Further Mathematics

Chapter 8: Vectors
Objectives
At the end of this topic, you will be able to:
• Define vectors in  2 and  3
• List properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication
• Define dot product (scalar product) of two vectors and state its properties
• Define cross product (vector product) of two vectors
• Find equations of lines and planes in space

8.1 Vectors

(A) Vectors and Scalars

A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

Some examples are velocity (speed in a certain direction), displacement (a movement in a

certain direction), force, acceleration, … etc.

A scalar is a quantity that has magnitude but no direction.

Some examples are mass, length, temperature, electric charge, work, … etc.

(B) Representation of Vectors and Notation

A vector is usually represented by a directed line segment.

Q

The directed line segment shown in the above figure is the vector from points P to Q and is

denoted by PQ , or simply by a single letter a .


The magnitude of the vector PQ is specified by the length of the line segment PQ and is

denoted by PQ or a . The direction of a vector is the angle it makes with the positive x-

axis, measured anticlockwise.

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(C) Equality of Vectors

Two vectors a and b are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and direction.
 
a b ⇔ a and b have the same direction and a = b
=
     

(D) Negative Vectors

The negative vector − a is a vector having the same magnitude as a but a direction opposite
to that of a .  

−a =a
 

(E) Zero Vector

The zero or null vector denoted by 0 is the vector with zero magnitude and no particular

direction.

(F) Position Vector

A position vector is a vector that starts from the origin. We say that the position vector of
 
the point A = OA = a , and the position vector of the point B OB = b
 
A
B

(G) Unit Vectors

A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is 1.

If a is any non-zero vector, the unit vector with the same direction as a is denoted by â .
  
Since a = a aˆ , it follows that the unit vector with the same direction as a is given by
   

a
aˆ = 
 a


Hence, a vector of magnitude m in the same direction as a is equal to maˆ .

 

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(H) Arithmetic Operations on Vectors

(i) Addition of Vectors

Let a and b be two vectors.

 

The resultant or the vector sum of the two vectors is a + b and can be obtained using the
 
parallelogram law or the triangle law.

The parallelogram law:

The triangle law:

Can you show that a + b and b + a are equal?

   

(ii) Subtraction of Vectors

The difference of two vectors, a − b is defined as the vector sum a + (− b)

   

This is the same as

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(iii) Scalar Multiplication

Let λ be a non-zero real number (i.e, a scalar) and a a non-zero vector.

The vector λ a is a vector parallel to a .

 
• If λ > 0 , λ a is in the same direction as a .
 
• If λ < 0 , λ a is in the opposite direction from a .
 
• λa = λ a
 
1
Vectors a , 2a , −2a , a are shown below:
   2

Thus, if a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 , λb where λ is a scalar and λ ≠ 0.

a and b are parallel ⇔ a =
       

2
(I) Vectors in Two-Dimensional Space 

Let us consider a two-dimensional coordinate frame.

y

A unit vector in the positive direction of the x-axis is denoted by i .


A unit vector in the positive direction of the y-axis is denoted by j .

For every vector a in the xy-plane, if a1 and a2 are the components of a in the x and y
 
directions respectively, then a can be expressed in the following forms:

i j - notation Vector notation Matrix notation


a a1i + a2 j
=  a1 
a = a1 , a2 a= 
      a2 

By Pythagoras’ theorem, the magnitude of a is =

a a12 + a2 2 .
 

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Example 1
Write the following vectors in xi + yj form.
y
  y
(a) (b) (7,8)
(3,2)
(2,5)
x x
0 0

Example 2
If a= 3i + 4 j , find
  
(a) a (b) â (c) a vector of magnitude 20 in the direction of a
  

(J) Resolution of a Vector into Components in Two Perpendicular Directions

In applications, we often resolve a vector into its components in two perpendicular

directions.


( F sin θ ) j

( F cosθ ) i
  
F = ( F cosθ ) i + ( F sin θ ) j
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Example 3 (to be taught in class)

Write the following vectors in xi + yj form.
y  
(a) (b) y
8 42
5
62
x x
0 0

Example 4 (to be taught in class)

Suppose that two forces are applied to an eye bracket, as shown below. Find the magnitude of
the resultant and the angle θ that it makes with the positive x-axis.

