Week two topics

1. Theoretical considerations
2. Research questions
3. How to put your research proposal together

Review Exercise
Further Reading

1. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS

● Theory and Research

Theory is a plan formulated in the mind only, a system of rules, procedures and assumptions used to
produce a result. An abstract knowledge or reasoning. A set of hypotheses related by logical or
mathematical arguments to explain a wide variety of connected phenomena in general terms. Also a
nontechnical name for hypothesis.
Bryman: its most common meaning is an explanation of observed regularities. It is important because it
provides a backcloth and justification for the research that is being conducted. It provide a framework within
which social phenomena can be understood and that the research findings can be interpreted.
When considering the theoretical aspects of your study, an important question is how does theory relate to
research?

● Deductive and Inductive Theory

Deductive, deduction. An approach to the relationship between theory and research on which the latter
(research) is conducted with reference to hypotheses and ideas inferred from the former (theory).
Concepts are implicit or explicit in research goals, q questions, and hypothesis are translated into
researchable entities. Typically associated with quantitative research but not exclusively. Also related to
positivism. It provides a framework or lens through which to examine a particular domain or subject. It can
also operate as a ‘blinker’ (if not open to other phenomena or findings not explainable through the chosen
conceptual framework) <- limitation.
RESEARCH DATA -> THEORY
Inductive, induction. An approach to the relationship between theory and research in which the former
(theory) is generated out of the latter (research).
The researcher begins empirical enquiry without a theoretical or conceptual framework: theory is the
outcome of research which involves drawing generalisable inferences out of observations (Bryman, 2016).
It is typically associated with qualitative research, but not exclusively. It provides flexibility but can also be
limited for generalisation.
THEORY -> RESEARCH DATA
They complement each other, they are not opposed.

● Epistemological Considerations

Epistemology is the theory of knowledge, especially the critical study of its validity, methods, and scope.
There are two epistemological positions: positivism and interpretivisim.

● Epistemology deals with questions about how we understand reality-about how we can make
knowledge claims of any kind.
● An epistemological issue concerns the question of what is (or should be) regarded as acceptable
knowledge in a discipline. (Bryman, 2016).

POSITIVISM: position that advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to the study of
the social world.
Bryman identifies five principles of positivism:

● Only phenomena confirmed by the sense can be warranted as knowledge.

 ● The purpose of theory is to generate hypothesis that can be tested and allow explanations of laws
to be assessed
● Knowledge is arrived at through the gathering of cats that proved the basis for laws
● Science must be conducted in a way that is value free
● Scientific statements can be proven, nut normative statements cannot as they cannot be confirmed
by the senses.

Often associated with deductive strategy and quantitative methods, but not exclusively.
INTERPRETIVISM: considers people and their social worlds as fundamentally different from the subject
matter of the natural sciences.
Interpretivism requires the social scientist to grasp the subjective meaning of social action. If positivism can
be thought of as concerned with explanation of human behavior, interpretivism can be thought of as
concerned with empathic understanding of human behavior. Associated hit phenomenology.
Often associated with inductive strategy and qualitative methods, but not exclusively.

● Ontological Considerations

Philosophy. Branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of being. Logic. The set of entities
presupposed by a theory.
Two ontological positions: objectivism and constructionism.
Questions of social ontology are concerned with the nature of social entities (Bryman 2016).
It is the study of being. Your “ontology” is how you answer to the question: “ what is reality?” It is important,
because whatever assumption you make affects how you approach your research.

OBJECTIVISM: Asserts that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent
of social actors.
An organisation can be viewed as a tangible object with rules, regulations, and hierarchy etc. (a social
order) that people must conform with. The organisation thus has a reality that is external to the individuals
who inhabit it. Cultures and subcultures can be viewed as repositories of widely shared values and
customs into which people are socialized. Collective beliefs and values influence individual behaviors.
Again, it can be viewed as external and as having an almost tangible reality of its own.

