---- Dictionary ----

* is {key:value} pair.
* is dynamic and mutable entity.
* is represented within {}.
* every dictionary is object of class "dict".
* does not have natural/automatic indexing (0 onwards).
The keys will behave as index.
* allows over-writing of value by referring "key" as
index.
* does not maintain order of elements. (it is non-linear ds)
* Every "key" must be static and immutable object only;
whereas, "value" can be Python object.
* does not allow duplicate "keys" but duplicate "values"
are allowed.
* does not support slicing-dicing operation.

======================================================

* A dictionary is {k:v} pair.

* Any combination of {k:v} is allowed.

For example:
--------------
d = { "one":1, 2:"two", "three":[3, "III"],
4:("four", "FOUR", "IV"),
}
print(type(d))
print(d)

The output will be:

--------------------
<class 'dict'>
{2: 'two', 4: ('four', 'FOUR', 'IV'), 'three': [3, 'III'], 'one': 1}

===========================================

* If we parse a dictionary in list or tuple or set, then

it will return a sequence of "keys".
For example:
-------------
d = {"one":1, 2:"two", "three":[3, "III"],
4:("four", "FOUR", "IV"),
}
list1 = list(d)
print(list1)

The output will be:

---------------------
['one', 2, 4, 'three']

===========================================

* Logically it is not legal to iterate on dictioary by

using while loop. Because it does not have official
indexing.
* But we can directly iterate on dictionary by using
for-loop. In each iteration of for-loop, it will
refer "keys" of dictionary.
For example:
-------------
one - 1
2 - two
4 - ('four', 'FOUR', 'IV')
three - [3, 'III']

================================================

* It is also valid to obtain and update any value by

referring it's "key".

For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345
}
print("Initially d :", d) <--- will print dictionary
print("Mobile number of omkar :", d["omkar"])
# will print mobile number of ["omkar"]
d["tejas"] = 556677
# will update value of ["tejas"]
print("Updated d :", d) <--- will print dictionary

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'tejas': 708090, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030}
Mobile number of omkar : 102030
Updated d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'tejas': 556677, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030}

========================================

* If any duplicate "key" is provided, then the last

placed {k:v} pair will be considered.

For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
"gaurav":998877
} <--- key ["gaurav"] is already present
print("Initially d :", d)
print("Mobile number of omkar :", d["omkar"])
d["tejas"] = 556677
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 998877, 'tushar': 12345}
Mobile number of omkar : 102030
Updated d : {'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 556677, 'gaurav': 998877, 'tushar': 12345}

==========================================

* A dicationary is dynamic and mutable object. Therefore

it will update in itself.

For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
print(id(d))
d["tejas"] = 556677 <--- updating value of ["tejas"]
print("Updated d :", d)
print(id(d))

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 708090}
5356680
Updated d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 556677}
5356680

=======================================================

* To add/change/update anything in dictionary, we have

two options:
1. By using assignment operator (=)
2. By using update()

1. By using assignment operator (=):

* We can directly use "key" as index to update/over-write
"value".
* In such case:
- if specified "key" is already present, then
updates/over-writes it's value
- if specified "key" is not present, then adds them as
new {k:v} pair.
For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d["tejas"] = 445566 <--- key "tejas" is already present
d["amey"] = 778899 <--- key "amey" is not present
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 708090, 'tushar': 12345, 'gaurav': 405060}
Updated d : {'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 445566, 'amey': 778899, 'tushar': 12345,
'gaurav': 405060}

* From above output, check that value of key "tejas" is

changed/over-write; whereas {"amey":778899} is added
as new {k:v} pair.

2. By using update():
* This is member function of class "dict".
* This function requires another dictionary object as
parameter.
* In such case:
- if specified "key" is already present, then
updates/over-writes it's value
 - if specified "key" is not present, then adds them as
new {k:v} pair.