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3
(K) Vectors in Three-Dimensional Space 

Let us consider a three-dimensional coordinate frame.

z

i
= j
= k= 1
  
y
x

The axes are placed in such a way that they follow the Right-hand Rule.
The vectors i , j and k are unit vectors in the positive directions of the x-, y- and z-axis,
  
respectively.
For every vector a in 3 , if a1, a2 and a3 are the components of a in the x, y and z
 
directions respectively, then a can be expressed in the following form:

i j k - notation Vector notation Matrix notation

 a1 
a =a1i + a2 j + a3 k  
a = a1 , a2 , a 3 a =  a2 
       
 a3 

By Pythagoras’ theorem, the magnitude of a is a = a12 + a2 2 + a32 .

 

Example 5
If a = 2 i − j + k , find
   
(a) a (b) a vector of magnitude 5 in the direction of a.
 

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(L) Addition, Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication in Component Form

THEOREM
Given that a =a1i + a2 j + a3k and b =b1i + b2 j + b3k , then
       

i j k - notation Vector notation Matrix notation


 a1   b1   a1 + b1 
(a1 + b1 ) i + (a2 + b2 ) j a1 , a2 , a3 + b1 , b2 , b3  a  + b  = a + b 
Addition    2  2  2 2
a +b + (a3 + b3 ) k =a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3  a3   b3   a3 + b3 
  

 a1   b1   a1 − b1 
Subtraction (a1 − b1 ) i + (a2 − b2 ) j a1 , a2 , a3 − b1 , b2 , b3  a  − b  = a − b 
   2  2  2 2
a −b + (a3 − b3 ) k =a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3
    a3   b3   a3 − b3 

Scalar  a1   λ a1 
λ a1 , a2 , a3
Multiplication λ a1i + λ a2 j + λ a3 k λ  a2  = λ a2 
   = λ a1 , λ a2 , λ a3
λa  a3   λ a3 


Example 6
If a =i + 5 j + 3k and b = 3i − 6 j + k , find
       
(a) a + b (b) a − b (c) 7a
    

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(M) Position Vectors

The position vector of a point P in space is the vector from the origin to the point P which is

denoted by the vector OP . If P has coordinates (x, y, z), then the position vector of P is

 x

OP = x i + y j + z k or x, y, z or  y  and OP = x2 + y 2 + z 2 .
    
z 
 

Example 7
The coordinates of points P and Q are points (−3, 7, 8) and (2, 5, 5) respectively. Find
 
(a) the position vector of P (b) the position vector of Q (c) PQ (d) PQ

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8.2 Dot Product (Scalar Product)

Dot Product is also known as Scalar Product or Inner Product.

(A) Definition of the Dot Product

DEFINITION

The scalar product or dot product of two vectors a and b denoted by a ⋅ b is defined
as
   
a ⋅ b =a b cos θ
   

where θ is the angle between a and b .

 
Note that a ⋅ b is a scalar, not a vector.
 

Example 8

If vectors a and b are inclined at 60 to each other and a = 3 , b = 8 , find a  b .



     

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(B) Properties of the Dot Product

THEOREM
(1) a ⋅b = b ⋅ a (scalar product is commutative)
   
(2) a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c (scalar product is distributive over addition)
      
(3) λ (a ⋅ b) = (λ a) ⋅ b = a ⋅ (λb) where λ ∈ 
     

(4) If a and b are non-zero vectors,

 
• a ⋅ b = 0 ⇔ a and b are perpendicular (orthogonal) to each other.
   

a =a ⋅b a=b cos 900 0

    
b

Hence i ⋅ j = j⋅k = k ⋅i = 0
     

• a ⋅b
= a b ⇔ a and b are in the same direction, i.e. θ = 0 .
     
a


b =a ⋅b a=b cos 00 a b
      

2
Hence a ⋅ a =a ,
  
i i i= 1 ,
i ⋅= j ⋅=
j j 1
j = and k k k= 1
k ⋅=
           

• a ⋅ b =− a b ⇔ a and b are in opposite directions, i.e. =

θ 180°
     
a


b a ⋅ b =a b cos1800 =− a b
      

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(C) Dot Product in Component Form

Let a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b =b1i + b2 j + b3 k , then

       
(  
)(   
)
a ⋅ b= a1i + a2 j + a3 k ⋅ b1i + b2 j + b3 k .
 

