MATANDA MATHS AND SCIENCE CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE-NEMULENGA

ATOMIC COMBINATIONS: MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

Chemical bond-is a mutual attraction between two atoms resulting from simultaneous attraction
between nuclei and outer electrons.

The diagrams below represents the two atoms mutually attracting each other.

Outer electrons

e- e-

e-

Nuclei

Forces of attraction between atoms

-Force of attraction between the nucleus of an atom and its own electron cloud.

-Force of attraction between the nucleus of an atom and the electron cloud of the other atom.

NB-The energy of the combined atoms is lower than those of individual atoms, electrons always
occupy the lowest energy level and are more stable.

Forces of repulsion between atoms

-Force of repulsion between positively charged nuclei of two atoms.

-Force of repulsion between the negative charged electron clouds of two atoms.

Types of chemical bonding.

Covalent bonding-it occurs between non-metal atoms through means of electron sharing.

-Electronegativity of bonding atoms is the same. Electrons are equally shared. ∆EN is zero, eg Cl2.

Ionic bonding-It occurs between metal atoms and non-metal atoms through electron transfer.

-Electrons are transferred from a less electronegative atom (metal) to a more electronegative atom
(metal).The metal atom becomes slightly positive (∂+)-Cation and the non- metal becomes slightly
negative(∂-) - Anion. E.g. Nacl

Metallic bonding-it occurs between metal atoms through attractive forces between the delocalised
electrons and positive atomic (residues) kernels.

-The metal atoms release their valence electrons to surround them.

-There are strong but flexible bonds between the positive metal kernels and sea of delocalised
electrons.

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Lewis (electron dot) diagrams

-is a structural formula in which valence electrons are represented by dots or crosses. Aufbau
diagrams are effectively used to determine those electrons.

Valence electrons-electrons at the last energy level/outer electrons, and those found in the inner
level are called the core electrons.

Lone pairs-paired valence electrons that do not become involved in the chemical bonding between
atoms.eg

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Bonding pairs-Pairs of electrons that are formed when a chemical bond is formed.

Coordinate/dative covalent bonds

-Atom with incomplete valence energy levels (empty orbitals) can share a lone pair of electrons from
another atom. The one atom supplies both electrons, which they share between their nuclei.

Conditions for formation of dative bonds

-One atom/ion must have an empty valence shell eg H+-Zero electrons.

-The other atom must have lone pairs of electrons. Eg

(i) H20+H+ H3O+

+ H+

(ii) NH3 + H+ NH4+

POTENTIAL ENERGY OF ATOMS

-Potential energy-Is the energy that an object has due to its position relative to other charges. The
force of attraction between the charges lowers the potential energy, while the repulsive force
increases it, more energy is needed for bonding to occur. A net force of attraction results in
reduction of potential energy and leads to a more stable condition and atoms will bond.

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eg

POTENTIAL ENERGY DIAGRAM FOR THE FORMATION OF H2

Ep 4

H r=300pm H

0 1 Distance between atomic nuclei

X H H

r=150pm

-432 ………Y……….. 3

H2

INTERPRETATION OF THE GRAPH

X Represents bond energy.

Y- Represents bond length.

1. The two H atoms are far apart. Their potential energy is practically zero. There is very little
attraction between them. (I.e. There is very little electrostatic attraction force between the protons
of one atom and the electrons of the other atom) and there is very little repulsion between them
(i.e. There is very little electrostatic repulsion force between the negative electrons of each

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atom).The force of attraction is bigger than the force of repulsion by protons of each atom. The
attraction of opposite charges leads to a decrease in energy. The potential energy starts to decrease.

2. The two H atoms move closer to each other, the positive proton of one hydrogen proton starts to
exert an electrostatic force of attraction on the negative electron of the other atom. The force of
attraction is bigger than the force of repulsion. There is a decrease in energy.

3. The force of attraction now dominates the repulsive force, potential energy is lowest for two H
atoms. An H2 molecule is formed. A more stable state develops.

4. When the two H atoms are forced closer together than bonding distance, the nuclei of two H
atoms repel each other because of protons moving closer to each other. The molecule becomes
unstable and the potential energy rises rapidly.

Hydrogen (H) atom versus helium atom

-When two H atoms bond to form diatomic H2 molecule, they share an electron pair between their
atomic nuclei and each acquires a completely filled outer energy level.

-He atoms have completely filled outer energy level and are very stable, because two separate He
atoms have a lower energy than He2 molecule, He atoms do not bond with each other.

Bond energy and bond length

-Bond energy-is the energy needed to break one mole of is molecules into separate atoms.

-Bond length- is the average distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms.

FACTORS INFLUENCING BOND LENGTH.

-Size of bonded atoms

Smaller atoms can move closer together and form stronger bond with a shorter bond length.

-Bond order (number of bonds i.e. single/double/triple)

Bond strength increases as the number of bonds between atoms increases, i.e. Atoms with triple
bonds have stronger forces because the bonds are short.