For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.update({"tejas":445566}) <--- key "tejas" is already present
d.update({"amey":778899}) <--- key "amey" is not present
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030}
Updated d : {'tejas': 445566, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030,
'amey': 778899}

===================================================
===================================================

1. update():
* This function requires another dictionary object as
parameter.
* In such case:
- if specified "key" is already present, then
updates/over-writes it's value
- if specified "key" is not present, then adds them as
new {k:v} pair.

For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.update({"tejas":445566}) <--- key "tejas" is already present
d.update({"amey":778899}) <--- key "amey" is not present
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030}
Updated d : {'tejas': 445566, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030,
'amey': 778899}

* This method requires a dictionary as parameter. This

parameter dictionary can have any number of {k:v} pairs.

For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.update( {"tejas":445566, "amey":778899} ) <--- multiple {k:v} pairs
print("Updated d :", d)
The output will be:
---------------------
Initially d : {'tushar': 12345, 'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030}
Updated d : {'amey': 778899, 'tejas': 445566, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030,
'gaurav': 405060}

=========================================

2. copy():
* This function does not have any parameter.
* This function creates and returns a new copy of invoking
dictionary object.
For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
print("ID of original dictionary :", id(d))
d2 = d.copy() <--- creates and returns a new copy
print("Copied d2 :", d2)
print("ID of copied dictionary :", id(d2))

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'tejas': 708090, 'tushar': 12345, 'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030}
ID of original dictionary : 40896008
Copied d2 : {'tejas': 708090, 'tushar': 12345, 'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030}
ID of copied dictionary : 40896456

==============================================

3. clear():
* This function does not have any parameter.
* This function clears all {k:v} pairs from invoking
dictionary object.
For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.clear()
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'tushar': 12345, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tejas': 708090, 'omkar': 102030}
Updated d : {}

=============================================

4. pop():
* This function requires a "key" as parameter.
* This function removes specified {k:v} pair from invoking
dictionary object.
For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.pop("tejas") <--- removes {k:v} pair of "tejas"
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'tushar': 12345, 'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030}
Updated d : {'tushar': 12345, 'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030}

* If specified "key" is not present, then this function will

show "KeyError".
For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.pop("tejasaa") <--- key "tejasaa" is not present
print("Updated d :", d)

The error will be:

-------------------
KeyError: 'tejasaa'

* This function also returns the "value" of specified "key"

which is removed from dictionary.
For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
a = d.pop("tejas") <--- removes {k:v} pair but returns value in 'a'
print("Updated d :", d)
print(a)

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'tejas': 708090, 'omkar': 102030, 'tushar': 12345, 'gaurav': 405060}
Updated d : {'omkar': 102030, 'tushar': 12345, 'gaurav': 405060}
708090

* This function strictly requires exact one "key" as

parameter.
====================================

5. items():
* This function does not have any parameter.
* This function returns an object of new class "dict_items"
where each {k:v} pair will be as tuple elements.
For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
a = d.items()
print(a)
print("Type of a :", type(a))

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'tushar': 12345, 'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030}
dict_items([('tushar', 12345), ('tejas', 708090), ('gaurav', 405060), ('omkar',
102030)])
Type of a : <class 'dict_items'>

* The outer main object is of type "dict_items".

* This object contains tuples as it's elemnets.
* And the elements of this tuples will be {k:v} pairs.

================================================

6. keys():
* This function does not have any parameter.
* This function returns all the "keys" of invoking
dictionary object.
* This function will return all the keys as element of
new class "dict_keys".
For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
a = d.keys()
print(a)
print("Type of a :", type(a))

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345}
dict_keys(['omkar', 'tejas', 'gaurav', 'tushar'])
Type of a : <class 'dict_keys'>

====================================================
7. values():
* This function does not have any parameter.
* This function returns all the "values" of invoking
dictionary object.
* This function returns all the "values" as object of
new class "dict_values".
For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
a = d.values()
print(a)
print("Type of a :", type(a))

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'omkar': 102030, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345, 'tejas': 708090}
dict_values([102030, 405060, 12345, 708090])
Type of a : <class 'dict_values'>