Since i , j and k are orthogonal unit vectors, the dot products of the basis vectors are all
  
zero except for
i ⋅ i = j ⋅ j = k ⋅ k = 1.
     

Hence the dot product a ⋅ b can be written in the following notations:

 
i j k - notation Vector notation Matrix notation

a ⋅b
 
 a1   b1 
a ⋅b =  a2  ⋅ b2 
 
a ⋅b = a1 , a2 , a3  b1 , b2 , b3  a3   b3 
  = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3  b1 
= [ a1 a2 a3 ] b2 
 b3 
= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

Note that all notations arrive at the same result.

Example 9
If a =i + 8 j + 7 k and b =3i − 2 j + 5 k , find a ⋅ b .
         

Example 10
Find the value of p if u =2 i + p j + k is perpendicular to v = 4 i + 2 j − 2k
       

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(D) Angle Between Vectors

From the definition of dot product, we can drive that the angle θ ∈ [ 0, π ] between two non-
zero vectors a and b is given by:
 
a ⋅ b =a b cosθ
   
a ⋅b
cosθ =  
a b
 

Example 11
v 2 i + 5 j . Ans: 1050
Find the angle between the vectors u= 4 i − 3 j and =
     

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(E) Work Done


The work done by a force F in moving an object is given by

  
W= F ⋅ S where S is the displacement vector.

Example 12
  
If F = 2 i + j − 3k N and S = 2 i + 2 j − 4k m , find the work done and the angle between F
      
and S .

 
Solution W= F ⋅ S

= ( 2i + j − 3k ) ⋅ ( 2i + 2 j − 4k )

= 2 ( 2 ) + 1 ( 2 ) + (−3) ( − 4 )

= 4 + 2 + 12

= 18 J

 
To find the angle between F and S we use

   
F ⋅ S =F S cos θ

   F ⋅ S 
F ⋅S −1 
cos θ =   ⇒ θ =
cos   
F S  F S 
 


F= 22 + 12 + 32 = 4 + 1 + 9= 14

S= 22 + 22 + 42 = 4 + 4 + 16 = 24

 18 
∴θ =cos −1 =  cos
= −1
0.9819 10.89
 14 24 

 
The angle between F and S is 10.89 .

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Example 13

Find the work done by a force F of magnitude 5 N acting in the direction of i + j in moving an
 
object from the origin to the point P(1,0), distance being measured in meters. (Ans: 3.536 J)

x
(0, 0) P(1, 0)

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8.3 Lines and Line Segments in 3

(A) Vector and Parametric Equations of Lines

3
Consider a line L in  parallel to a nonzero vector v = a, b, c and passing through a fixed


point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) , with position vector OP 0 = r0 .


Let P ( x, y, z ) be an arbitrary point on the line L with position vector, that is OP = r .


Since P0 P is parallel to the line and hence parallel to the vector v ,

then

= P0 P λ v, λ ∈
  
OP − OP0 = λv
  
= OP0 + λ v
OP

r = r0 + λ v, λ ∈ 
  
We know r = r0 + λ v, λ ∈
  
x   x0  a 
 y    
Where   =  y0  + λ b  , λ ∈
 z   z0  c 
Therefore,
= x x0 + λ a,
= y y0 + λ b,
z = z0 + λ c, λ ∈

VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE

r = r0 + λ v , λ∈
  
Where
r is the position vector of any point on the line,

r0 is the position vector of a known point on the line,

v is a non-zero vector parallel to the line.

Note:
(1) The vector equation of line L is not unique as there are many choices of r0 .