Bond energy is directly proportional to bond strength, i.e. the greater the bond energy the stronger
the chemical bond. More energy is needed to overcome the strength of attraction forces within the
bonds. Bond energy is inversely proportional to bond length.

-Difference in electronegativity (∆EN).The bigger the change in EN, the shorter the bond.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BOND ENERGY AND BOND STRENGTH.

Bond energy is directly proportional to bond strength, i.e. the greater the bond energy the stronger
the chemical bond. More energy is needed to overcome the strength of attraction forces within the
bonds. Bond energy is inversely proportional to bond length

BOND, BOND ENERGY AND BOND LENGTH TABLE.

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NB-Bond energy is measured in kilojoule per mole (kjmol-1).It represents the amount of energy
needed to break one mole of the compound into its separate atoms and it can be calculated .eg
Calculate the amount of energy needed to break one mole of CH4 into its separate atoms, if each C-H
bond requires 410kj of energy to break its bond. Total Energy required to break the bonds will be 4X
C-H =4X410 =1640kjmol-1 .

MOLECULAR SHAPE: VSERP THEORY

Introduction

-When atoms bond to form a molecule, repulsive forces within the molecule due to the lone pair and
the bonding pair of electrons become significant, and it causes the molecule to alter its shape to
minimise repulsive forces. Depending on how many electron pairs are present, and the number of
atoms making up the molecules, the magnitude of the repulsive forces vary. This causes different
molecular shapes to be formed.

NB-When there are lone pairs on the central atom of the molecule, repulsive forces due to lone
pairs and bonding pairs are stronger than bonding pair- bonding pair repulsive forces. To minimise
strength of the repulsive forces, molecule bends so that forces of attraction are still greater than
forces of repulsion and lone pairs occupy more space. A particular shape is formed.

VSEPR MODEL

The model is based on the following principles:

 Five ideal molecular shapes are identified, based on equal number of electron pairs and
number of atoms around the central atoms.
 If lone pair/pairs are present, the molecular shape changes.
 Electron bond pairs and lone pairs in the valence shell (outer energy level) arrange
themselves as far as possible from each other around the central atom so that the bond
angle has a maximum value.
-Bond angle-is the angle formed between three atoms across at least two bonds.
-When there are only bond pairs, they repel each other equally, and an ideal shape with a
constant bond angle is formed.

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-When there are both lone pairs and bond pairs, larger lone pairs repel each other. Bond
angle decrease slightly and bond shape changes.

Forms of repulsive forces.

 Lone pair-lone pair repulsive forces.(The strongest)

 Lone-bonding pairs repulsive forces.(intermediate)
 Bonding pair-bonding pairs repulsive forces(very weak)

IDEAL SHAPES-FIVE IDEAL MOLECULAR SHAPES

-These shapes are based on a central atom with no lone pairs surrounding them, namely:

(i) Linear

(ii) Trigonal planar

(iii)Tetrahedral

(iv)Trigonal bipyramidal

(v) Octahedral

-A common formula is used to represent the different shapes of molecules. In the formula,

A- represents the central atom

X-represents the terminal atom, it symbolises the surrounding atoms.

General Number Electron pair Illustrations examples

formula of geometry
bonding
pairs
around
the
central
atoms

AX2 2 bond Linear Bef2,Becl2,CO2

pairs

AX3 3 bond Trigonal BF3,BH3

pairs planar

AX4 4 bond Tetrahedral CH4,CCl4

pairs

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AX5 5 bond Trigonal PF5,PCL5

pairs bipyramidal

AX6 6 bond Octahedral SF6,SCl6

pairs

LEWIS STRUCTURES OF:

1.A linear molecule 2. Trigonal planar molecule

3. Tetrahedral molecule 4. Trigonal bipyraminal molecule

5.Octahedral molecule

NON IDEAL MOLECULAR SHAPES-Molecules in which the central atom contains bonding pairs and
lone pairs. The central atom is surrounded by one/more lone pairs. Molecules with lone pairs
around the central atom cannot have an ideal molecular shape. A lone pair replaces a bond pair and
the central atom bonds with one atom and is represented by the lone pair, thus changing the
molecular shape. Lone pairs are slightly bigger and repel each other and bond electrons more, so
that the bonding angle closes slightly.

NB-A 3 atom molecule e.g. AX2 is either linear/bent.

Linear molecule Bent molecule

-Has no lone pairs -Has lone pair

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 Steps to determine a molecule’s shape

(i)Draw the Lewis diagram of the molecule.

(ii)Count the number of structural electron pairs (bonding pairs and lone pairs) around the central
atom. Nb-lone pairs are considered as bonds.

(iii)Identify the molecule shape as one of the ideal molecular shapes according to the number
electron pairs around the central atom.

(iv)Count the number of atoms around the central atom to decide on the molecular geometry.

-If the number of atoms=number of electron pairs (lone pairs), it will keep the ideal molecular shape.

-If the number of atoms < number of electron pairs (if lone pairs are present), count the amount of
atoms and determine the amended molecular shape.

Eg.