==================================================

8. popitem():
* This function does not have any parameter.
* This function randomly removes a {k:v} pair from
invoking dictionary object.
For example:
--------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.popitem() <--- randomly removes a {k:v} pair
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 708090, 'tushar': 12345}
Updated d : {'omkar': 102030, 'tejas': 708090, 'tushar': 12345}

* This function also returns that randomly removed {k:v}

pair as tuple.
For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
a = d.popitem()
print("Updated d :", d)
print("Removed :", a)
print("Type of removed pair is :", type(a))

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'tejas': 708090, 'omkar': 102030, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345}
Updated d : {'omkar': 102030, 'gaurav': 405060, 'tushar': 12345}
Removed : ('tejas', 708090)
Type of removed pair is : <class 'tuple'>

=====================================================

9. get():
* This function requires a "key" as parameter.
* This function obtains and returns value of specified
key.
For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
a = d.get("tejas") <--- obtains value of ["tejas"]
print("Value is :", a)

The output will be:

--------------------
Initially d : {'tejas': 708090, 'gaurav': 405060, 'omkar': 102030, 'tushar': 12345}
Value is : 708090

* If any invalid "key" is provided, then this function will

not show any error. But returns None.
For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
a = d.get("ashwin") <--- key ["ashwin"] is not present
print("Value is :", a)

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'tejas': 708090, 'tushar': 12345, 'omkar': 102030}
Value is : None

=============================================

10. setdefault():
* This function requires two individual values as parameter.
* Where first parameter will be "key" and second parameter
will be it's "value".
* If specified "key" (first parameter) is already present,
then this function will not update it's new value.
* But if specified "key" (first parameter) is not
present in invoking dictionary object, then only adds as
new {k:v} pair.
For example:
-------------
d = {"omkar":102030, "gaurav":405060,
"tejas":708090, "tushar":12345,
}
print("Initially d :", d)
d.setdefault("tejas", 778899)
# key "tejas" is already present. Hence, will not update it's new value
d.setdefault("amey", 100200)
# key "amey" is not present. Hence, adds as new {k:v} pair
print("Updated d :", d)

The output will be:

---------------------
Initially d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'tejas': 708090, 'omkar': 102030, 'tushar': 12345}
Updated d : {'gaurav': 405060, 'tejas': 708090, 'omkar': 102030, 'tushar': 12345,
'amey': 100200}

* This function requires exact 2 parameters.

=====================================================

11. fromkeys():
* This function is static member function of class "dict".
* Therefore we call it by using class-name only.
(not by invoking object).
* This function has two parameters:
first is ----> a sequence
 second is (optional) ----> default values for all keys
* This function creates a dictionary which takes all
the elements of specified sequence (first parameter) as
"keys" and assigns all of them the specified default
value as their "value".
* The second parameter is optional parameter. Becuase it
is having default "None" as initialized value.
For example:
--------------
list1 = ["one", "two", "three", "four"]
d = dict.fromkeys(list1)
print(d)

The output will be:

---------------------
{'three': None, 'two': None, 'four': None, 'one': None}

* From above output note that, all the elements of list1

becomes "keys" and all initialized with default None.
* If we specify default value, then it will be value of
all "keys".
For example:
-------------
list1 = ["one", "two", "three", "four"]
d = dict.fromkeys(list1, "HELLO ALL")
print(d)

The output will be:

--------------------
{'four': 'HELLO ALL', 'two': 'HELLO ALL', 'one': 'HELLO ALL', 'three': 'HELLO ALL'}

* And even if we specify another sequence as second parameter,

then also that entire sequence will be default value
for all "keys"
For example:
--------------
list1 = ["one", "two", "three", "four"]
list2 = [10,20,30,40]
d = dict.fromkeys(list1, list2)
print(d)

The output will be:

---------------------
{'four': [10, 20, 30, 40], 'two': [10, 20, 30, 40], 'one': [10, 20, 30, 40],
'three': [10, 20, 30, 40]}

=====================================================