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SQL

The document provides a comprehensive list of the top 25 SQL interview questions and answers, covering key concepts such as SQL types, clauses, views, indexing, and performance optimization. It includes explanations of various SQL functions and features, such as window functions, CTEs, and SQL injection prevention. Each question is accompanied by concise definitions or examples to aid understanding for interview preparation.

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Bhuvanesh
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SQL

The document provides a comprehensive list of the top 25 SQL interview questions and answers, covering key concepts such as SQL types, clauses, views, indexing, and performance optimization. It includes explanations of various SQL functions and features, such as window functions, CTEs, and SQL injection prevention. Each question is accompanied by concise definitions or examples to aid understanding for interview preparation.

Uploaded by

Bhuvanesh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Top 25 SQL Interview Questions and Answers

1. What is SQL and what are its key uses?


SQL (Structured Query Language) is used to
communicate with and manipulate databases—
like querying, updating, inserting, and deleting
data.

2. What are the different types of SQL


statements?
 DDL - CREATE, ALTER
 DML - SELECT, INSERT
 DCL - GRANT, REVOKE
 TCL - COMMIT, ROLLBACK

3. What is the difference between WHERE and


HAVING clauses?
WHERE filters rows before grouping; HAVING
filters groups after aggregation.
Example:
SELECT department, COUNT(*)
FROM employees
WHERE status='active'
GROUP BY department
HAVING COUNT(*) > 5;

4. What is a view in SQL?


A view is a virtual table based on the result of a
SQL query. It doesn't store data itself.
Example:
CREATE VIEW active_employees AS
SELECT * FROM employees WHERE
status='active';

5. What is a Common Table Expression (CTE)?


A temporary result set defined using the WITH
clause.
Example:
WITH dept_count AS (
SELECT department, COUNT(*) AS total
FROM employees
GROUP BY department
)
SELECT * FROM dept_count;

6. Explain the difference between UNION and


UNION ALL.
 UNION removes duplicates.
 UNION ALL includes duplicates and is faster.

7. What is the difference between RANK(),


DENSE_RANK(), and ROW_NUMBER()?
 ROW_NUMBER() gives unique numbers.
 RANK() skips ranks after ties.
 DENSE_RANK() doesn’t skip ranks.
8. What are window functions?
Use OVER() to perform calculations across a set
of related rows.
Example:
SELECT name, department,
RANK() OVER(PARTITION BY department ORDER
BY salary DESC)
FROM employees;

9. What is indexing in SQL and why is it used?


Indexes speed up data retrieval but slow down
inserts and updates.

10. What is a covering index?


An index that includes all columns needed by a
query—making it faster by avoiding table
lookups.

11. What is a correlated subquery?


A subquery that references a column from the
outer query.
Example:
SELECT name
FROM employees e
WHERE salary > (
SELECT AVG(salary) FROM employees WHERE
department = e.department
);
12. What is a materialized view?
Unlike regular views, it stores data physically
and needs refreshing.

13. What is the purpose of the MERGE


statement?
It combines INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE operations
into a single statement.

14. What is the difference between IN and


EXISTS?
 IN: works well with small lists.
 EXISTS: faster for larger or correlated
queries.

15. What is COALESCE()?


Returns the first non-null value.
Example:
SELECT name, COALESCE(phone, 'N/A') FROM
users;

16. What is a PIVOT in SQL?


Transforms rows into columns.
Example (SQL Server):
SELECT * FROM (
SELECT dept, gender FROM employees
) src
PIVOT (COUNT(gender) FOR gender IN ([M], [F]))
AS pvt;

17. What is a recursive CTE and when would you


use it?
A CTE that references itself. Used for hierarchical
data.
Example:

WITH RECURSIVE numbers(n) AS (


SELECT 1
UNION ALL
SELECT n + 1 FROM numbers WHERE n < 5
)
SELECT * FROM numbers;

18. What is the difference between temp tables


and table variables?
 Temp tables: stored in tempdb, support
indexing and transactions.
 Table variables: stored in memory, better for
small datasets.

19. What are lateral joins (or CROSS APPLY)?


Allow a subquery in the FROM clause to
reference columns from previous tables.

20. What is the GROUPING SETS clause?


Allows multiple GROUP BY combinations in a
single query.
Example:
SELECT dept, job, SUM(salary)
FROM employees
GROUP BY GROUPING SETS ((dept), (job));

21. What are scalar vs table-valued functions?


 Scalar: returns a single value.
 Table-valued: returns a table.

22. What is SQL injection and how do you prevent


it?
A security vulnerability. Prevent it using
parameterized queries or stored procedures.

23. What is a computed column?


A column based on expressions.
Example:
ALTER TABLE orders ADD total AS (price *
quantity);

24. What is sharding in SQL databases?


Dividing data across multiple databases for
better performance and scalability.

25. How do you optimize a slow SQL query?


Use indexing, avoid SELECT *, analyze execution
plans, reduce row scans and join cost.

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