(2) v is called a direction vector of line L.

PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A LINE
x= x0 + λ a, y =
y0 + λb, z =
z0 + λ c where λ ∈ 

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Example 14
Find vector and parametric equations of the line
(a) passing through (−2, 0) and parallel to v = 2, 4 .

(b) passing through (−3, 2, −3) and parallel to v = i − j + 4k .
   

Example 15
Find parametric and vector equations of the line L passing through the points P (−3,2,−3)
and Q(5,0,7). Where does the line intersect the xy-plane?

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Example 16
Consider the two lines in 3 :
L1 : x =−3 + 4λ , y =9 − 4λ , z =−6 + 5λ
. Where λ , µ ∈ 
L2 : x =10 + 8µ , y =1 − 3µ , z =6+µ
Determine whether the lines are parallel and whether they intersect.

(B) Vector and Parametric Equations of a Line Segment

A line segment is a section of a line. Instead of extending infinitely where λ ∈  , a line

segment begins and ends with two points, and is only valid for certain values of λ .

Let A1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and A2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be two known points on a line. To find the

vector/parametric equation of a line segment,
(i) Find the vector/parametric equation of the entire line (see section [A] above)
(ii) Substitute the point A1 into the equation to find λ1 .
(iii) Substitute the point A2 into the equation to find λ2 .
(iv) Thus, the line segment between A1 and A2 is the part of the line for λ1 ≤ λ ≤ λ2 .

VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE SEGMENT

r = r0 + λ v , λ ∈ [ λ1 , λ 2 ]
  
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF A LINE SEGMENT
x=x0 + λ a, y = z0 + λ c where λ ∈ [ λ1 , λ 2 ]
y0 + λb, z =

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Example 17
Parametrize the line segment joining the points P (−3,2,-3) and Q (5,0,7).

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8.4 The Vector Product or Cross Product

(A) Definition of the Cross Product

Given two vectors a , b ∈  3 , let c ∈  3 be a third vector with the following properties.
  
(i) c is orthogonal to both a and b ;
  
(ii) c points in the direction of an advancing right-handed screw when it is turned from

a to b ;
 
(iii) c has a magnitude a b sin θ which is the area of the parallelogram formed by a
   
and b .


O
A
The vector c is called the vector product or cross product of a and b and is denoted by
  
a×b .
 
Unlike scalar product, the vector product is not commutative but anti-commutative, that is,
a × b =−b × a .
   
However, the vector product does obey the distributive law: a × ( b + c ) = a × b + a × c .
      
The vector product can also be expressed in component form.

Let a = a1i + a2 j + a3 k and b =b1i + b2 j + b3 k , then

       
(  
) (
a × b= a1i + a2 j + a3 k × b1i + b2 j + b3 k =…
    
)
= ( a2b3 − a3b2 ) i + ( a3b1 − a1b3 ) j + ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) k
  

DEFINITION
If a and b ∈  3 , given by a = a1 , a2 , a3 and b = b1 , b2 , b3 , then the cross
   
product a × b is the vector defined by
 
a ×=b a2b3 − a3b2 , a3b1 − a1b3 , a1b2 − a2b1
 
i j k
  
a × b can also be written as a determinant: a × b = a1 a2 a3
   
b1 b2 b3

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Example 18a
c is orthogonal to both a and b hence c= a × b .
     
Given that a = 5,1, 4 and b = −1, 0, 2 , find c . ( ans: =
c 2, −14,1 )
   

O
A
Video link
https://qrgo.page.link/KLgS1

Example 18b (try on your own)

Given that a = 1, 2,3 and b = −2, 0,1 , find a × b . ( ans: 2, −7, 4 )
   

Video link
https://qrgo.page.link/KZV7G

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8.5 Planes in 3
A plane is a two-dimensional flat surface which extends infinitely large with no thickness.

(A) Vector and Point – Normal Equations of Planes


Suppose plane M passes through a point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) with position vector OP0 = r0 , and is

normal (perpendicular) to the non-zero vector n = a, b, c .


