical command that will help you to change from one
drove to another
2. Give two examples of internal command you can use a technician
during repairs
: ANSWERS:
1. C: / A; C: / D: ; C: / E: etc A:/ C
12. X copy command & deltree command

HMA (High Memory Area)

ANSCII: American Standard Code for Information

1a from C: Prompt you want to change to floppy you under C: prompt C: / A:

B. if you are In A: prompt & want to change to C: you types A:/ C:
Enter
SOLUTIONS
Drives: A: B, C: D; E; F; 2
Then to change from one drive to another, from the current drive egEnter C: the
next drive e.g. A: type C: / A:
This is how to change from oneEnter
drive to another. Autoexec is a batch files that
written by the system user. Auto exe bat file is for program everywhere you
see if it means flagging
2. Restore: this is used to restore your old setting on the computer. C: /Y
Scanner restore
b Scanning (Scan registry) it can be used to scan registry & there will restore
take
c. Scan Disk: this is used to scan the total disk area for error if the computer
sees any error and ask you did you want to fix it just priest enter for fix it the
problems C:/ Scan disk
d. CHK DSK: - this is used to check disk space etc C:/ CHDSK/F Enter
X Copy 32 is used for cloning or is used in making a duplicate of a hard disk.
Enter
To use this command, there music is a two hard disk available at that moment.
The first HDD will be the source while the second HDD will be the TARGET
or Dest nation.
The source is the primary master that one is the Functional one the
Destination is the primary slave which is the empty HDD of which will be
formatted, then you enslave it to primary slave.
Source = primary Master
Destination = primary slave
HOW TO ISSUE X COPY 32 COMMANDS
From C: prompt type
C: / x copy 32 C: /D: e\h\r\v press Enter
This command works better in window 95, 97, and 98 & wins me. After
cloning remember to re-jumper the slave into master.
COMMANDS
1. Auto exec bat: this is used to write software or programs
2. config. Sys this for devices
3. Deltree is used to delete tree
4. C:\this is the root
5. – Prompt.
HOW TO DEL. TREE
1. Type C: \ Deltree C: \ window Enter
HOW TO DEL TREE IN A:
1. Type A:\ Deltree C:\window
This command will delete any thing called window but it wil save some of
Enter
the files but as in C: prompt it with automatically deletes everything.
You can also just delete commands inside window and leave window alone
whether in C: or a:
Command. Com: - this is a file that controls the booting up of your system,
without command. Com file your computer will always be reporting missing
operating system which means the operating system cannot work without the
command. Com
* Some of the hidden command in the system is hidden for it to be delected
SOME HIDDEN COMMANDS ARE
* Command. Com
* System .com this is used to transfer to the medium command
* I/O System
The character you will see when you edit command .com is ASCII.
If you came across A:\ when you are booting with your diskette or CD know
that you are booting your system with a bootable CD or Diskette
After booting with your bootable under A:\ type A:\ system –C: it will copy
command. Com to your hard disk
ADVANTAGE OF COMMAND. COM
1. It helps to upgrade a system
2. It helps to repair software problem
3. It helps you to have access to your system.

BACKUP COMMAND

Backup is a process of preparing or preserves a or group of files as backup

files or directory in another medium a part from the source that is the main
file. This files or directory that are reserved in another medium a part
from the source acts like a copy of the source eg back up 001,002
 according to the number of backup made NB. An entire HDD or diskette
may be backed up. In Dos prompt backup command is very prominent.
How to issue backup command
C:/ back up –A: A:
C: C:
Source Destination
Every backup must be accompanied with restore command with immediate
effect
DEFRAGMENTATION
Defragmentation is the arrangement of files in an order manner. It shows be
done at least every 2 or 3 weeks of work on your computer.
COMMANDS
Attribute (Attrib)
Rename (Ren)
* Attribute is a notation used for setting file characteristics.
The parameter for attribute is +
+ Means Hides
- Means release
h means hidden file while
r means read only
ASSIGMENT
How do you reverse C: attrib + h + r \ my document \ Ernest document there
is an access denied while trying to delete Ernest. Document after word.
RENAME
Rename is an internal command. The shortcut for rename is (ren). Rename is
used to change a file name in to another name or the reason while you want
to rename the file is because you don’t want anybody to have access to that
file or folder under C:\ type C:\ ren -\ my document 1-\ NetWare cdr - \ job.
Cdr
: ANSWER:
You have to enable Ernest document before you can delete it
1. C:\ attrib – h-r \my document \Ernest document
2. Deleting ernest
enterexecute file
3.
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM (WOS)

Window operating system is an enhancement of disk operating system. It is

called a graphical user interface (GUI). The OLS is developing to be user
friendly, flexible, tasking program.
Window program are made up of Icon or items some Icons can be animated.
Items here represent the program installed and Icons represent another basic
program e.g., coral draw, page maker etc
 ASSIGMENT

1. 6 Basic differences between dos & Windows and Explain

ANSWER

1. Windows have flexible, multi-tasking environment, but Dos does not

have such environment
2. Windows programs are made up of Icons which can be animated but
Dos programs has (None)
3. In Windows it requires mush HDD space but Dos requires a little
4. Windows supports/Networking but Dos programs does not support
Networking
5. In Windows operating system must be installed operating system must
be installed before installing program but in Dos it has its own based
programs which deals with command
6. In Windows Icons represent something but dos has no Icons NB. It is
easy to give command in windows than in Dos because of mouse
clicking.
In every OLS they must be a corresponding program to run in when for e.g.,
programs written.

WE HAVE TWO CLASSES OF PROGRAM

1. Soft ware or system software

2. Application program

System programmers are those programmers that acts as an interface between

the user and the computer called OLS. Other system which are read only
memory programs which are coded into BIOS, Caches processors & Co-
processor etc. most of the programs that run from the clip sets from the
factory board are the PROM and EPROM.
PROM stands for programmable read only memory while EPROM stands for
enhanced or electronics programmable read only memory.
Application programmers are the programmers that programs can write for
day-to-day running e.g., Graphic packages, games, accounting package etc.

PROCEDURED OF INSTALLING OLS

Windows operating system like another operating system comes in diskette or

in CDS. The earlier versions of which WS e.g., 3.0, 3.1, 3.11 comes in
diskette but because of the latest vulnerability to damage, the latest versions of
win. Comes in CDS e.g., Win 95-97, 98 etc to install windows, there are two
methods
1. Clean installation & (2) upgrade

CLEAN INSTALLATION (PROCEDURES)

To do a clean installation, you must have:

1. Hard disk (formatted)
2. Bootable Windows CD
3. Enough Memory to run windows
4. Enough or good CD –Rom or diskette drive for installation.
Before formatting a hard disk check the space available whether it can be able
to carry the windows you are about to install.
1. Win 98 requires 2 GB HDD space
2. Win me & 2000 requires 3GB HDD space
3. Win XP requires 4GB HDD Space and upwards

MEMORY CLASSIFICATION FOR WINS

1. Win 9s & 98 requires 8MB Ram or higher memory to run effectively

2. Win me requires 16-32 MB Ram
3. Win 2000 – requires 32 MB Ram
4. Win XP – Requires 64 MB ram upward
After formatting the hard disk code OLS.

CLEAN INSTALLATION PROPER

In win 98 their CDSA that is the original, which came with a new PC this, can
be used automatically to format a new hard disk. Proceed with the installation
of win proper but if you decide to quit setup after formatting the hard disk
press F3 twice to exit setup and to return to prompt and setup the version of
Ols you needed.
In the areas of win 2000, XP, just insert the installation CD containing
the Ols into the CD-ROM drive and restart the system. As the system is
booting enter the board level to change the command to boot from CD-ROM
after changing press F10 and to exit. The CD of this window runs Auto play,
and then follows the installation procedure to install this OLS.
In Win 98 it has a cap file but in Win XP and 2000 it has no cap files in
win 95-08 installation are done manually but as win XP and 2000 it is done
Automatically. Enter
 UPGRADING OLS

NB: before you can upgrade an OLS, it means that the Ols will meet the
minimum requirement of the upgrade e.g., upgrade win 95 to win 98, 98-
2000, me or XP.

TO UPGRADE WIN 95

: REQUIREMENTS:

1. The window will be running in the system

2. memory must be greater than 8mb or more than
3. Hard disk space must be greater than 400mb so is the same with win
98.
All these conditions are needed because the system files of the old version
of win. You upgrade will be saved if needed that is there is still room to
uninstall the new version in future if need be.

REASONS WHY WE UPGRADE

1. Taste: reason blc he wants to belong to the current Ols.

2. Because of the application programmers he or she is running
3. Because of devices
4. Because of operating environment e.g., Networking, internet
5. For High productivity and efficiency

HOW TO UPGRADE

1. Insert the upgrade version of window CD into the CD rom drive after
the precious win you want to upgrade has finished booting normally.
2. The Ols CD will prompt for an upgrade or clean installation you set
upgrade
3. Follow the instructions on the screen
4. You can upgrade from win 3.0 to 95,97 or 98 from 97 and 98 to me,
2000 or XP. Apart from upgrade system or OLS you can also upgrade
devices.

ASSIGMENT

1. Give three examples of device that can be upgrade before installing Ols
2. What is the different between system after and application files
3. Give five reasons why computer users upgrade their system
4. What can hinder upgrade of Ols
5. A system hangs while upgrading what the problem?
ANSWERS
1a. Memory can be upgraded
b Hard disk can be upgraded
c. Processors can be upgraded
2a. System files are that make up the operating system eg Win 98 se,
upgrade etc.
b Application files are files that are install after the installation Ols that is
system files e.g., Corel Draw, page maker etc.
3a the user wants fast and efficient system which can run H/Her program
fast
b. This is because of the types of devices He or she has like memory VGA
etc.
d. Thrist to upgrade the vision of OLS
e. The type of Application program His/her is running.
4. Memory hinder upgrade because if the memory in your system is low
e.g., like 16mb it cannot run win 2000 or XP.
a. Memory hinder upgrade because if the memory in your system is low
e.g., like 16mb it cannot run win 2000 or XP.
b. HDD space can hinder upgrade because if you have a little disk space it
cannot capacitate an upgradeable OLS.
5. Bad memory can hang a system while upgrade. Just replace with a good

THINGS THAT HANG COMPUTER WHILE INSTALLATION OF

WINDOWS

1. Bad and unreliable memory

2. Hard disk may have bad tracks or sectors
3. Conflicting cards or devices ie IRQ
4. Bad CD rom or CD rom drives
5. Bad Cache especially external caches
6.
SOLUTION OR PROBLEM WHILE INSTALLATING WINDOWS

1. As for bad memory, remove the bad memory and replace with a good
one and you can blow out dust from the memory banks with your
blower before inserting the good memory. You can as well clean the
bad memory with mentholated spirit and leave to dry. If it continued to
hang the system replace with another good one.
2. As for bad tracks and sectors,
A) Use low level format to delete the bad tracks
 B) Partition the hard disk to good sections
C) Limit your installation to Ols to the partitioned space blc it can take all
the space and none will be left for application programs
D) After all this and it continues to hang the system change the hard disk

CONFLICTING CARD OR DEVICE

Solution checks out for the conflicting card and places them in their right
position.
4. BAD CD ROM DRIVE OR PLATE
Solution as for the Disk or plate if it has cracks all over and it hangs the
system remove and replace with good one. As for CD Rom Drive, open the
drive and clean the lens with spirit leave for some minute, then cover and
try again if it persists replace with good one.
5. Solution to Bad Cache
Solutions go to the board level and disable the external cache because win.
Will always check for external cache during installation.