CONSTRUCTIONISM: Asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
constructed by social actors active in the construction of social reality. It implies that social phenomena are
not only produced through social interaction but are also in a constant state of revision. In contrast to
objectivism: social order within organizations can be viewed d as negotiated order with actions loosely
bound to formal rules and regulations considered more as general understandings. Culture is an emergent
reality in a continuous state of construction and reconstruction. In relation. The researchers own account of
the social world can be considered as construction.

● Summary

Theory provides a framework within which social phenomena can be understood and that the research
findings ca Abe interpreted. Deductive and inductive theory refers to the relationship between theory and
research. Much research contains both deductive and inductive elements, but with a lead
approach/inclination.
Epistemology deals with questions about how we understand reality, and what I considered acceptable
knowledge. Two epistemological positions: Positivism and Interpretivism. Ontology is concerned with the
nature of social entities. Two ontological positions: Objectivism and Constructionism.
In broad terms, social research has two general orientations or distinctive clusters of research strategy:

● Deductive, positivism, objectivism, quantitative.

● Inductive, interpretivism, constructionism, qualitative

Important to recognize the above as general strategies, and that in reality, some research strategies are
not so simply delineated. For example: much research involves both deductive and inductive approaches.
Mixed methods design combines quantitative and qualitative methods.
A deductive approach tends to help, because it gives with the theoretical framework.

2. RESEARCH QUESTIONS: FORMULATING

Once you have a research are and/or topic, and a selected specific area of focus, you can begin
formulating research questions. Questions can come from a number of sources including: personal
experiences or interests. Theory (testing or exploring). Research literature, or societal developments or
challenges.
Influences can also bee multiple.
Bell and Waters: formulating a research question is fundamental to a research project. It
focuses the suited, how you will collect and analyze the date, and the way in which you
report results.

Formulating

● Bell and Waters recommend that research questions be: realistic and feasible, clear and free from
ambiguity or a lack for clarity. Of sufficient importance to warrant a research study, and ethical.
● Bryman: when developing research questions, the researcher is involved in a. Process of
progressive focusing for so that they move from a general research area down to specific research
questions.
● Whilst focusing down research questions: recognize that all no questions might be achievable.
Keep a clear focus and ensure that questions relate to each other and forma a coherent whole.
Final selection, unrelated questions should be re-examined and or removed.
● Are the questions clear? Researchable? Connected to established theory and research? Are
questions related to each other? Are contributing to understanding of the topic? Are neither too
broad or too narrow?

Final point
As part of the research process, developing research questions benefits from background reading, which is
why the literature review generally precedes the formulation of research questions. The literature review,
should clearly identify what is currently known about the topic, and what I snot known. It provides important
background context and justification for the formulated research questions.
Bryman 2016: If you are stuck about how to formulate research questions… it is always a good idea to look
at the journal articles to see how other researchers have formulated them… what should become clear is
that it is crucial for your research questions to be justified. You need to show how your research questions
came about and why they are important.

Summary

3. HOW TO PUT YOUR RESEARCH PROPOSAL TOGETHER

Once you have identified research topic, you can begin writing your research proposal. Your proposal
should have: a title, clearly specified research goals and questions, supporting background context, an
appropriate theoretical and methodological design.
You should also demonstrate:

● Understanding of research paradigms and how these relate to media and communication studies.
● Broad understanding of the research methods (quantitative and or qualitative) available to you
including there respective applications, strengths and weaknesses.
● Understanding of potential issues that you might face (and mitigation strategies), including ethical
considerations.

Word count: 2500 words with a maximum of more or less 10%. Bla bla the same.
A fundamental aspect of a good proposal hinges on a good literature review. An iterative and incremental
process. Your initial literature reviews as part of your topic identification will be exploratory and high-level in
nature. Exploring topics and the literature (overview). Confirming interests and understanding of the topic,
etc. Once you have selected your topic you should then adopt a more focused, structured, and step-by-
step approach to your literature review.
Writing a literature review is a means of reviewing the main ideas and research relating to your chosen
area of interest (Bryman, 2016).