Vishwakarma Institute of Technology Pune

HS1071
LINEAR ALGEBRA AND
DIFFRENTIAL EQUATIONS

UNIT II – VECTOR SPACES

 ,

Contents

• Introduction
• Vector Space and standard vector spaces
• Subspace
• Linear Combination
• Span of a set ,

• Spanning set
• Linearly dependent and independent vectors
• Basis and dimension of a subspace
• Fundamental subspaces
INTRODUCTION
Vector spaces have numerous applications across various fields, including:
Physics and Engineering
1. Mechanics: Describing forces, velocities, and accelerations.
2. Electromagnetism: Representing electric and magnetic fields.
3. Quantum Mechanics: State vectors and operators.
4. Signal Processing: Filtering, convolution, and Fourier analysis.
Computer Science
1. Graphics: 2D/3D transformations, projections, and animations.
2. Machine Learning: Data representation, neural networks, and deep learning.
3. Natural Language Processing (NLP): Text analysis, sentiment analysis, and word embeddings.
4. Computer Vision: Image processing, object recognition, and segmentation.
Mathematics
1. Linear Algebra: Solving systems of linear equations.
2. Differential Equations: Modeling dynamic systems.
3. Optimization: Linear and nonlinear programming.
4. Statistics: Regression analysis and hypothesis testing.
INTRODUCTION
Data Analysis and Data Science:

1. Data Visualization: Plotting and dimensionality reduction.

2. Clustering and Classification: K-means, PCA, and SVM.
3. Recommendation Systems: Collaborative filtering.
4. Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and trend analysis.
Other Fields:
1. Economics: Portfolio optimization and risk management.
2. Biology: Population dynamics and gene expression analysis.
3. Finance: Option pricing and risk analysis.
4. Geography: Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
These applications leverage vector space properties, such as:
- Linear combinations
- Dot products
- Norms and metrics
- Orthogonality
- Basis and dimension
INTRODUCTION

Air flow around a wing

Electric field

Translation
invariance
for detecting
Mechanical or modeling
stresses in an object
rock

Chemical reactions
DEFINITION OF VECTOR SPACE

Let V be non-empty set. Define two operations namely 'addition' and

'scalar multiplication' on V. V is said to be a vector space if for every
𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤 in V and any real, or complex number 𝛼 following axioms
hold.

1. Closed under addition

𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ V, 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ V

2. Addition is commutative
𝑢+𝑣 =𝑣+𝑢

3. Addition is associative
𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 + 𝑤.

4. Existence of zero element for addition known as additive identity.

There exists 0 ∈ V such that 𝑢 + 0 = 0 + 𝑢 = 𝑢

5. Existence of additive inverse

There exists −𝑢 ∈ V → −𝑢 + 𝑢 = 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = 0
DEFINITION OF VECTOR SPACE

6. Closed under scalar multiplication

𝛼 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑢 ∈ V ⇒ 𝛼𝑢 ∈ V

7. Scalar multiplication is distributive

i) 𝛼 + 𝛽 𝑢 = 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛽𝑢
ii) 𝛼 𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝛼𝑢 + 𝛼𝑣

8. Scalar multiplication is associative

𝛼 𝛽𝑢 = 𝛼𝛽 𝑢 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ R

9. There exists 1 ∈ R such that 1 ⋅ 𝑢 = 𝑢.

Elements/members of V are called as 'vectors’.

Result 1 : For a vector space V
i) Zero vector is unique.
ii) −𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 is unique such that 𝑢 + (−𝑢) = 0.
DEFINITION OF VECTOR SPACE

Result 2 : Let V be a vector space and let 𝑥, 𝑦 be vectors in V , then

i) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = 0

ii) 0 ⋅ 𝑥 = 0 where 0 is a scalar

iii) 𝑘 ⋅ 0 = 0 for any 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅. Where 0 is a vector

iv) −𝑥 is unique and −𝑥 = (−1)𝑥

v) If 𝑘𝑥 = 0, then 𝑘 = 0 (scalar) or 𝑥 = 0 (vector)

 Standard Vector Spaces

1. Trivial Space

𝑉 = {0} A set with single zero vector of any vector space.

2. Euclidean space

𝑅𝑛 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝑅

Set of all ordered 𝑛-tuple of real or complex numbers) is a vector space under component wise addition
and scalar multiplication as follows
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , ⋯ , 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛
And
𝛼 ⋅ 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝛼𝑥1 , 𝛼𝑥2 , ⋯ , 𝛼𝑥𝑛
Standard Vector Spaces

3. Polynomial Vector Spaces

𝑃𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 /𝑎0 , 𝑎1 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ∈ 𝑅
= Set of all polynomials in 𝑥 of degree ′less than or equal ′𝑛 ′ with real
coefficients
Operations are as follows :
𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑏0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏𝑛

And

𝛼 𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 = 𝛼𝑎0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝛼𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝛼𝑎𝑛 𝛼∈𝑅

Standard Vector Spaces

4. 𝑴𝒎×𝒏 (𝑹) = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑚×𝑛

/𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑚; 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑛

collection of all matrices of order 𝑚 × 𝑛 with real entries

𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗

and
𝛼 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝛼𝑎𝑖𝑗 , 𝛼 ∈ 𝑅.