FORMATTING OF FLASH OR HARD DRIVE USING

DISK OPERATING SYSTEM (DOS).

1. Run-cmd
2. Cd/ enter
3. ClS enter
4. Format space (e:) depending were the drive lies.
5. Press enters when ready –enter
6. Volume label-means if you want to name the drive
7. It will display some note telling you that your drive has been formatted
8. Type EXIT-enter

SOME COMPONENTS FOUND IN THE MOTHERBOARD BOTH

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE COMPONENTS.
ACTIVE COMPONENT.
These are component which have the ability to produces gain.
Transistor
FET
JFET
MOSFET
Diode
 PASSIVE COMPONENT.

These are component which do not have ability to produces gain.

Resistor
Capacitor
Inductor
IC INTERGRETED CIRCULT

IC-INTERGRETED CIRCULT. It is a completely electronics cct in which

active and passive component are fabricated on a tiny single chip of silicon.

IC TERMINOLOGY.
BONDING-attaching the die on the ceramic substrate and then connecting the
leads to the package.
CHIPS-an extremely small part of a silicon wafer on which IC is fabricated.
CIRCULT PROBING-testing the electrical performance of each IC chips
with the help of a microscope and multi-point probe.
DIE-same as chips.
DIFFUSION-a process that consist of the introduction of in purities into the
selected region of a wafer to form junction.
ENCAPSULATION-putting a cap over the ic and sealing it in an inert
atmosphere.
EPITARY-a process of the controlled growth of a crystalline doped layer of
silicon on a single crystal substrate.
ETACHING-a process of selective removal of a region of a semi conductor
metal or silicon dioxide.
MASK-a glass plate with desired pattern for diffusion or metallization.
METALLIZATION- a process for pro viding ohmic contacts and
interconnections by evaporating aluminum over the chips.
PHOTOLITHOGRAPHY-a process to transfer geometrical pattern from the
mask to the surface of the wafer.
PHOTORESIST-a light sensitive material that hardens when exposed to
ultraviolet light.
WAFER-a thin disk of semi-conductor in which number of ICs are fabricated
simultaneously.

Testing an Integrated Circuit Wafer

In its final stage of design, an integrated circuit wafer is tested
by probes. Each gold square in the wafer is an individual
integrated circuit. At one time, circuits consisted of separate
electronic devices (such as inductors and capacitors) mounted
on a chassis and strung together with wire. These circuits were
easy to manipulate by hand, but they were extremely bulky. In
contrast, integrated circuits incorporate all of the separate
electronic components on a single board.

HOW ICS ARE MADE

The ics are manufactured in four district stage namely.
 1. material preparation
2. crystal growing and wafer preparation
3. Wafer fabrication and testing, bonding and packaging.
4.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF IC

Beginning in the late 20th century, integrated circuits based on silicon

chips shrank rapidly in price and size while expanding in capacity. These
advances in chip technology contributed to a boom in the computer industry.
The creation of a single silicon chip requires hundreds of manufacturing steps.
In this Scientific American article, Intel Corporation president and chief
operating officer Craig R. Barrett describes the chip manufacturing process
from design through completion.

From Sand to Silicon: Manufacturing an Integrated Circuit

The fundamental device of the digital world is the integrated circuit, a small
square of silicon containing millions of transistors. It is probably the most
complex of man-made products. Although it looks flat, it is in fact a three-
dimensional structure made by painstakingly building up on the silicon base
several microscopically thin layers of materials that both insulate and conduct
electricity. Assembled according to a pattern carefully worked out in advance,
these layers form the transistors, which function as switches controlling the
flow of electricity through the circuit, which is also known as a chip. 'On' and
'off' switches manipulate the binary code that is at the core of what a computer
does.
Building a chip typically requires several hundred manufacturing steps that
take weeks to complete. Each step must be executed perfectly if the chip is to
work. The conditions are demanding. For example, because a speck of dust
can ruin a chip, the manufacturing has to be done in a 'clean room' containing
less than one submicron particle of dust per cubic foot of air (in contrast, the
average living room has between 100,000 and one million particles per cubic
foot of air). Much of the equipment needed for making chips embodies the
highest of high technology, with the result that chip factories—which cost
between $1 billion and $2 billion for a state-of-the-art facility—are among the
costliest of manufacturing plants.
A basic technology of chips making is the 'planar' process devised in 1957 by
Jean Hoerni of Fairchild Semiconductor. It provided a means of creating a
layered structure on the silicon base of a chip. This technology was pivotal in
Robert N. Noyce's development of the integrated circuit in 1958. (Noyce later
became co-founder with Gordon E. Moore of Intel Corporation, the company
that invented the microprocessor and has become the world's leading supplier
of semiconductor chips.…) Bridging the gap between the transistor and the
integrated circuit, the planar technology opened the way to the manufacturing
process that now produces chips. The hundreds of individual steps in that
process can be grouped into a few basic operations.
Chip Design
The first operation is the design of the chip. When tens of millions of
transistors are to be built on a square of silicon about the size of a child's
fingernail, the placing and interconnections of the transistors must be
meticulously worked out. Each transistor must be designed for its intended
function, and groups of transistors are combined to create circuit elements
such as inverters, adders and decoders. The designer must also take into
account the intended purpose of the chip. A processor chip carries out
instructions in a computer, and a memory chip stores data. The two types of
chips differ somewhat in structure. Because of the complexity of today's
chips, the design work is done by computer, although engineers often print out
an enlarged diagram of a chip's structure to examine it in detail.
The Silicon Crystal
The base material for building an integrated circuit is a silicon crystal. Silicon,
the most abundant element on the earth except for oxygen, is the principal
ingredient of beach sand. Silicon is a natural semiconductor, which means that
it can be altered to be either an insulator or a conductor. Insulators, such as
glass, block the passage of electricity; conductors, such as copper, let
electricity pass through. To make a silicon crystal, raw silicon obtained from
quartz rock is treated with chemicals that remove contaminants until what
remains is almost 100 percent silicon. This purified silicon is melted and then
formed into cylindrical single crystals called ingots. The ingots are sliced into
wafers about 0.725 millimeter (0.03 inch) thick. In a step called planarization
they are polished with a slurry until they have a flawless, mirror-smooth
surface. At present, most of the wafers are 200 millimeters (eight inches) in
diameter, but the industry is moving toward achieving a standard diameter of
300 millimeters (12 inches) by 1999. Because a single wafer yields hundreds
of chips, bigger wafers mean that more chips can be made at one time,
holding down the cost per chip.
The First Layers
With the wafer prepared, the process of building the chip's circuitry begins.
Making the transistors and their interconnections entails several different
basic steps that are repeated many times. The most complex chips made today
consist of 20 or more layers and may require several hundred separate
processing steps to build them up one by one.
The first layer is silicon dioxide, which does not conduct electricity and
therefore serves as an insulator. It is created by putting the wafers into a
diffusion furnace —essentially an oven at high temperature where a thin layer
of oxide is grown on the wafer surface.
Removed from the furnace, the wafer is now ready for its first patterning, or
photolithographic, step. A coating of a fairly viscous polymeric liquid called
photoresist, which becomes soluble when it is exposed to ultraviolet light, is
applied to the surface. A spigot deposits a precise amount of photoresist on
the wafer surface. Then the wafer is spun so that centrifugal force spreads the
liquid over the surface at an even thickness. This operation takes place on
every layer that is modified by a photolithographic procedure called masking,
described in the next step.
Masking
A mask is the device through which ultraviolet light shines to define the
circuit pattern on each layer of a chip. Because the pattern is intricate and
must be positioned precisely on the chip, the arrangement of opaque and
transparent spaces on a mask must be done carefully during a chip's design
stage.
The mask image is transferred to the wafer using a computer-controlled
machine known as a stepper. It has a sophisticated lens system to reduce the
pattern on the mask to the microscopic dimensions of the chip's circuitry,
requiring resolution as small as 0.25 micron. The wafer is held in place on a
positioning table below the lens system. Ultraviolet light from an arc lamp or
a laser shine through the clear spaces of the mask's intricate pattern onto the
photoresist layer of a single chip. The stepper table then moves the wafer the
precise distance required to position another chip under the light. On each
chip, the parts of the photoresist layer that were struck by the light become
soluble and can be developed, much like photographic film, using organic
solvents. Once the photoresist is patterned, the wafer is ready for etching.
Etching
During this step, photoresist remaining on the surface protects parts of the
underlying layer from being removed by the acids or reactive gases used to
etch the pattern on the surface of the wafer. After etching is complete, the
protective layer of photoresist is removed to reveal electrically conducting or
electrically insulating segments in the pattern determined by the mask. Each
additional layer put on the chip has a distinctive pattern of this kind.
Adding Layers
Further masking and etching steps deposit patterns of additional materials on
the chip. These materials include polysilicon as well as various oxides and
metal conductors such as aluminum and tungsten. To prevent the formation of
undesired compounds during subsequent steps, other materials known as
diffusion barriers can also be added. On each layer of material, masking and
etching create a unique pattern of conducting and nonconducting areas.
Together these patterns aligned on top of one another form the chip's circuitry
in a three-dimensional structure. But the circuitry needs fine-tuning to work
properly. The tuning is provided by doping.