Let P ( x, y, z ) be any point on the plane M with position vector, that is OP = r .


Since P0 P is perpendicular to n ,


⇒ n  P0 P = 0 Vector
 
⇒ (OP − OP0 )  n = 0 Equation
 ↓
⇒ (r −= r0 )  n 0 or ⇒= r  n r0  n
      
  x   x0    a 
 
⇒   y  −  y0    b  = 0
  z   z   c 
   0   
 x − x0   a 
⇒  y − y0   b  =
0
 z − z0  c 

∴ a ( x − x0 ) + b( y − y0 ) + c( z − z0 ) =
0  Point-normal Equation
or
0 where d =
ax + by + cz + d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0 ) =
−r0  n
 

THEOREM

The plane in 3 that passes through the point P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) and is normal to the non-

zero vector n = a, b, c = ai + bj + ck has equations:

   

In vector form: = n  P0 P 0= or r  n r0  n
    
In point-normal form: a ( x − x0 ) + b ( y − y0 ) + c ( z − z0 ) =
0

REMARKS
If a, b, c and d are constants and a, b and c are not all zeros, then a, b, c is normal
0.
to the plane ax + by + cz + d =

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-22

Further Mathematics

Example 19
Find an equation of the plane passing through P0 (−3, 0, 7) and perpendicular to
= n 5, 2, −1 .


Example 20
Find an equation of the plane through the points P1 (1, 2, −1) , P2 ( 2, 0,1) , and P3 ( 0,3, 2 ) .

Example 21
Determine whether the planes 3 x − 4 y + 5 z =
0 and −6 x + 8 y − 10 z =
7 are parallel.

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-23

Further Mathematics

Example 22
Determine whether the line x =1 + 2λ , y =−2 + 3λ , z =−3 − λ is parallel to the plane
x − 2 y + 4z =
12 .

Example 23
8
+ 2µ , y =
Find the point where the line x = −2µ , z =
1 + µ intersects the plane
3
3x + 2 y + 6 z =
6.

Example 24 (to be taught in class)

Find the equation of a 3D plane that passes through (1, −4, 3) and it has a normal vector of
< 2,3, −1 > . If Q(1, 2, z) lies on the given plane, find z. (Answer: 2 x + 3 y − z =−13 , z = 21 )

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-24

Further Mathematics

Example 25 (to be taught in class)

In the given figure, the pyramid has vertices B ( 2, 2, 0 )

C ( 0, 2, 0 ) and V ( 0, 0, 4.5 ) .

(a) Find the vector which is orthogonal to both the vectors

 
BC and BV .

(b) Find the Cartesian equation of the plane BCV.

(Ans: (a) 9 j + 4k (b) 9𝑦𝑦 + 4𝑧𝑧 = 18 )

 

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-25

Further Mathematics

Tutorial 8.1:
  
1) Based on vectors A , B and C shown below, sketch the vectors:
      
(a) A + B (b) 2 A − 3C (c) A − 2B + C

2) Sketch the vectors with their initial points at the origin.

(a) 2i + 3 j (b) 2i − 5 j + k (c) −1, 0, 4
    

3) Find the terminal point of v =−2 i + 5 j + k if the initial point is ( 0,3, −4 ) .

   

4) u 2i − j , =
If = v 4 i + 5 j , calculate
     
(a) u + v (b) 5u − 3v (c) −2u + v (d) u + 2v
       

5) Let v =−3 i + j .
  
(a) Find v and the direction of v . (b) The unit vector in the direction of v .
  

 
6) The force F with a magnitude of 4 N is acting in the direction of 3 i − 4 j + 12k . Find F .
  

7) Given the points P(-1,1) and Q(2,5). Find the position vectors of P and Q and hence find

the vector PQ .

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-26

Further Mathematics

8) The process of breaking a vector into its components is called resolving into components.
     
For example, if we express a vector F into F1 + F2 , we are resolving F into its F1 and F2
components.

 
F is the weight of the object. Resolve F into components which are at right angles to one
 
another: One along F1 and the other along F2 . (See the diagram below.)