5.Function Space C [a, b]

𝑉 = 𝐶[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑓: [𝑎, 𝑏] → 𝑅}

Set of all real valued continuous functions

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)

and
(𝛼𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝛼 ∈ 𝑅.
Examples
1.The set of integers is not a vector space
Set is not closed under scalar multiplication
2. Is a set of polynomials of exactly degree 2 vector space?
NO
3. Is 𝑽 = {(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛): 𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛 ∈ 𝑹} a vector space w.r.t . following operations?
𝑥1, 𝑦1, 𝑧1 + 𝑥2, 𝑦2, 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2, 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 and 𝑐(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑐𝑥, 0,0)

This collection is not a vector space because the scalar multiplication does not satisfy the
property 1. 𝑢 = 𝑢 for 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉.

Note that ,
1. (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (1𝑥, 0,0) as per given rule (scalar multiplication) 𝑐(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (𝑐𝑥, 0,0).
Examples

4. V = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅} with standard addition, i.e.,

𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 and 𝑐(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑐𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅.

ANSWER
This collection is not a vector space because the scalar multiplication does not satisfy the property
(𝑐 + 𝑑)𝑢 = 𝑐𝑢 + 𝑑𝑢 for 𝑢 ∈ 𝑉 and 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅.

Note that
(𝑐 + 𝑑)(𝑥, 𝑦) = ((𝑐 + 𝑑)𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑦)

as per given rule (scalar multiplication). But

𝑐(𝑥, 𝑦) + 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑐𝑥, 𝑦) + (𝑑𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑𝑥, 2𝑦).

Subspace
DEFINITION :

Let V be a vector space and 𝑉 ≠ 0,𝑈 ⊂ 𝑉, 𝑈 is said to be a subspace of V

if 𝑈 itself is a vector space under the same 'addition' and 'scalar multiplication'
operations as defined on V .

THEOREM:
A non-empty subset U of vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if
1. 𝑈 is closed under addition, i. e.,
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 ∈ 𝑈 for all 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ∈ 𝑈
2. 𝑈 is closed under scalar multiplication, i. e., 𝛼𝑢 ∈ 𝑈 for every 𝛼 ∈ 𝑅 and 𝑢 ∈ 𝑈.

One Step Test

𝛼𝑢1 + 𝛽𝑢2 ∈ 𝑈 for all 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ 𝐹 and for all 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ∈ 𝑈

Note: If 0 ∈ 𝑉 is not a member of U ⊆ V then U is not a subspace of V .

EXAMPLES
Ex. 1: Show that W = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)/𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 ∈ 𝑅} ⊆ 𝑅3 is subspace of 𝑅3 .

Solution : Let 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊
𝑢 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ∈ 𝑊 ⇒ 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 = 0
𝑣 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ∈ 𝑊 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 0
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 𝑧1 + 𝑧2

But 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 0 + 0 = 0
∴𝑢+𝑣 ∈𝑊

For 𝛼 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑢 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ∈ 𝑊, 𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 = 𝛼𝑥1 , 𝛼𝑦1 , 𝛼𝑧1 .

Further 𝛼𝑥1 + 𝛼𝑦1 + 𝛼𝑧1 = 𝛼 𝑥1 + 𝑦1 + 𝑧1 = 0

Thus 𝛼𝑢 ∈ 𝑊.
Thus, W = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)/𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0 ∈ 𝑅} ⊆ 𝑅3 is subspace of 𝑅3 .
EXAMPLES
Ex. 2 : Let W = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)/2𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5} ⊆ 𝑅3 . Is 𝑊 Subspace of 𝑅3 ?
Solution:
Zero element of 𝑅3 is (0,0,0). Given plane does not pass through (0,0,0).

Thus, zero element of 𝑅3 is not member of W.

∴ W is not a subspace.

Ex. 3 : Let W = (𝑥, 𝑦)/𝑦 = 𝑥 2 ⊆ 𝑅2 = 𝑅 × 𝑅 Is W Subspace of 𝑅2

Solution: Let 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊
𝑢 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ∈ W ⇒ 𝑦1 = 𝑥12 , 𝑦2 = 𝑥22
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 2 = 𝑥12 + 𝑥22 + 2𝑥1 𝑥2 ≠ 𝑥12 + 𝑥22 always

∴ W is not closed under addition, hence not a subspace.