Doping

Doping deliberately adds chemical impurities, such as boron or arsenic, to

parts of the silicon wafer to alter the way the silicon in each doped area
conducts electricity. Machines called ion implanters are often used to inject
these impurities into the chip.
In electrical terms, silicon can be either n-type or p-type, depending on the
impurity added. The atoms in the doping material in n-type silicon have an
extra electron that is free to move. Some of the doping atoms in p-type silicon
are short an electron and so constitute what is called a hole. Where the two
types adjoin, the extra electrons can flow from the n-type to the p-type to fill
the holes.
This flow of electrons does not continue indefinitely. Eventually the positively
charged ions left behind on the n-type side and the negatively charged ions on
the p-type side together create an electrical force that prevents any further net
flow of electrons from the n-type to the p-type region.
The material at the base of the chip is p-type silicon. One of the etching steps
in the manufacture of a chip removes parts of the polysilicon and silicon
dioxide layers put on the pure silicon base earlier, thus laying bare two strips
of p-type silicon. Separating them is a strip that still bears its layer of
conducting polysilicon; it is the transistor's 'gate.' The doping material now
applied to the two strips of p-type silicon transforms them into n-type silicon.
A positive charge applied to the gate attracts electrons below the gate in the
transistor's silicon base. These electrons create a channel between one n-type
strip (the source) and the other (the drain). If a positive voltage is applied to
the drain, current will flow from source to drain. In this mode, the transistor is
'on.' A negative charge at the gate depletes the channel of electrons, thereby
preventing the flow of current between source and drain. Now the transistor is
'off.' It is by means of switching on and off that a transistor represents the
arrays of 1 and 0 that constitute the binary code, the language of computers.
Done many times in many layers, these operations provide the chip with its
multitude of transistors. But just as provision must be made to run electrical
wires and plumbing pipes between floors of a building, provision must be
made in chips for interconnecting the transistors so they form an integrated
circuit.
Interconnections
This final step begins with further masking and etching operations that open a
thin layer of electrical contacts between layers of the chip. Then aluminum is
deposited and patterned using photolithography to create a form of wiring that
links all the chip's transistors. Aluminum is chosen for this application
because it makes good electrical contact with silicon and also bonds well to
silicon dioxide.
This step completes the processing of the wafer. Now the individual chips are
tested to ensure that all their electrical connections work using tiny electrical
probes. Next, a machine called a dicer cuts up the wafer into individual chips,
and the good chips are separated from the bad. The good chips—usually most
of the wafer's crop—are mounted onto packaging units with metal leads. Wire
bonders then attach these metal leads to the chips. The electrical contacts
between the chip's surface and the leads are made with tiny gold or aluminum
wires about 0.025 millimeter (0.001 inch) in diameter. Once the packaging
process is complete, the finished chips are sent to do their digital work.

Computer Circuit Board

Integrated circuits (ICs) make the microcomputer possible; without them,
individual circuits and their components would take up far too much space
for a compact computer design. Also called a chip, the typical IC consists
of elements such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors packed on a single
piece of silicon. In smaller, more densely-packed ICs, circuit elements may
be only a few atoms in size, which makes it possible to create sophisticated
computers the size of notebooks. A typical computer circuit board features
many integrated circuits connected together.
 Circuit Board
Circuit boards, such as the one pictured here, are composed of integrated
circuits, resistors, capacitors, and other electronic components, connected by
conducting paths. Circuit boards of varying complexity are used in a wide
range of products including automobiles, televisions, stereo systems, and
computer

PRINTED CIRCULT BOARD (PCB)

Printed cct board is a device that has printed cct. PCB usually eliminates
the bulky wiring and tie points in a cct. This development of PCB has
reduced the size of the electronic equipment.

Printed Circuit Board

A printed circuit board consists of a sheet of non-conducting material to
which electronic components are attached. Conducting pathways between
components are stamped onto the boards.

LOGIC CIRCUITS.
LOGIC GATE- this is an electronic cct which makes a logic decision. It
has one output and one or more inputs. 0s and 1

TYPES OF LOGIC CCTS

1. OR GATE
2. AND GATE
3. NOR GATE
4. NAND GATE
5. NOT GATE
THE ONLY TRUTH TABLE

Digital Circuits and Boolean Truth Tables

Digital circuits operate in the binary number system, which means that all
circuit variables must be either 1 or 0. The algebra used to solve problems and
process information in digital systems is called Boolean algebra; it deals with
logic, rather than calculating actual numeric values. Boolean algebra is based
on the idea that logical propositions are either true or false, depending on the
type of operation they describe and whether the variables are true or false.
“True” corresponds to the digital value of 1, while “false” corresponds to 0.
These diagrams show various electronic switches, called gates, each of which
performs a specific Boolean operation. There are three basic Boolean
operations, which may be used alone or in combination: logical multiplication
(AND gate), logical addition (OR gate), and logical inversion (NOT gate).
The accompanying tables, called truth tables, map all of the potential input
combinations against yielded outputs.

THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AN IC

Digital Logic and NOR Gate Circuitry
Computers use digital logic to perform operations. Digital logic involves
making successive “true” or “false” decisions, which may also be represented
by 1 and 0, respectively. Logic circuits, which are at the heart of computer
chips, are designed to make a series of these decisions via junctures called
gates. Gates are designed and arranged to make different kinds of “decisions”
about the input they receive. Individual input and output values are always
either true or false and are relayed through the circuit in the form of different
voltages. This circuit uses 4 NOR gates, each of which makes the decision
“neither A nor B.” The NOR operation yields an output of 0 whenever one or
more of the input values is 1. The table shows input values (A, B) and output
value (F) for the NOR gate. A circuit map (bottom) shows the layout of a
NOR gate and its components, indicating voltage values when the inputs are
0,0 and the output is 1.
Dual In-Line Package
The dual in-line package, or DIP, is a premanufactured chip with downward-
pointing pins that can be soldered or plugged into a circuit board, making
board assembly easier.

N-P Junction
An n-p junction (also known as a diode) will only allow current to flow in one
direction. The electrons from the n-type material can pass to the right through
the p-type material, but the lack of excess electrons in the p-type material will
prevent any flow of electrons to the left. Note that the current is defined to
flow in a direction that is opposite to the direction of the flow of the electrons.
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Kirchoff’s rules govern the flow of current and voltage through an electric
circuit. In this diagram, I stands for electric current and U stands for voltage.
Boldface letters designate parts of the circuit: R designates a resistor, C a
capacitor, and L an inductor. The smaller letters A, B, C, D, E, and F simply
correspond to points on the circuit. The junction rule states that the sum of
currents going into a junction (where the circuit splits) must be equal to the
sum of currents going out of the junction. The loop rule states that the sum of
voltages over a closed circuit must be zero.

Computer System
A typical computer system consists of a central processing unit (CPU), input
devices, storage devices, and output devices. The CPU consists of an
arithmetic/logic unit, registers, control section, and internal bus. The
arithmetic/logic unit carries out arithmetical and logical operations. The
registers store data and keep track of operations. The control unit regulates
and controls various operations. The internal bus connects the units of the
CPU with each other and with external components of the system. For most
computers, the principal input devices are a keyboard and a mouse. Storage
devices include hard disks, CD-ROM drives, and random-access memory
(RAM) chips. Output devices that display data include monitors and printers.
The physical computer and its components are known as hardware. Computer
hardware includes the memory that stores data and program instructions; the
central processing unit (CPU) that carries out program instructions; the input
devices, such as a keyboard or mouse, that allow the user to communicate
with the computer; the output devices, such as printers and video display
monitors, that enable the computer to present information to the user; and
buses (hardware lines or wires) that connect these and other computer
components. The programs that run the computer are called software.
Software generally is designed to perform a particular type of task—for
example, to control the arm of a robot to weld a car’s body, to write a letter, to
display and modify a photograph, or to direct the general operation of the
computer.

The Operating System

When a computer is turned on it searches for instructions in its memory.

These instructions tell the computer how to start up. Usually, one of the first
sets of these instructions is a special program called the operating system,
which is the software that makes the computer work. It prompts the user (or
other machines) for input and commands, reports the results of these
commands and other operations, stores and manages data, and controls the
sequence of the software and hardware actions. When the user requests that a
program run, the operating system loads the program in the computer’s
memory and runs the program. Popular operating systems, such as Microsoft
Windows and the Macintosh system (Mac OS), have graphical user interfaces
(GUIs)—that use tiny pictures, or icons, to represent various files and
commands. To access these files or commands, the user clicks the mouse on
the icon or presses a combination of keys on the keyboard. Some operating
systems allow the user to carry out these tasks via voice, touch, or other input
methods.

COMPUTER MEMORY
Inside a Computer Hard Drive
The inside of a computer hard disk drive consists of four main components.
The round disk platter is usually made of aluminum, glass, or ceramic and is
coated with a magnetic media that contains all the data stored on the hard
drive. The yellow armlike device that extends over the disk platter is known
as the head arm and is the device that reads the information off of the disk
platter. The head arm is attached to the head actuator, which controls the head
arm. Not shown is the chassis which encases and holds all the hard disk drive
components. To process information electronically, data are stored in a
computer in the form of binary digits, or bits, each having two possible
representations (0 or 1). If a second bit is added to a single bit of information,
the number of representations is doubled, resulting in four possible
combinations: 00, 01, 10, or 11. A third bit added to this two-bit
representation again doubles the number of combinations, resulting in eight
possibilities: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, or 111. Each time a bit is
added, the number of possible patterns is doubled. Eight bits is called a byte; a
byte has 256 possible combinations of 0s and 1s. See also Expanded Memory;
Extended Memory.

A byte is a useful quantity in which to store information because it provides

enough possible patterns to represent the entire alphabet, in lower and upper
cases, as well as numeric digits, punctuation marks, and several character-
sized graphics symbols, including non-English characters such as . A byte
also can be interpreted as a pattern that represents a number between 0 and
255. A kilobyte—1,024 bytes—can store about 1,000 characters; a megabyte
can store about 1 million characters; a gigabyte can store about 1 billion
characters; and a terabyte can store about 1 trillion characters. Computer
programmers usually decide how a given byte should be interpreted—that is,
as a single character, a character within a string of text, a single number, or
part of a larger number. Numbers can represent anything from chemical bonds
to dollar figures to colors to sounds.