Assume that F = 5 N, θ = 30  . Calculate the magnitudes of its components.

9) Two persons pull horizontally on ropes attached to a car stuck in mud. One person pulls with
a force of 500 N directly east of the car, and the other person pulls with a force of 350 N at
40° from the first force, as shown in the figure.

(a) Express the two force vectors in x i + y j form.

 
(b) Find the resultant force on the car. 350 N,
(c) Find the magnitude and the direction of the resultant
force.
500 N, East

Answers
3) ( −2,8, −3)
4) (a) 6 i + 4 j (b) −2 i − 20 j (c) 7 (d) 5 + 164
   
1
5) (a) 10 , θ = 161.57  (b) ( −3 i + j )
10  

6) F = 0.923 i − 1.231 j + 3.692 k
  
  
7) OP =− i + j ; OQ = 2 i + 5 j ; PQ= 3i + 4 j
     
 
8) F1 = 2.5 N ; F2 = 4.33 N
  
9) (a) F1 = 500=
i , F2 268.12 i + 224.98 j (b) F 768.12 i + 224.98 j
=
     
(c) F = 800.39 N ,
The resultant force acts an angle of 16.33° from the first force.

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-27

Further Mathematics

Tutorial 8.2:

1) Find the following dot products.

(a) 2 i  i
 
(b) ( i + j ) k

(c) 3 i  4 j
 
(
(d) 5 i − 3 j  −2 i + j
 
)(  
)

2) Find the angle between the following vectors.

(a) u =−
i 3 j + 5k and v =2 i + 5 j − 12k (b) a = 6 i + j + 3k and b = 5 i − 7k
              


3) Find the work done by the force F .

(a) F = 2 i − 5 j + 3k , moving an object from the origin to the point P ( 8,1, 0 ) .
  

(b) F = 6 i + 3 j − k , moving an object from the point P ( −1, 2, 2 ) to Q ( 3, −5, −4 ) .
  


4) Given two points A ( 3, −2,1) and B (1,1, −4 ) and a force F of 8 N acting in the direction of

2 i + 3 j − 3k .
  

(a) Find the displacement vector AB .

(b) Find the force F .
 
(c) Find the angle between F and AB .

(d) Find the work done by F in displacing an object from A to B.

5) A boat travels 100 m due north while the wind exerts a force of 400 N toward the northeast.
How much work does the wind do?


6) A force F = 4 i − 6 j + k newtons is applied to a point that moves a distance of 15 meters in
  
the direction of i + j + k . How much work is done?
  
Answers
1) (a) 2 (b) 0 (c) 0 (d) −13
2) (a) 159.74o (b) 81.13o
3) (a) 11 J (b) 9 J

4) (a) −2 i + 3 j − 5k (b) 4 i + 6 j − 2 3k (c) 56.36 (d) 27.32 joules

     
5) 20000 2 J
6) −5 3 J

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-28

Further Mathematics

Tutorial 8.3:

1) Find parametric equations for the line through P1 and P2 and also for the line segment
joining those points.
(a) P1 ( 3, −2 ) , P2 ( 5,1) (b) P1 ( 5, −2,1) , P2 ( 2, 4, 2 )

2) Find parametric equations for the line whose vector equation is given.
(a) x, y= 2, −3 + λ 1, −4
   
(
(b) xi + yj + zk = k + µ i − j + k
  
)
3) Find a point P on the line and a vector v parallel to the line by inspection.

(a) xi + yj
   
( ) (
= 2i − j + λ 4i − j
 
) (b) x, y, z = −1, 2, 4 + µ 5, 7, −8

4) Express the given parametric equations of a line using bracket notation and also
using i , j , k notation.
  
(a) x = −3 + λ , y = 4 + 5λ (b) x = 2 − µ , y =−3 + 5µ , z = µ

5) Find the parametric equation of the line through ( −2, 0,5 ) that is parallel to the line given by
x = 1 + 2λ , y = 4 − λ , z = 6 + 2λ .

6) Find the intersections of the line x = −2 , y = 4 + 2λ , z = −3 + λ with the xy‐plane, the xz‐
plane, and the yz‐plane.

