Computer Networks

1. What is computer network?

A computer network is a group of connected devices that can share data and resources
(like files, printers, internet). Connections can be wired or wireless.

2. Simplex ,Half duplex and Full duplex communication

 Simplex: Simplex is a one-way communication method where data flows in only one
direction. The sender can only send, and the receiver can only receive.
Example: A keyboard sending input to the computer, or a TV broadcast.

 Half duplex: Half-duplex allows both devices to send and receive, but only one at a
time. Devices must take turns.
�Example: Walkie-talkies – you press to talk and release to listen.

 Full-duplex: Full-duplex allows simultaneous two-way communication. Both devices

can transmit and receive at the same time.
�Example: A phone call – both people can talk and hear at the same time.

3. Topology

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices (nodes) in a

computer network. It defines how computers, cables, switches, and routers are connected and
how data flows in the network.

Types:

 Bus

 Star

 Ring

 Mesh

 Hybrid
4. Seven layers and its functions

1. Physical – Transmission of raw bits

2. Data Link – Frames, MAC, error detection
3. Network – Routing, IP
4. Transport – Reliable delivery (TCP/UDP)
5. Session – Session control
6. Presentation – Data translation, encryption
7. Application – User interface (HTTP, FTP)

5. Functions of networking device (Repeater,Hub,switch,router,Gateway)

 Repeater: Amplifies signal

 Hub: Broadcasts to all ports

 Switch: Smart hub, sends to correct device

 Router: Connects different networks

 Gateway: Translates between protocols

6. Stop and wait protocol

A basic reliable protocol where the sender sends one frame and waits for acknowledgment
before sending the next.

7. Sliding window protocol

Allows multiple frames to be sent before acknowledgment, improving throughput. Uses

window size to manage flow

8. Piggybacking

Piggybacking is a technique used in bidirectional data communication, especially in

protocols like the Sliding Window Protocol, where acknowledgment (ACK) of received data
is combined with outbound data instead of sending it separately.

9. Define Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules and standards that define how data is transmitted and
communicated between devices over a network.
10. TCP vs UDP

Feature TCP UDP

Connection Connection-oriented Connectionless
Reliability Reliable, ordered Unreliable, unordered
Speed Slower Faster
Overhead High Low
Use Case File transfer, web, mail Streaming, games, DNS

11. DNS

Domain Name System translates domain names (www.google.com) into IP addresses

(142.250.183.4) so users can access websites easily.

12. ARP,RARP,ICMP

1. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

ARP is used to map an IP address to a MAC address within a local network.

2. RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol)

RARP does the opposite of ARP – it maps a MAC address to an IP address.

3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)

ICMP is used for error reporting, diagnostics, and network troubleshooting.

13. Ping

A tool using ICMP to check connectivity between two systems by sending echo requests
and measuring response time.

14.WWW,HTTP,HTTPs,FTP,SMTP

1. WWW

World Wide Web, System of interlinked web pages accessed via the Internet.
 2. HTTP

HyperText Transfer Protocol,

Transfers web pages from server to browser in plain text.

3. HTTPS

HyperText Transfer Protocol Secure

Secure version of HTTP that encrypts data using SSL/TLS.

4. FTP

File Transfer Protocol

Transfers files between client and server over a network.

5. SMTP

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

Sends and routes emails between mail servers

15. Socket,Port,IPaddress

IPAddress:

An IP address is a unique numerical identifier assigned to every device on a network.

Port:

A port is a logical endpoint used to identify specific applications or services running

on a device.

Socket:

 A socket is the combination of an IP address and a port number.

 It uniquely identifies a communication endpoint between two devices.

16. What is Beaconing

Beaconing is the process where a network device (like a router, access point, or
switch) sends out regular signals or frames to announce its presence and availability on a
network.
It’s mostly used in wireless networks where devices need to discover each other and establish
connections.

17. What is the range of addresses in the classes of internet addresses?

Class A - 0.0.0.0 - 127.255.255.255

Class B - 128.0.0.0 - 191.255.255.255

Class C - 192.0.0.0 - 223.255.255.255

Class D - 224.0.0.0 - 239.255.255.255

Class E - 240.0.0.0 - 255.255.255.255

18. IPV4 and IPV6

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4)

IPv4 is the fourth version of the Internet Protocol and the most widely used. It uses a
32-bit address format, allowing approximately 4.3 billion unique IP addresses.

Written in dot-decimal notation: 192.168.1.1

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6)

IPv6 is the newer version of IP developed to overcome the address exhaustion of

IPv4. It uses a 128-bit address format, allowing 340 undecillion addresses (a crazy huge
number!)

Written in hexadecimal with colons:

2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334

19. Proxy server

A proxy server is an intermediate server that sits between a client (like your browser)
and the internet. It receives requests from the client, forwards them to the destination server,
and then sends the response back to the client.

20. Crptography -Encryption and Decryption

Cryptography is the technique of protecting information by converting it into a secure

format, so only authorized users can access or understand it.

Encryption:
 Encryption is the process of converting plain text (readable data) into cipher text
(unreadable format) using an algorithm and a key.

Decryption:

Decryption is the reverse process — it converts cipher text back into plain text using a
decryption key

21. DES,RSA Algorithm.

DES (Data Encryption Standard):

It is Symmetric key algorithm

Key Length: 56-bit key

Block Size: 64 bits

DES uses the same key for both encryption and decryption

It processes data in 16 rounds using operations like permutation, substitution, and XOR

RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman):

It is Asymmetric key algorithm

Key Length: Typically 1024–4096 bits

Uses two keys: a public key to encrypt and a private key to decrypt

22. Unicasting,Broadcasting,Multicasting and Anycasting

 Unicasting: One-to-one communication

 Broadcasting: One-to-all
 Multicasting: One-to-many (specific group)
 Anycasting: One-to-nearest (used in IPv6)

24. What are the categories of Transmission media?

a. Guided Media

 Twisted Pair: Shielded (STP), Unshielded (UTP)

 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber-optic Cable

b. Unguided Media
  Terrestrial Microwave
 Satellite Communication

24. Ipconfig and ifconfig

Ipconfig:

Ipconfig is a Windows command used to view and manage IP configuration of

network interfaces.
It can display IP addresses, gateways, and renew or release IP settings.

Ifconfig:

Ifconfig is a Linux/Unix command used to configure and display network

interfaces.
It shows IP and MAC addresses and can enable or disable interfaces.

25. LAN,WAN,Internet,Intranet,VPN

LAN:

Local Area Network

Connects computers and devices within a limited area like a home, office, or school.

WAN:

Wide Area Network

Connects multiple LANs over large geographical areas, like cities or countries.

Internet:

Interconnected Network (commonly called "Internet")

A global network connecting millions of computers for sharing data, websites, and
services.

Intranet:

Internal Network
A private network used within an organization for internal communication and
information sharing.

VPN:
 Virtual Private Network
Creates a secure and encrypted connection over the internet, often used to access private
networks remotely.