The physical memory of a computer is either random access memory (RAM),

which can be read or changed by the user or computer, or read-only memory
(ROM), which can be read by the computer but not altered in any way. One
way to store memory is within the circuitry of the computer, usually in tiny
computer chips that hold millions of bytes of information. The memory within
these computer chips is RAM. Memory also can be stored outside the circuitry
of the computer on external storage devices, such as magnetic floppy disks,
which can store about 2 megabytes of information; hard drives, which can
store gigabytes of information; compact discs (CDs), which can store up to
680 megabytes of information; and digital video discs (DVDs), which can
store 8.5 gigabytes of information. A single CD can store nearly as much
information as several hundred floppy disks, and some DVDs can hold more than 12 times
as much data as a CD.

The Bus
The bus enables the components in a computer, such as the CPU and the
memory circuits, to communicate as program instructions are being carried
out. The bus is usually a flat cable with numerous parallel wires. Each wire
can carry one bit, so the bus can transmit many bits along the cable at the
same time. For example, a 16-bit bus, with 16 parallel wires, allows the
simultaneous transmission of 16 bits (2 bytes) of information from one
component to another. Early computer designs utilized a single or very few
buses. Modern designs typically use many buses, some of them specialized to
carry particular forms of data, such as graphics.

HOW COMPUTER ARE MADE

The microprocessor is one type of ultra-large-scale integrated circuit.

Integrated circuits, also known as microchips or chips, are complex electronic
circuits consisting of extremely tiny components formed on a single, thin, flat
piece of material known as a semiconductor. Modern microprocessors
incorporate transistors (which act as electronic amplifiers, oscillators, or, most
commonly, switches), in addition to other components such as resistors,
diodes, capacitors, and wires, all packed into an area about the size of a
postage stamp.

A microprocessor consists of several different sections: The arithmetic/logic

unit (ALU) performs calculations on numbers and makes logical decisions;
the registers are special memory locations for storing temporary information
much as a scratch pad does; the control unit deciphers programs; buses carry
digital information throughout the chip and computer; and local memory
supports on-chip computation. More complex microprocessors often contain
other sections—such as sections of specialized memory, called cache
memory, to speed up access to external data-storage devices. Modern
microprocessors operate with bus widths of 64 bits (binary digits, or units of
information represented as 1s and 0s), meaning that 64 bits of data can be
transferred at the same time.

A crystal oscillator in the computer provides a clock signal to coordinate all

activities of the microprocessor. The clock speed of the most advanced
microprocessors allows billions of computer instructions to be executed every

ULSI (ultra-large-scale integration), term used for integrated circuits

manufactured with technology that makes it possible to fit over 100,000
components, such as transistors, on a single integrated circuit, or microchip.
All components on a ULSI microchip are so small they cannot be seen
without a microscope
Uses of digital computers

Archives consist of articles that originally appeared in Collier's Year Book

(for events of 1997 and earlier) or as monthly updates in Encarta Yearbook
(for events of 1998 and later). Because they were published shortly after
events occurred, they reflect the information available at that time. Cross
references refer to Archive articles of the same year.

1966: Electronics
The biggest newsmakers in electronics were the burgeoning fields of
microelectronics and high-speed digital computers, the latter with a particular
emphasis on medicine. Other electronic devices also made news in medical
electronics, with auto safety and crime prevention taking a share of the
electronics headlines.
Microelectronics.

Almost every major manufacturer of electronic equipment, ranging from

computers to industrial testing devices and consumer products, is actively
pursuing the application of microelectronics, or integrated circuits, to its new
designs. An integrated circuit, which would be dwarfed by a lump of sugar,
can do the work of a large number of electron tubes or transistors and other
electronic components. The majority of devices have been used in digital
computer applications, where repetitive functions demand the use of tens of
thousands of identical circuits.
Integrated circuit applications in electronic equipment date back to 1960,
when Westinghouse designed a communications receiver 35 times lighter and
smaller than the same set using equivalent standard-sized components. In
1961 Texas Instruments developed for the Air Force a telemetry encoder,
using 285 integrated circuits, which resulted in a 95 percent reduction in size
and weight over equivalent transistorized equipment.
However, the first major system to capitalize fully on the new microelectronic
technology was the Air Force's Minuteman 2 ICBM program in 1962. An
improved intercontinental ballistic missile was needed to deliver a heavier
payload over a longer distance. Rather than become involved in an expensive
and time-consuming program to develop a more efficient propulsion system, it
was decided to reduce the size and weight of the electronic guidance package.
Two years later, the Minuteman 2 guidance system—using integrated circuits
—was successfully tested. A $9 million contract for integrated circuits for
Minuteman 2 was subsequently released by the Air Force, and almost 500,000
circuits were purchased for use in guidance computers and flight control and
ground support equipment.
Recent integrated-circuit applications in weapons system design include: (1)
more than 6,000 devices for each fire-control computer used in the Phoenix
air-to-air missile system; (2) a large quantity of microelectronic units for the
Navy's Mark 48 torpedo control; (3) 3,000 integrated circuits for each Univac
airborne computer carried by Navy aircraft for antisubmarine warfare; (4)
8,000 integrated circuits for each tactical data system built for the Marine
Corps; and (5) 8,000 integrated circuits for each Army AN/GXC facsimile
equipment and TF-600 forward area secure communications system.
Price reductions in integrated circuits have prompted manufacturers of
electronic instruments to incorporate these devices in new designs. Weight
and volume have been reduced and reliability improved. Unexpected benefits
also have been gained in the form of lowered cost compared to the same
design using individual standard-sized components. For example, a 30 percent
reduction was obtained in the cost of a Raytheon-built multiplexer and digital-
to-analog converter. An outstanding example of assembly simplification is a
desk-top electronic calculator developed by the Victor Comptometer
Corporation. This compact machine adds, subtracts, multiplies, and divides
and then displays the results on a built-in 4 × ½-inch illuminated screen.
Numerals of up to 20 digits can be handled with storage and retrieval
available with keyboard control. The unit is about the same size as an electric
typewriter and uses only 29 metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS) integrated
circuits.
Integrated circuits in consumer electronics first appeared in a hearing aid
developed by the Zenith Corporation in late 1963. Since then, considerable
research time has been devoted to microelectronics by the radio and television
industry. The first result was announced in early 1966 by the Radio
Corporation of America (RCA) Home Instrument Division. A four-function
monolithic integrated circuit was developed for use in the sound section of
their portable television receivers. One tiny silicon chip replaced nearly 30
discrete parts and performed amplification, limiting, FM detection, and audio
pre-amplification functions.
The applications for integrated circuits in consumer products are quite
exciting. One possibility is an electronic wristwatch with digital display of
time combining microelectronic technology with electroluminescent displays.
More than 50,000 electronic organs are built each year, using millions of
transistors; assembly time and component cost will be reduced substantially
by the use of integrated circuits. Another product under development is a tiny
remote control system using microelectronics to dim or raise the lighting level
of each room in a home.

Computers in Medicine.

Computers have already been installed in many hospitals to handle the

staggering jobs of billing, filing, and recording. But more sophisticated uses
for the computers are already in experimental operation. For small
communities devoid of a trained cardiologist, it is common practice for the
local physician to mail a patient's electrocardiogram to a specialist and wait
several days for a detailed reply. The waiting time can be reduced to minutes
by having the patient's electrocardiogram translated into computer language,
fed via telephone data link to a centrally located medical unit, analyzed by a
computer, checked by a cardiologist in attendance, and returned via the
telephone data link. An International Business Machines (IBM) Corporation
1401 data processing system used with more than 300 patients at Mount Sinai
Hospital in New York has had an accuracy that compares favorably with that
of the best electro-cardiographers in the field.
Computers can analyze the numerous facts relevant to a particular allergy and
prescribe the proper treatment within seconds; an experienced allergist
requires at least an hour. A computer program developed at the Mayo Clinic
can deliver results of a printed personality evaluation test in less than a
minute; a staff psychiatrist or psychologist formerly spent close to an hour to
compile each test result. A computer-controlled system in one hospital
provides the results of 1,000 blood tests an hour compared to 60 delivered by
a highly skilled lab technician.
Perhaps the most promising of all efforts linking the computer with medicine
is in the area of diagnosis. Physicians cannot possibly find the time to keep up
with the voluminous amount of medical literature, research advances, and new
drugs. A national—and perhaps even worldwide—computer center is under
consideration to house data, statistics, and literature abstracts. Under such an
arrangement, a physician, clinic worker, or medical research scientist could
contact the center by telephone or data link and supply a list of symptoms. He
could then request specific information to identify a particular disease and
even be supplied with latest medical literature and drug data to cope with the
problem.

Medical Electronics

Electronic devices other than the large-scale computer that have assisted the
medical profession are the radio pill and cardiac pacemaker. The radio pill is
an ultra-compact FM transmitter encapsulated in a plastic tube the size of a
common cold pill. The pill is swallowed by the patient and the signals that are
transmitted enable the physician to chart the patient's digestive tract. The
cardiac pacemaker is another small electronic assembly which applies
properly timed electrical impulses to the heart when the patient's natural
action misses or falters. During lengthy heart surgery, an external artificial
heart—abundant with electronic circuits—is used to bypass the patient's own
heart and fulfill the organ's functions.

Two new diagnostic aids have been developed by medical electronic

researchers to combat heart disease. Both are designed to spot heart
abnormalities in the early stage, while chances for treatment and successful
surgery are high. One enables the physician to detect pericardial effusion, a
specific symptom linked to heart failure. The second aid involves a new
electronic treatment that can pinpoint a variety of abnormal heart sounds.
Pericardial effusion is evidenced by the presence of fluid around the heart.
Previously, this condition was traced by puncturing the membrane around the
heart or else by circulating a material opaque to X rays to make the heart show
up in a radiograph. Both approaches were time-consuming and troublesome.
The pericardial effusion detector, developed at the University of Rochester
School of Medicine and Dentistry, requires an ultrasonic transducer to be
placed against the patient's chest. A portion of the sound waves is reflected
back to the transducer by the patient's body structure. However, fluid around
the heart has a different density from that of surrounding tissues and alters the
intensity of the echo reaching the transducer. An oscilloscope displays the
returned echo. The pattern produced by a patient with a healthy heart is
markedly different from that shown when pericardial effusion is present.
A variety of heart abnormalities can be traced by a PhonoCardioScan,
marketed by Beckman Instruments. About the size of an attaché case, the
electronic instrument contains two electrodes and a microphone which are
attached to the patient's chest. The patient's heartbeat is converted into
electrical voltages which are compared with an electronic analog of a normal
heart's sound. The results of the comparison are presented in digital form and
indicate whether the patient's heartbeat is normal or not. The examiner does
not have to analyze the digital data; he can forward the data by phone link for
medical interpretation. This instrument is being tested on 10,000 Chicago
school children in a program sponsored by the U.S. Public Health Service, the
Illinois Department of Public Health, and the Chicago Heart Association.