EXAMPLES
Ex. 4:
W = {(𝑥, 𝑦)/𝑥, 𝑦 ≥ 0 ∈ 𝑅} ⊆ 𝑅2
Solution:
W is not closed under scalar multiplication, hence not a subspace.

𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥, 𝑘𝑦 ∉ 𝑊 , if 𝑘 < 0 then 𝑘𝑥 and 𝑘𝑦 both will be negative.

Ex. 5:
W = {(𝑥, 𝑦)/𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, 𝑚 fixed } ⊆ 𝑅2 is a subspace of 𝑅2 ?
Solution: Let 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊
u = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ∈ W ⇒ 𝑦1 = 𝑚𝑥1 , 𝑦2 = 𝑚𝑥2
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 .
But 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 𝑚𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑥2 = 𝑚 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 .
⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ W.
W is closed w.r.t addition.
Let 𝑢 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ∈ W and 𝛼 ∈ 𝑅 then 𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼𝑥1 , 𝛼𝑦1

But 𝛼𝑦1 = 𝛼 𝑚𝑥1 = 𝑚 𝛼𝑥1 ⇒ 𝛼𝑢 ∈ W.

W is closed w.r.t scalar multiplication.

EXAMPLES
Ex. 6: Is W is a subspace Of 𝑃2
V = 𝑃2 , W = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐: 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0
Solution: Let 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ W
∴ 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, where 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 0

𝑞(𝑥) = 𝑟𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡 where 𝑟 + 𝑠 + 𝑡 = 0

Consider 𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑟𝑥 2 + 𝑠𝑥 + 𝑡 = 𝑎 + 𝑟 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 + 𝑠 𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑡

Now (𝑎 + 𝑟) + (𝑏 + 𝑠) + (𝑐 + 𝑡) = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) + (𝑟 + 𝑠 + 𝑡) = 0 + 0 = 0

∴ 𝑝 + 𝑞 ∈ W.

Next 𝛼𝑝 = 𝛼 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝛼𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝛼𝑏𝑥 + 𝛼𝑐

where 𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑏 + 𝛼𝑐 = 𝛼(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) = 𝛼0 = 0 ∴ 𝛼𝑝 ∈ W

∴ W is a subspace of 𝑃2 .
EXAMPLES

Ex. 6: List all the subspaces of 𝑅 2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∣ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅}.

Solution :
(𝑖)𝑊 = {(0,0)}
(ii) 𝑊 = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥, 𝑚 ∈ 𝑅}
(iii) 𝑊 = 𝑅2 .
Ex. 7: List all the subspaces of 𝑅 3 = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∣ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅}
• Solution :
(i) 𝑊 = {(0,0,0)}
(ii) 𝑊 = Any line passing through origin
(iii) 𝑊 = Any plane passing through origin
(iv) 𝑊 = 𝑅3 .
PRACTICE EXAMPLES

1. Is 𝑀1 the set of all nonsingular matrices of order 2 a subspace of 𝑀2×2 (𝑅) ?

2. Is 𝑀1 the set of all singular matrices of order 2 a subspace of 𝑀2×2 (𝑅) ?

3. Are the following sets of subspace 𝑀𝑛×𝑛 (𝑅) ?

𝑊1 = Set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 Symmetric Matrices with real entries

𝑊2 = Set of all 𝑛 × 𝑛 Skew - Symmetric Matrices with real entries
EXAMPLES
Ex. 1
Let 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 be two subspaces of a vector space 𝑉 then is U1 ∩ U2 also a subspace? Justify

Solution:
Let 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ U1 ∩ U2 ⇒ 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ U1 and 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ U2

But U1 and U2 are subspaces, so are closed w.r.t addition and scalar multiplication.

∴ 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ U1 and 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ U2 ⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ U1 and 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ U2

Also 𝑢 ∈ U1 and 𝑢 ∈ U2 , 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑘𝑢 ∈ U1 and 𝑘𝑢 ∈ U2

Thus 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ U1 ∩ U2 and 𝑘𝑢 ∈ U1 ∩ U2
Thus , U1 ∩ U2 is also a subspace.

Note: If 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 are two subspaces of V Then 𝑈1 ∩ 𝑈2 is always subspace of V .

EXAMPLES
Ex. 2
Let 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 be two subspaces of a vector space 𝑉 then is U1 ∪ U2 also a subspace? Justify

Solution: Consider,
U1 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∣ 𝑦 = 2𝑥}
𝑢 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑣 = 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ∈ U1 ⇒ 𝑦1 = 2𝑥1 , 𝑦2 = 2𝑥2
𝑢 + 𝑣 = 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦2 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 and
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 = 2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 = 2 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 .