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To summarize:

H20: -Four electron pairs (two bonding pairs and two lone pairs) around the central atom.

-Electron pair geometry is tetrahedral

-Two atoms around the central atom

-Molecular geometry (shape of molecule) is angular

-Two lone pairs repel the bond pairs more than in NH3, so that the H-O-H angle is no longer

1800C but 104,50C.

MULTIPLE BONDS AND MOLECULAR GEOMETRY

-Many molecules have double and triple bonds. More electrons are involved in double and triple
bonds and it has no effect on molecular geometry. Double and triple bonds are counted as a single
bond with one bonding pair.

Eg CO2

-The central C atom forms two double bonds and there are no lone pairs. If each double bond is
counted as a single bond with one bond pair. There are two structural electron pairs (two double
bonds) on the central C carbon which works in opposite directions to the C atom.

The electron pair is thus linear, bond angle is 1800.

To summarize:

-Two bonding pairs around the central atom, (A double bond is treated as a single bond with one
bonding pair).There are no lone pairs.

-Electron pair geometry is linear

-Two atoms around the central atom

-Molecular geometry is linear.1.e O-C-O angle is i800

Eg SO2

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To summarize:

-There are three electron pairs.(two bonding pairs and one lone pair) around the central atom.(A
double bond is treated as a single bond with one bonding pair)(A double bond is treated as a single
bond with one bonding pair.)

-Electron pair geometry is a trigonal planar.

-There are two atoms around the central atom.

-Molecular geometry (shape of molecule) is angular.

-The lone pair slightly repel the bonding pair and the S-O-S is smaller than the ideal trigonal planar
angle of 1200.

Eg C2H4 (Ethene)

To summarise:

-There are three bonding pairs around each carbon C atom.(Double bond is treated as if it is a single
bond with one bonding pair).There are no lone pairs.

-Electron pair geometry is trigonal planar.

-Double bonds occupies the same space as single bonds.

-Every CH2 group is trigonal with a bonding angle of 1200.

Eg (C2H2) Ethyne

TO summarise:

-There are two bonding pairs around each carbon C atom,(A triple bond is treated as single bond
with one bonding pair)

-There are no lone pairs

-Electron pair geometry is linear.

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-There are two atoms around every C atom

-The triple bond occupies the same space as single bonds.

-Each CH group is linear with a bond angle of 1800

ELECTRONEGATIVITY OF ATOMS TO EXPLAIN THE POLARITY OF BONDS

Electronegativity-is a measure of the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract bonding pairs.

NB – If one atom has a greater electronegativity than the other, electrons will be pulled away from
a less electronegative atom (and it becomes slightly positive (∂+)) to a more electronegative atom
(and it becomes slightly negative (∂-)).A dipole (polar molecule) is formed.

-Electronegativity increases from left to right across a period and decreases down the group. (I.e.
electronegativity of non-metals is higher than of metals). Non-metals are on the right hand side of
the periodic table, except hydrogen.

NON- POLAR COVALENT BONDS

-There is equal distribution of electrons between atoms. Electrons are at the centre of the atoms

- i.e. ∆EN=0, It occurs between two identical non-metal atoms e.g. H2, Cl2 and O2.

∆EN=EN (A)-EN (B), nb A being more electronegative element and B being less electronegative
element.eg electronegativity of H2.

∆EN=EN (A)-EN (B) =2, 1-2, 1=0, the bond is non polar.

POLAR COVALENT BONDS

- There is uneven distribution of electrons, one atom has a greater electronegativity than the other,
electrons are pulled away from a less electronegative atom (and it becomes slightly positive (∂+)) to
a more electronegative atom (and it becomes slightly negative (∂-)).A dipole (polar molecule) is
formed

e.g. in a molecule such as HCl, Hydrogen is less electronegative (HꝽ+)and Chlorine more
electronegative (ClꝽ-) There is difference in electronegativity values between two atoms.)

∆EN=EN (A)-EN (B) =3-2, 1=0, 9, the bond is polar.

Electronegativity difference Type of bond

∆EN=0 Non polar (pure )covalent(equal sharing of electrons)

∆EN<1 Weak polar covalent(Unequal sharing of electrons)
1≤∆EN≥2,1 Strong polar covalent(Unequal sharing of electrons)
>2,1 Ionic(transfer of electrons and subsequent electrostatic attract)
NB-IF ∆EN <2,1-The bond is covalent.

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PREDICTING WETHER THE MOLECULE IS POLAR/NON -POLAR

eg

-The electrons are attracted more towards carbon, because it is more electronegative than
hydrogen. The net dipole moment is ZERO. Forces are balanced, the molecule CH4 is non-polar.

NBNB-The C-H BOND IS POLAR, BUT THE MOLECULE AS A WHOLE IS NON-POLAR

Eg

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-In the C-H bond, electrons are attracted from Hydrogen to Carbon. In the C-Br bond, electrons are
attracted towards Br (Is more electronegative).The net dipole moment is not ZER0, Forces are not
balanced. (POLAR)

……………………………………………………………….THE END……………………………………………………………………..

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