Electronics and Auto Safety.

With more than 50,000 people killed in automobile accidents in 1966, auto
safety campaigns have stirred the conscience of the American public. In the
United States, more than 96 million licensed drivers pilot about 87 million
vehicles, and over 870 billion miles of auto travel are carried over 3.6 million
miles of highways, roads, and streets.
In an effort to find the 'why' of more than 12 million accidents reported each
year—involving about 22 million drivers—electronics is being used. The
major factor in auto accidents, the human behind the wheel, is being closely
studied with the aid of a driving simulator developed by RCA for the U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare's Division of Accident
Prevention. The simulator consists of the shell of an automobile connected to
a 20-foot-long wooden tunnel. The inside of the car contains a standard
dashboard and steering assembly; however, outside light is blocked out by
wooden window boxes which provide illuminated scenes of highway traffic.
Through the windshield one can see a 20-foot roadway with five endless belts.
Two belts simulate two lanes of a highway, two belts simulate the shoulders
of the road, and the fifth belt represents the center lane. As the belts are
moved together, they create the illusion of highway travel. An optical system
combines this view with the illuminated pictures provided by the wooden
window boxes.
As the subject sits behind the wheel during a test, an unseen simulator
operator at a computer console can suddenly put other vehicles alongside the
driver, thus simulating conditions causing the majority of accidents. Driver
reaction response to various tests, when thousands of drivers are involved in
such tests, may lead to improvements in road and car design as well as
changes in traffic regulations.

Crime Prevention.

Computers and miniature electronic eavesdropping devices are new weapons

being used in the relentless effort to reduce crime. Criminals in the state of
California are now being tracked down by an electronic sleuth in the form of a
sophisticated data processing system. The general-purpose computer stores
records of criminal activities, data on registered firearms, updated lists of lost,
stolen, and pawned property, statistics on drug addicts and narcotic activities,
and detailed descriptions of the modus operandi of criminals.
With such an electronic system, a police officer can isolate a list of possible
suspects by phoning a description to the computer center. To illustrate the
scope of this particular installation, in Sacramento more than 8 million name
cards— with real names and aliases—are filed, more than 6 million
fingerprints are processed, and close to 1.7 million inquiries are handled each
year.
Another area receiving considerable attention from law-enforcement officers
involves electronic eavesdropping, or 'bugging.' Modern equipment includes
an FM bumper-mounted transmitter for surveillance of moving vehicles.
Magnets on the transmitter case fasten the device to the inside bumper strip or
to the underside of the auto chassis. Another device is a tiny AM transmitter
designed to be mounted within a radio or television cabinet. The set's speaker
is used as the pickup microphone, and the set's line cord is used as the
transmitting antenna. A third bug is an ultra-compact telephone pickup
amplifier using state-of-the-art microelectronic devices. Perhaps the buggiest
device is a 'spike-mike,' which can be driven into the wall of a room adjacent
to the one in which conversation is to be monitored. Sound vibrations are
picked up by the microphone and then amplified for listening or tape
recording.

Electronics in Project Apollo.

Man's first trip to the moon via the U.S. Apollo spacecraft represents a
massive challenge to the electronics industry. Complex, highly sophisticated
systems are being built, tested, and installed to accomplish such critical
functions as stabilization, guidance and navigation, and communication. There
will be little room for error or failure in any one of these electronic systems,
each of which is densely packed with hundreds of thousands of electronic
components.
Electronics will play several roles in the lunar mission. Guidance and control
of the Saturn booster stage during blast-off will be handled by a combination
of a ground-based computer and an electronic system housed in the second
stage of the booster. Once the craft is in orbit around the earth, sensitive
receivers and high-gain antennas at tracking stations throughout the world will
keep contact with the space vehicle. Precise position information will be
transmitted to the astronauts for insertion in their space-borne guidance
computer. Information from the computer will determine the precise timing
and duration of the booster refiring, as well as the exact attitude and position
at the time of the refiring, to hurl the craft out of the earth's pull toward the
moon. The astronauts and ground stations will then quickly compare guidance
data to assure proper trajectory. Another group of electronic systems will aid
in spacecraft control, positioning of the Command and Service Module (CSM)
relative to the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM)—the vehicle which will
descend to the moon—and midcourse corrections. After two of the astronauts
have descended to the lunar surface in the LEM, leaving the CSM in orbit
about the moon, rendezvous between the CSM and LEM is accomplished with
the help of tracking radar. The two astronauts return in the LEM to join their
companion in the CSM. The LEM is detached and left in a lunar orbit. Headed
back to earth, the vehicle again depends on precise guidance and control
exercised by electronic systems. The dangerous and critical phase of re-entry
first involves precise control: If the vehicle enters the atmosphere at a shallow
angle, it will bounce off the atmosphere and disappear into space; if entry is at
too sharp an angle, the vehicle will burn up.

Applications Satellites.

Communication Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) planned to launch Aerocom

in 1967 to provide voice communications for commercial aircraft flying the
Atlantic route, where conventional radio links are relatively poor.
Transmission of data from one computer installation to another thousands of
miles away is possible with communications satellites. Television
transmission of entertainment, interviews, and news events between United
States and Europe have already been carried by the Early Bird satellite and its
predecessors, Telstar, Relay, and Syncom.
Two other future applications of earth satellites are under development at
several leading electronics firms. Meteorological information from a
worldwide network of weather observation stations will be collected by a
chain of communications satellites. These data will be fed to a master
computer complex which will chart the weather pattern around the world.
Educational television programs can be transmitted from one satellite and
cover an area greater than several states. Schoolchildren in underdeveloped
countries could receive the finest in lectures and demonstrations at an expense
considerably lower than that needed to staff and supply hundreds of small
schoolhouses.

Dating by Computer.

The humming of computers turned to songs of love for college students across
the nation who applied to electronic matchmaking services, which pair boys
and girls with similar interests.
An applicant submits his answers to a variety of questions ('Do you believe in
a God who answers prayer?' 'Do you think romantic love is necessary for
successful marriage?'). In addition to describing his own characteristics, he
also indicates the qualities he desires in a dating partner. After scanning the
punch cards of thousands of lonely collegians, the computer is able to provide
the applicant with the names of five or more 'ideal mates'—all for an
application fee of a few dollars.
Making romance 'more efficient' was the idea of two Harvard undergraduates
who formed a corporation called Operation Match to improve the social life of
students at non-coed colleges and to reduce 'the anxiety of the blind date.'
Rival organizations sprang up at MIT (Contact) and at the University of
Wisconsin (SECS); TACT, a Manhattan organization aimed mainly at college
graduates in professional fields, also offers a series of 'compu-functions,'
including 'scientifically balanced cocktail parties.'

VLSI (very large-scale integration), term for integrated circuits

manufactured with technology that makes it possible to fit hundreds of
thousands of components, such as transistors, on a single integrated circuit, or
microchip. Some of the components on some VLSI microchips may be so
small that they cannot be seen without a microscope. Microchips with even
more components on them are called ULSI (ultra-large-scale integration)
integrated circuits.
DIP Switches
Dual in-line package (DIP) switches are devices used to control options on a
circuit board. Two common types of DIP switch are the rocker (left) and the
slide (right).
 Uses of Electronic Devices
Electronic devices are used as tools in many areas of advanced research.
Shown here is a Scanning Electron Microscope which uses electrons to
produce a highly magnified image on a computer screen.
Lawrence Migdale/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Electronics, field of engineering and applied physics dealing with the design
and application of devices, usually electronic circuits, the operation of which
depends on the flow of electrons for the generation, transmission, reception,
and storage of information. The information can consist of voice or music
(audio signals) in a radio receiver, a picture on a television screen, or numbers
and other data in a computer.

Electronic circuits provide different functions to process this information,

including amplification of weak signals to a usable level; generation of radio
waves; extraction of information, such as the recovery of an audio signal from a radio
wave (demodulation); control, such as the superimposition of an audio signal onto radio
waves (modulation); and logic operations, such as the electronic processes taking place in
computers.

II HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The introduction of vacuum tubes at the beginning of the 20th century was the
starting point of the rapid growth of modern electronics. With vacuum tubes
the manipulation of signals became possible, which could not be done with
the early telegraph and telephone circuit or with the early transmitters using
high-voltage sparks to create radio waves. For example, with vacuum tubes
weak radio and audio signals could be amplified, and audio signals, such as
music or voice, could be superimposed on radio waves. The development of a
large variety of tubes designed for specialized functions made possible the
swift progress of radio communication technology before World War II and
the development of early computers during and shortly after the war.

The transistor, invented in 1948, has now almost completely replaced the
vacuum tube in most of its applications. Incorporating an arrangement of
semiconductor materials and electrical contacts, the transistor provides the
same functions as the vacuum tube but at reduced cost, weight, and power
consumption and with higher reliability. Subsequent advances in
semiconductor technology, in part attributable to the intensity of research
associated with the space-exploration effort, led to the development of the
integrated circuit. Integrated circuits may contain hundreds of thousands of
transistors on a small piece of material and allow the construction of complex
electronic circuits, such as those in microcomputers, audio and video
equipment, and communications satellites.

III ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

A diode is an electronic component through which current passes in only one
direction. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs) are semiconductors that produce light
when current passes through them. They are used in many common devices,
such as the tuning indicator on a radio. An arrangement of seven LEDs in the
shape of an ‘8’ can be used to display any number from 0 to 9. This
arrangement is often used on calculators and digital watches.
Electronic circuits consist of interconnections of electronic components.
Components are classified into two categories—active or passive. Passive
elements never supply more energy than they absorb; active elements can
supply more energy than they absorb. Passive components include resistors,
capacitors, and inductors. Components considered active include batteries,
generators, vacuum tubes, and transistors.
A Vacuum Tubes
Vacuum Tube Amplifier
A vacuum tube amplifier circuit consists of a triode, load resister, batteries,
and variable voltage source. The triode is an evacuated glass tube that consists
of a cathode C, anode A, and grid G. Battery A heats the filament in the
cathode so that electrons are free to move. Battery B maintains a potential
difference between the cathode and anode and supplies the energy that the
electrons gain when they flow from the cathode to the anode. This flow can be
controlled by applying a negative voltage to the grid with Battery C. The
higher the negative voltage on the grid, the fewer electrons flow from the
cathode to the anode. Small changes in grid voltage from a radio or audio
signal S can produce large variations in current flow from cathode to anode
and throughout the rest of the circuit.