7) Where does the line x = 1 + λ , y = 3 − λ , z = 2λ intersect the cylinder x 2 + y 2 =

16 ?

8) Show that the lines L1 and L2 intersect, and find their point of intersection.
2 + λ, y =
L1 : x = 2 + 3λ , z =
3+ λ
2 + µ, y =
L2 : x = 3 + 4µ , z =
4 + 2µ
Answers
1) (a) x =3 + 2λ , y =−2 + 3λ ; line segment: 0 ≤ λ ≤ 1
(b) x =5 − 3λ , y =−2 + 6λ , z =1 + λ ; line segment: 0 ≤ λ ≤ 1
2) (a) x =2 + λ , y =−3 − 4λ (b) x = µ, y = −µ , z = 1+ µ
3) (a) P ( 2 ,−1) , =
v 4i − j (b) P ( −1, 2 , 4 ) , v = 5i + 7 j − 8k
      
4)
 
(
(a) −3, 4 + λ 1,5 ; −3i + 4 j + λ i + 5 j
 
)
(
(b) 2 , −3, 0 + µ −1,5,1 ; 2 i − 3 j + µ − i + 5 j + k
    
)
5) x =−2 + 2λ , y =−λ , z =5 + 2λ
6) (-2,10,0); (-2,0,-5); the line does not intersect the yz‐plane
7) (0,4,-2), (4,0,6) 8) (1,-1,2)

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-29

Further Mathematics

Tutorial 8.4:

1) Find an equation of the plane that passes through the point P(2,6,1) and has the vector
n = 1, 4 , 2 as a normal in (i) point-normal form (ii) vector form.


2) Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points ( −2 ,1,1) , ( 0 , 2 ,3) and (1, 0 ,−1)
in vector form. Convert the equation into point-normal form.

3) Determine if the planes are parallel, perpendicular or neither.

2x − 8 y − 6z − 2 = 0 3x − 2 y + z =1 x − y + 3z − 2 =0
(a) (b) (c)
− x + 4 y + 3z − 5 =0 4x + 5 y − 2z = 4 2x + z = 1

4) Determine if the line and the plane are parallel, perpendicular or neither.

x = 4 + 2λ , y = −λ , z = −1 − 4λ x= λ, y = 2λ , z =
3λ
(a) (b)
3x + 2 y + z − 7 =0 x − y + 2z =5

x = −1 + 2λ , y = 4 + λ , z = 1 − λ
(c)
4x + 2 y − 2z = 7

5) Determine whether the line and plane intersect. If so, find the coordinates of the intersection.

x= λ, y = λ, z =λ x = 2 − λ, y = 3 + λ, z = λ
(a) (b)
3x − 2 y + z − 5 =0 2x + y + z = 1

6) Find the equation of the plane through the origin that is parallel to the plane
4 x − 2 y + 7 z + 12 =
0.

7) Let L1 and L2 be the lines whose parametric equations are

L1 : x =
1 + 2t , y = 2 − t, z =
4 − 2t
L2 : x =9 + µ , y =5 + 3µ , z =−4 − µ
(a) Show that L1 and L2 intersect at the point (7,-1,-2) .
(b) Find, to the nearest degree, the acute angle between L1 and L2 at their intersection.
(c) Find parametric equations for the line that is perpendicular to L1 and L2 and passes
through their point of intersection.

Answers

x + 4 y + 2 z 28, =
1)= r  1, 4, 2 28 2) r  0 ,=
2, −1 1, 2=
y−z 1
 
3) (a) Parallel (b) Perpendicular (c) Neither 4) (a) Parallel (b) Neither (c) Perpendicular
5 5 5
5) (a)  , ,  (b) No intersection 6) 4 x −
= 2 y + 7 z 0 or r =
4, −2,7 0
2 2 2 
7) (b) 84o (c) x =7 + 7λ , y =−1, z =−2 + 7λ or x =7 + λ , y =−1, z =−2 + λ

School of Mathematics & Science Pg. 8-30