A vacuum tube consists of an air-evacuated glass envelope that contains

several metal electrodes. A simple, two-element tube (diode) consists of a
cathode and an anode that is connected to the positive terminal of a power
supply. The cathode—a small metal tube heated by a filament—frees
electrons, which migrate to the anode—a metal cylinder around the cathode
(also called the plate). If an alternating voltage is applied to the anode,
electrons will only flow to the anode during the positive half-cycle; during the
negative cycle of the alternating voltage, the anode repels the electrons, and
no current passes through the tube. Diodes connected in such a way that only
the positive half-cycles of an alternating current (AC) are permitted to pass
are called rectifier tubes; these are used in the conversion of alternating
current to direct current (DC) (see Electricity; Rectification). By inserting a
grid, consisting of a spiral of metal wire, between the cathode and the anode
and applying a negative voltage to the grid, the flow of electrons can be
controlled. When the grid is negative, it repels electrons, and only a fraction
of the electrons emitted by the cathode can reach the anode. Such a tube,
called a triode, can be used as an amplifier. Small variations in voltage at the
grid, such as can be produced by a radio or audio signal, will cause large variations in the
flow of electrons from the cathode to the anode and, hence, in the circuitry connected to the
anode.

B Transistors
Circuit Board and Transistors
A close-up photograph of a smoke detector’s circuit board reveals its inner
components, which include transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes, and
inductors. The rounded silver containers house the transistors that make the
circuit work. Transistors are capable of serving many functions, such as
amplifier, switch, and oscillator. Each transistor consists of a small piece of
silicon that has been “doped,” or treated with impurity atoms, to create n-type
and p-type semiconductors. Invented in 1940, transistors are a fundamental
component in nearly all modern electronic devices.
H. Schneebeli/Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Transistors are made from semiconductors. These are materials, such as

silicon or germanium, that are “doped” (have minute amounts of foreign
elements added) so that either an abundance or a lack of free electrons exists.
In the former case, the semiconductor is called n-type, and in the latter case,
p-type. By combining n-type and p-type materials, a diode can be produced.
When this diode is connected to a battery so that the p-type material is
positive and the n-type negative, electrons are repelled from the negative
battery terminal and pass unimpeded to the p-region, which lacks electrons.
With battery reversed, the electrons arriving in the p-material can pass only
with difficulty to the n-material, which is already filled with free electrons,
and the current is almost zero.

The bipolar transistor was invented in 1948 as a replacement for the triode
vacuum tube. It consists of three layers of doped material, forming two p-n
(bipolar) junctions with configurations of p-n-p or n-p-n. One junction is
connected to a battery so as to allow current flow (forward bias), and the other
junction has a battery connected in the opposite direction (reverse bias). If the
current in the forward-biased junction is varied by the addition of a signal, the
current in the reverse-biased junction of the transistor will vary accordingly.
The principle can be used to construct amplifiers in which a small signal
applied to the forward-biased junction causes a large change in current in the
reverse-biased junction.

Another type of transistor is the field-effect transistor (FET). Such a transistor

operates on the principle of repulsion or attraction of charges due to a
superimposed electric field. Amplification of current is accomplished in a
manner similar to the grid control of a vacuum tube. Field-effect transistors
operate more efficiently than bipolar types, because a large signal can be
controlled by a very small amount of energy.

C Integrated Circuits

Integrated Circuit of a Computer

An integrated circuit (IC) consists of many circuit elements such as transistors
and resistors fabricated on a single piece of silicon or other semiconducting
material. The tiny microprocessor shown here is the heart of the personal
computer (PC). Such devices may contain several million transistors and be
able to execute over 100 million instructions per second. The rows of leglike
metal pins are used to connect the microprocessor to a circuit board.
Most integrated circuits are small pieces, or “chips,” of silicon, perhaps 2 to 4
sq mm (0.08 to 0.15 sq in) long, in which transistors are fabricated.
Photolithography enables the designer to create tens of thousands of
transistors on a single chip by proper placement of the many n-type and p-type
regions. These are interconnected with very small conducting paths during
fabrication to produce complex special-purpose circuits. Such integrated
circuits are called monolithic because they are fabricated on a single crystal of
silicon. Chips require much less space and power and are cheaper to manufacture than an
equivalent circuit built by employing individual transistors.

D Resistors

If a battery is connected across a conducting material, a certain amount of

current will flow through the material (see Resistance). This current is
dependent on the voltage of the battery, on the dimensions of the sample, and
on the conductivity of the material itself. Resistors with known resistance are
used for current control in electronic circuits. The resistors are made from
carbon mixtures, metal films, or resistance wire and have two connecting
wires attached. Variable resistors, with an adjustable sliding contact arm, are
often used to control volume on radios and television sets.

E Capacitors

Capacitors consist of two metal plates that are separated by an insulating

material (see Capacitor). If a battery is connected to both plates, an electric
charge will flow for a short time and accumulate on each plate. If the battery
is disconnected, the capacitor retains the charge and the voltage associated
with it. Rapidly changing voltages, such as caused by an audio or radio signal,
produce larger current flows to and from the plates; the capacitor then
functions as a conductor for the changing current. This effect can be used, for example,
to separate an audio or radio signal from a direct current in order to connect the output of
one amplifier stage to the input of the next amplifier stage.

F Inductors

Inductors consist of a conducting wire wound into the form of a coil. When a
current passes through the coil, a magnetic field is set up around it that tends
to oppose rapid changes in current intensity (see Induction). As a capacitor, an
inductor can be used to distinguish between rapidly and slowly changing
signals. When an inductor is used in conjunction with a capacitor, the voltage
in the inductor reaches a maximal value for a specific frequency. This
principle is used in a radio receiver, where a specific frequency is selected by a
variable capacitor.
G Sensing Devices and Transducers

Measurements of mechanical, thermal, electrical, and chemical quantities are

made by devices called sensors and transducers. The sensor is responsive to
changes in the quantity to be measured, for example, temperature, position, or
chemical concentration. The transducer converts such measurements into
electrical signals, which, usually amplified, can be fed to instruments for the
readout, recording, or control of the measured quantities. Sensors and
transducers can operate at locations remote from the observer and in
environments unsuitable or impractical for humans.

Some devices act as both sensor and transducer. A thermocouple has two
junctions of wires of different metals; these generate a small electric voltage
that depends on the temperature difference between the two junctions. A
thermistor is a special resistor, the resistance of which varies with
temperature. A variable resistor can convert mechanical movement into an
electrical signal. Specially designed capacitors are used to measure distance,
and photocells are used to detect light (see Photoelectric Cell). Other devices
are used to measure velocity, acceleration, or fluid flow. In most instances, the
electric signal is weak and must be amplified by an electronic circuit.

IV POWER-SUPPLY CIRCUITS

Most electronic equipment requires DC voltages for its operation. These can
be provided by batteries (see Battery) or by internal power supplies that
convert alternating current as available at the home electric outlet, into
regulated DC voltages. The first element in an internal DC power supply is a
transformer, which steps up or steps down the input voltage to a level suitable
for the operation of the equipment. A secondary function of the transformer is
to provide electrical ground insulation of the device from the power line to
reduce potential shock hazards. The transformer is then followed by a
rectifier, normally a diode. In the past, vacuum diodes and a wide variety of
different materials such as germanium crystals or cadmium sulfide were
employed in the low-power rectifiers used in electronic equipment. Today
silicon rectifiers are used almost exclusively because of their low cost and
their high reliability.

Fluctuations and ripples superimposed on the rectified DC voltage (noticeable

as a hum in a malfunctioning audio amplifier) can be filtered out by a
capacitor; the larger the capacitor, the smaller is the amount of ripple in the
voltage. More precise control over voltage levels and ripples can be achieved
by a voltage regulator, which also makes the internal voltages independent of
fluctuations that may be encountered at an outlet. A simple, often-used
voltage regulator is the zener diode. It consists of a solid-state p-n-junc tion
diode, which acts as an insulator up to a predetermined voltage; above that voltage it
becomes a conductor that bypasses excess voltages. More sophisticated voltage regulators
are usually constructed as integrated circuits.

V AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

Electronic amplifiers are used mainly to increase the voltage, current, or

power of a signal. A linear amplifier provides signal amplification with little
or no distortion, so that the output is proportional to the input. A nonlinear
amplifier may produce a considerable change in the waveform of the signal.
Linear amplifiers are used for audio and video signals, whereas nonlinear
amplifiers find use in oscillators, power electronics, modulators, mixers, logic
circuits, and other applications where an amplitude cutoff is desired. Although
vacuum tubes played a major role in amplifiers in the past, today either discrete transistor
circuits or integrated circuits are mostly used.

A Audio Amplifiers

Audio amplifiers, such as are found in radios, television sets, citizens band
(CB) radios, and cassette recorders, are generally operated at frequencies
below 20 kilohertz (1 kHz = 1000 cycles/sec). They amplify the electrical
signal, which then is converted to sound in a loudspeaker. Operational
amplifiers (op-amps), built with integrated circuits and consisting of DC-coupled,
multistage, linear amplifiers are popular for audio amplifiers.

B Video Amplifiers

Video amplifiers are used mainly for signals with a frequency spectrum range
up to 6 megahertz (1 MHz = 1 million cycles/sec). The signal handled by the
amplifier becomes the visual information presented on the television screen,
with the signal amplitude regulating the brightness of the spot forming the
image on the screen. To achieve its function, a video amplifier must operate
over a wide band and amplify all frequencies equally and with low distortion.
See Video Recording.

C Radio Frequency Amplifiers

These amplifiers boost the signal level of radio or television communication

systems. Their frequencies generally range from 100 kHz to 1 GHz (1 billion
cycles/sec = 1 gigahertz) and can extend well into the microwave frequency range.
VI OSCILLATORS

Oscillator Circuit
This illustration shows a simplified schematic diagram of an oscillator circuit.
The tuned circuit contains an inductor coil L1, a smaller inductor coil L2, and
a capacitor C.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Oscillators generally consist of an amplifier and some type of feedback: The

output signal is fed back to the input of the amplifier. The frequency-
determining elements may be a tuned inductance-capacitance circuit or a
vibrating crystal. Crystal-controlled oscillators offer the highest precision and
stability. Oscillators are used to produce audio and radio signals for a wide
variety of purposes. For example, simple audio-frequency oscillators are used
in modern push-button telephones to transmit data to the central telephone
station for dialing. Audio tones generated by oscillators are also found in
alarm clocks, radios, electronic organs, computers, and warning systems.
High-frequency oscillators are used in communications equipment to provide
tuning and signal-detection functions. Radio and television stations use
precise high-frequency oscillators to produce transmitting frequencies.

VII SWITCHING AND TIMING CIRCUITS

Digital Logic and NOR Gate Circuitry
Computers use digital logic to perform operations. Digital logic involves
making successive “true” or “false” decisions, which may also be represented
by 1 and 0, respectively. Logic circuits, which are at the heart of computer
chips, are designed to make a series of these decisions via junctures called
gates. Gates are designed and arranged to make different kinds of “decisions”
about the input they receive. Individual input and output values are always
either true or false and are relayed through the circuit in the form of different
voltages. This circuit uses 4 NOR gates, each of which makes the decision
“neither A nor B.” The NOR operation yields an output of 0 whenever one or
more of the input values is 1. The table shows input values (A, B) and output
value (F) for the NOR gate. A circuit map (bottom) shows the layout of a
NOR gate and its components, indicating voltage values when the inputs are
0,0 and the output is 1.

Switching and timing circuits, or logic circuits, form the heart of any device
where signals must be selected or combined in a controlled manner.
Applications of these circuits include telephone switching, satellite
transmissions, and digital computer operations.

Digital logic is a rational process for making simple “true” or “false”

decisions based on the rules of Boolean algebra. “True” can be represented by
a 1 and “false” by a 0, and in logic circuits the numerals appear as signals of
two different voltages. Logic circuits are used to make specific true-false
decisions based on the presence of multiple true-false signals at the inputs.
The signals may be generated by mechanical switches or by solid-state
transducers. Once the input signal has been accepted and conditioned (to
remove unwanted electrical signals, or “noise”), it is processed by the digital
logic circuits. The various families of digital logic devices, usually integrated
circuits, perform a variety of logic functions through logic gates, including
“OR,””AND,” and “NOT,” and combinations of these (such as “NOR,” which
includes both OR and NOT). One widely used logic family is the transistor-
transistor logic (TTL). Another family is the complementary metal oxide
semiconductor logic (CMOS), which performs similar functions at very low
power levels but at slightly lower operating speeds. Several other, less popular
families of logic circuits exist, including the currently obsolete resistor-
transistor logic (RTL) and the emitter coupled logic (ELC), the latter used for
very-high-speed systems.

VIII RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

The development of integrated circuits has revolutionized the fields of

communications, information handling, and computing. Integrated circuits
reduce the size of devices and lower manufacturing and system costs, while at
the same time providing high speed and increased reliability. Digital watches,
hand-held computers, and electronic games are systems based on
microprocessors. Other developments include the digitalization of audio
signals, where the frequency and amplitude of an audio signal are coded
digitally by appropriate sampling techniques, that is, techniques for measuring
the amplitude of the signal at very short intervals. Digitally recorded music
shows a fidelity that is not possible using direct-recording methods. Digital
playback devices of this nature have already entered the home market. Digital
storage could also form the basis of home video systems and may
significantly alter library storage systems, because much more information
can be stored on a disk for replay on a television screen than can be contained
in a book.

Medical electronics has progressed from computerized axial tomography, or

the use of CAT or CT scanners (see X Ray), to systems that can discriminate
more and more of the organs of the human body. Devices that can view blood
vessels and the respiratory system have been developed as well. Ultrahigh
definition television also promises to substitute for many photographic
processes, because it eliminates the need for silver.

Today's research to increase the speed and capacity of computers concentrates

mainly on the improvement of integrated circuit technology and the
development of even faster switching components. Very-large-scale
integrated (VLSI) circuits that contain several hundred thousand components
on a single chip have been developed. Very-high-speed computers are being
developed in which semiconductors may be replaced by superconducting
circuits using Josephson junctions (see Josephson Effect) and operating at
temperatures near absolute zero.

CMOS

CMOS, in computer science, acronym for complementary metal-oxide

semiconductor. A semiconductor device that consists of two metal-oxide
semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), one N-type and one P-
type, integrated on a single silicon chip. Generally used for RAM and
switching applications, these devices have very high speed and extremely low
power consumption. They are, however, easily damaged by static electricity.
See also Electronics.

Computer Memory, a mechanism that stores data for use by a computer. In a

computer all data consist of numbers. A computer stores a number into a
specific location in memory and later fetches the value. Most memories
represent data with the binary number system. In the binary number system,
numbers are represented by sequences of the two binary digits 0 and 1, which
are called bits (see Number Systems). In a computer, the two possible values
of a bit correspond to the on and off states of the computer's electronic
circuitry.

In memory, bits are grouped together so they can represent larger values. A
group of eight bits is called a byte and can represent decimal numbers ranging
from 0 to 255. The particular sequence of bits in the byte encodes a unit of
information, such as a keyboard character. One byte typically represents a
single character such as a number, letter, or symbol. Most computers operate
by manipulating groups of 2, 4, or 8 bytes called words.

Memory capacity is usually quantified in terms of kilobytes, megabytes, and

gigabytes. Although the prefixes kilo-, mega-, and giga-, are taken from the
metric system, they have a slightly different meaning when applied to
computer memories. In the metric system, kilo- means 1 thousand; mega-, 1
million; and giga-, 1 billion. When applied to computer memory, however, the
prefixes are measured as powers of two, with kilo- meaning 2 raised to the
10th power, or 1,024; mega- meaning 2 raised to the 20th power, or
1,048,576; and giga- meaning 2 raised to the 30th power, or 1,073,741,824.
Thus, a kilobyte is 1,024 bytes and a megabyte is 1,048,576 bytes. It is easier
to remember that a kilobyte is approximately 1,000 bytes, a megabyte is
approximately 1 million bytes, and a gigabyte is approximately 1 billion bytes.
 I
HOW MEMORY
I
WORK
.

Computer memory may be divided into two broad categories known as

internal memory and external memory. Internal memory operates at the
highest speed and can be accessed directly by the central processing unit
(CPU)—the main electronic circuitry within a computer that processes
information. Internal memory is contained on computer chips and uses
electronic circuits to store information (see Microprocessor). External
memory consists of storage on peripheral devices that are slower than internal
memories but offer lower cost and the ability to hold data after the computer’s
power has been turned off. External memory uses inexpensive mass-storage
devices such as magnetic hard drives. See also Information Storage and
Retrieval.

Internal memory is also known as random access memory (RAM) or read-

only memory (ROM). Information stored in RAM can be accessed in any
order, and may be erased or written over. Information stored in ROM may
also be random-access, in that it may be accessed in any order, but the information
recorded on ROM is usually permanent and cannot be erased or written over.

Internal
RAM

Random access memory is also called main memory because it is the primary
memory that the CPU uses when processing information. The electronic
circuits used to construct this main internal RAM can be classified as dynamic
RAM (DRAM), synchronized dynamic RAM (SDRAM), or static RAM
(SRAM). DRAM, SDRAM, and SRAM all involve different ways of using
transistors and capacitors to store data. In DRAM or SDRAM, the circuit for
each bit consists of a transistor, which acts as a switch, and a capacitor, a
device that can store a charge. To store the binary value 1 in a bit, DRAM
places an electric charge on the capacitor. To store the binary value 0, DRAM
removes all electric charge from the capacitor. The transistor is used to switch
the charge onto the capacitor. When it is turned on, the transistor acts like a
closed switch that allows electric current to flow into the capacitor and build
up a charge. The transistor is then turned off, meaning that it acts like an open
switch, leaving the charge on the capacitor. To store a 0, the charge is drained
from the capacitor while the transistor is on, and then the transistor is turned
off, leaving the capacitor uncharged. To read a value in a DRAM bit location,
a detector circuit determines whether a charge is present or absent on the
relevant capacitor.

DRAM is called dynamic because it is continually refreshed. The memory

chips themselves cannot hold values over long periods of time. Because
capacitors are imperfect, the charge slowly leaks out of them, which results in
loss of the stored data. Thus, a DRAM memory system contains additional
circuitry that periodically reads and rewrites each data value. This replaces the
charge on the capacitors, a process known as refreshing memory. The major
difference between SDRAM and DRAM arises from the way in which refresh
circuitry is created. DRAM contains separate, independent circuitry to refresh
memory. The refresh circuitry in SDRAM is synchronized to use the same
hardware clock as the CPU. The hardware clock sends a constant stream of
pulses through the CPU’s circuitry. Synchronizing the refresh circuitry with
the hardware clock results in less duplication of electronics and better access
coordination between the CPU and the refresh circuits.

In SRAM, the circuit for a bit consists of multiple transistors that hold the
stored value without the need for refresh. The chief advantage of SRAM lies
in its speed. A computer can access data in SRAM more quickly than it can
access data in DRAM or SDRAM. However, the SRAM circuitry draws more
power and generates more heat than DRAM or SDRAM. The circuitry for a
SRAM bit is also larger, which means that a SRAM memory chip holds fewer
bits than a DRAM chip of the same size. Therefore, SRAM is used when
access speed is more important than large memory capacity or low power
consumption.

The time it takes the CPU to transfer data to or from memory is particularly
important because it determines the overall performance of the computer. The
time required to read or write one bit is known as the memory access time.
Current DRAM and SDRAM access times are between 30 and 80
nanoseconds (billionths of a second). SRAM access times are typically four
times faster than DRAM.

The internal RAM on a computer is divided into locations, each of which has
a unique numerical address associated with it. In some computers a memory
address refers directly to a single byte in memory, while in others, an address
specifies a group of four bytes called a word. Computers also exist in which a
word consists of two or eight bytes, or in which a byte consists of six or ten
bits.

When a computer performs an arithmetic operation, such as addition or

multiplication, the numbers used in the operation can be found in memory.
The instruction code that tells the computer which operation to perform also
specifies which memory address or addresses to access. An address is sent
from the CPU to the main memory (RAM) over a set of wires called an
address bus. Control circuits in the memory use the address to select the bits at
the specified location in RAM and send a copy of the data back to the CPU
over another set of wires called a data bus. Inside the CPU, the data passes
through circuits called the data path to the circuits that perform the arithmetic
operation. The exact details depend on the model of the CPU. For example,
some CPUs use an intermediate step in which the data is first loaded into a high-speed
memory device within the CPU called a register.

Internal
ROM

Read-only memory is the other type of internal memory. ROM memory is

used to store items that the computer needs to execute when it is first turned
on. For example, the ROM memory on a PC contains a basic set of
instructions, called the basic input-output system (BIOS). The PC uses BIOS
to start up the operating system. BIOS is stored on computer chips in a way
that causes the information to remain even when power is turned off.

Information in ROM is usually permanent and cannot be erased or written

over easily. A ROM is permanent if the information cannot be changed—once
the ROM has been created, information can be retrieved but not changed.
Newer technologies allow ROMs to be semi-permanent—that is, the
information can be changed, but it takes several seconds to make the change.
For example, a FLASH memory acts like a ROM because values remain
stored in memory, but the values can be changed.

External
Memory

External memory can generally be classified as either magnetic or optical, or a

combination called magneto-optical. A magnetic storage device, such as a
computer's hard drive, uses a surface coated with material that can be
magnetized in two possible ways. The surface rotates under a small
electromagnet that magnetizes each spot on the surface to record a 0 or 1. To
retrieve data, the surface passes under a sensor that determines whether the
magnetism was set for a 0 or 1. Optical storage devices such as a compact disc
(CD) player use lasers to store and retrieve information from a plastic disk.
Magneto-optical memory devices use a combination of optical storage and
retrieval technology coupled with a magnetic medium.
 Inside a Computer Hard Drive
The inside of a computer hard disk drive consists of four main
components. The round disk platter is usually made of aluminum, glass,
or ceramic and is coated with a magnetic media that contains all the data
stored on the hard drive. The yellow armlike device that extends over the
disk platter is known as the head arm and is the device that reads the
information off of the disk platter. The head arm is attached to the head
actuator, which controls the head arm. Not shown is the chassis which
encases and holds all the hard disk drive components.

Memory stored on external magnetic media include magnetic tape, a hard

disk, and a floppy disk. Magnetic tape is a form of external computer memory
used primarily for backup storage. Like the surface on a magnetic disk, the
surface of tape is coated with a material that can be magnetized. As the tape
passes over an electromagnet, individual bits are magnetically encoded.
Computer systems using magnetic tape storage devices employ machinery
similar to that used with analog tape: open-reel tapes, cassette tapes, and
helical-scan tapes (similar to video tape).

Another form of magnetic memory uses a spinning disk coated with magnetic
material. As the disk spins, a sensitive electromagnetic sensor, called a read-
write head, scans across the surface of the disk, reading and writing magnetic
spots in concentric circles called tracks.

Magnetic disks are classified as either hard or floppy, depending on the

flexibility of the material from which they are made. A floppy disk is made of
flexible plastic with small pieces of a magnetic material imbedded in its
surface. The read-write head touches the surface of the disk as it scans the
floppy. A hard disk is made of a rigid metal, with the read-write head flying just above its
surface on a cushion of air to prevent wear.

Optical
 Media

Optical external memory uses a laser to scan a spinning reflective disk in

which the presence or absence of nonreflective pits in the disk indicates 1s or
0s. This is the same technology employed in the audio CD. Because its
contents are permanently stored on it when it is manufactured, it is known as
compact disc-read only memory (CD-ROM). A variation on the CD, called
compact disc-recordable (CD-R), uses a dye that turns dark when a stronger laser beam
strikes it, and can thus have information written permanently on it by a computer.

Magneto-Optical
Media

Magneto-optical (MO) devices write data to a disk with the help of a laser
beam and a magnetic write-head. To write data to the disk, the laser focuses
on a spot on the surface of the disk heating it up slightly. This allows the
magnetic write-head to change the physical orientation of small grains of
magnetic material (actually tiny crystals) on the surface of the disk. These tiny
crystals reflect light differently depending on their orientation. By aligning the
crystals in one direction a 0 can be stored, while aligning the crystals in the
opposite direction stores a 1. Another, separate, low-power laser is used to
read data from the disk in a way similar to a standard CD-ROM. The
advantage of MO disks over CD-ROMs is that they can be read and written to.
They are, however, more expensive than CD-ROMs and are used mostly in
industrial applications. MO devices are not popular consumer products.

Cache
Memory

CPU speeds continue to increase much more rapidly than memory access
times decrease. The result is a growing gap in performance between the CPU
and its main RAM memory. To compensate for the growing difference in
speeds, engineers add layers of cache memory between the CPU and the main
memory. A cache consists of a small, high-speed memory system that holds
recently used values. When the CPU makes a request to fetch or store a
memory value, the CPU sends the request to the cache. If the item is already
present in the cache, the cache can honor the request quickly because the
cache operates at higher speed than main memory. For example, if the CPU
needs to add two numbers, retrieving the values from the cache can take less
than one-tenth as long as retrieving the values from main memory. However,
because the cache is smaller than main memory, not all values can fit in the
cache at one time. Therefore, if the requested item is not in the cache, the
cache must fetch the item from main memory.
Cache cannot replace conventional RAM because cache is much more
expensive and consumes more power. However, research has shown that even
a small cache that can store only 1 percent of the data stored in main memory
still provides a significant speedup for memory access. Therefore, most
computers include a small, external memory cache attached to their RAM.
More important, multiple caches can be arranged in a hierarchy to lower
memory access times even further. In addition, most CPUs now have a cache
on the CPU chip itself. The on-chip internal cache is smaller than the external
cache, which is smaller than RAM. The advantage of the on-chip cache is that
once a data item has been fetched from the external cache, the CPU can use the item
without having to wait for an external cache access.

DEVELOPMENTS AND
LIMITATIONS

Since the inception of computer memory, the capacity of both internal and
external memory devices has grown steadily at a rate that leads to a
quadrupling in size every three years. Computer industry analysts expect this
rapid rate of growth to continue unimpeded. Computer engineers consider it
possible to make multigigabyte memory chips and disks capable of storing a
terabyte (one trillion bytes) of memory.

Some computer engineers are concerned that the silicon-based memory chips
are approaching a limit in the amount of data they can hold. However, it is
expected that transistors can be made at least four times smaller before
inherent limits of physics make further reductions difficult. Engineers also
expect that the external dimensions of memory chips will increase by a factor
of four, meaning that larger amounts of memory will fit on a single chip.
Current memory chips use only a single layer of circuitry, but researchers are
working on ways to stack multiple layers onto one chip. Once all of these
approaches are exhausted, RAM memory may reach a limit. Researchers,
however, are also exploring more exotic technologies with the potential to
provide even more capacity, including the use of biotechnology to produce
memories out of living cells. The memory in a computer is composed of many
memory chips. While current memory chips contain megabytes of RAM,
future chips will likely have gigabytes of RAM on a single chip. To add to
RAM, computer users can purchase memory cards that each contain many
memory chips. In addition, future computers will likely have advanced data
transfer capabilities and additional caches that enable the CPU to access memory
faster.

HISTOR
Y
Early electronic computers in the late 1940s and early 1950s used cathode ray
tubes (CRT), similar to a computer display screen, to store data. The coating
on a CRT remains lit for a short time after an electron beam strikes it. Thus, a
pattern of dots could be written on the CRT, representing 1s and 0s, and then
be read back for a short time before fading. Like DRAM, CRT storage had to
be periodically refreshed to retain its contents. A typical CRT held 128 bytes,
and the entire memory of such a computer was usually 4 kilobytes.

International Business Machines Corporation (IBM) developed magnetic core

memory in the early 1950s. Magnetic core (often just called “core”) memory
consisted of tiny rings of magnetic material woven into meshes of thin wires.
When the computer sent a current through a pair of wires, the ring at their
intersection became magnetized either clockwise or counterclockwise
(corresponding to a 0 or a 1), depending on the direction of the current.
Computer manufacturers first used core memory in production computers in
the 1960s, at about the same time that they began to replace vacuum tubes
with transistors. Magnetic core memory was used through most of the 1960s
and into the 1970s.

The next step in the development of computer memory came with the
introduction of integrated circuits, which enabled multiple transistors to be
placed on one chip. Computer scientists developed the first such memory
when they constructed an experimental supercomputer called Illiac-IV in the
late 1960s. Integrated circuit memory quickly displaced core and has been the
dominant technology for internal memory ever since.

GENERAL FEATURES OF THE FIRST GENERATION OF

COMPUTER (1946-1954)
1. the 1st generation of computer was the UNIVAC (universal automatic
computer)
2. Heat and maintenance are the problems with these machines.
3. It has limited internal storage capacitor.
4. input/output process is slow without the use of purched card.
5. These machines make use of VACCUM TUBE in electronics cct.
6. It uses symbol/assembly language in programming.
7. Use of purched card is very possible.
SOME OF THE EARLY SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTER
AND MACHINES WERE.
-IBM 700 SERIES.
-LEO MARK 111
-atlas (Manchester university uk1962. This made effective use of magnetic
disk storage.
SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTER (1955-1964)
1. Transistors are used for internal operations.
2. There is an increase in primary storage capacitor.
3. Programming is made easier with the use of English like programming
language.
4. The use of magnetic disk storage is possible.
5. There is great reduction in size and heat generation.
THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTER (1964-1971)
1. Use of integrated cct is made
2. There is an increase in storage capacity
3. The use of input/output process, there are more flexibility
4. Performance is better and reliable
5. Possibilities of the use of remote terminals

FOURTH GENERATION OF COMPUTER (1971-1980s)

1. Invention of micro processor, micro computer and super computer.
2. Development of computer software (program)
3. There is an increase in storage capacity and speed.

FIFTH GENERATION OF COMPUTER (1990-DATE)

1. They are marked with inputs coming from the human system in form of
speech natural language images and picture.
2. There is also effective processing of such inputs which comes from
human system
3. Computer here operates at an enormous speed and it has the ability to
make logical inferences
4. This generation of computer has emphasis on convensation or interactive
processing with suitable man machine interfaces.

COMPUTER NETWORKING