Also 𝛼𝑢 = 𝛼 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 = 𝛼𝑥1 , 𝛼𝑦1 and 𝛼𝑦1 = 𝛼2𝑥1 = 2 𝛼𝑥1

Thus 𝑢 + 𝑣, 𝛼𝑢 ∈ U1 . Therefore U1 is a subspace of 𝑅2 .
Similarly, U2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∣ 𝑦 = 𝑥} is also a subspace of 𝑅2 .
But U1 ∪ U2 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∣ 𝑦 = 2𝑥 or 𝑦 = 𝑥} is not a subspace of 𝑅2
EXAMPLES

(1,1) lies on line 𝑦 = 𝑥.

(1,2) lies on line 𝑦 = 2𝑥.
Now (1,1) + (1,2) = (2,3).
But lines 𝑦 = 𝑥 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 do not pass through (2,3).
U1 ∪ U2 is not closed under addition.

• Note: If 𝑈1 and 𝑈2 are two subspaces of V Then 𝑈1 ∪ 𝑈2 need not be subspace of V

EXAMPLES
Ex. 3: 𝑎 + 2𝑏
Is 𝑊 = : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 ⊆ 𝑅2 a subspace of 𝑅 2 ?
𝑎−𝑏+2
Is zero element of 𝑅2 member of W ?
0 4 2 𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 0
Solution: Yes ∈ W because for a = 3 , 𝑏 = − 3 ⇒
0 𝑎−𝑏+2=0
But W is not a subspace.
𝑎 + 2𝑏 𝑐 + 2𝑑
𝑢= ,𝑣 = ∈ W, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅.
𝑎−𝑏+2 𝑐−𝑑+2
(𝑎 + 𝑐) + 2(𝑏 + 𝑑) 𝑝 + 2𝑞
𝑢+𝑣 = = , 𝑝 = 𝑎 + 𝑐, 𝑞 = 𝑏 + 𝑑 ∈ 𝑅
(𝑎 + 𝑐) − (𝑏 + 𝑑) + 4 𝑝−𝑞+4
𝑢 + 𝑣 ∉ W as this vector does not follow the pattern of W .
W is not closed under addition.
Ex. 4: Is 𝐻2 = (𝑥, 𝑦) ∣ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 1 a subspace of 𝑅2
Solution:
Consider (1,0), (0,1) ∈ 𝐻2 , but (1,0) + (0,1) = (1,1) ∉ 𝐻2 .
∴ 𝐻2 is not closed under addition, 𝐻2 is not a subspace 𝑅2 .
Linear Combination (L.C.) of Vectors

Definition:
Let 𝐻 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … , 𝑣𝑛 be a subset of a vector space V ,then the sum 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 , where
𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝑅 is defined as a linear combination of 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 .

Definition:
SPAN OF SET
Let H = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … , 𝑣𝑛 be a subset of a vector space 𝑉. Then span of 𝐻 denoted by
spanH is defined as
spanH = 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 ∣ 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , … , 𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝑅
= Set of of all possible linear combinations of H

SPANNING SET
Let H = {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 } be a subset of vector space V.
H is said to be a spanning set of V if every element of
V is expressible as linear combination of elements of H.
⟹ 𝑣 ∈ span𝐻 for all 𝑣 ∈ V.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 is consistent for all 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉.
RESULT
Important Result
Let 𝐻 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 be a subset of a vector space V , then
i) spanH is a subspace of 𝑉
ii) spanH is a smallest subspace which contains set H .

Important: Above result is useful tool to prove that given subset a subspace or not.

Note:
1. For any non-zero vector 𝑣 in 𝑅2 or 𝑅3 span(𝑣) is a line passing through origin.
2. For any two non zero vectors
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 in 𝑅3 span 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , where 𝑣1 ≠ 𝛼𝑣2 , represents a plane passing through origin
EXAMPLES
𝑎 + 2𝑏
Ex. 1 Show that 𝑊 = : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 ⊆ 𝑅2 is a subspace of 𝑅2 .
𝑎−𝑏

𝑎 + 2𝑏 𝑟 + 2𝑠
Let 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 ∴ 𝑢 = ,𝑣 =
Solution:Method 1 : 𝑎−𝑏 𝑟−𝑠
𝑎 + 2𝑏 𝑟 + 2𝑠 (𝑎 + 𝑟) + 2(𝑏 + 𝑠)
∴𝑢+𝑣 = + = ∈ 𝑊, as 𝑎 + 𝑟, 𝑏 + 𝑠 ∈ 𝑅.
𝑎−𝑏 𝑟−𝑠 (𝑎 + 𝑟) − (𝑏 + 𝑠)

To show 𝛼𝑢 ∈ 𝑊
𝑎 + 2𝑏 𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼2𝑏 𝛼𝑎 + 2𝛼𝑏
𝛼 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑢 = ∈ 𝑊, 𝛼𝑢 = =
𝑎−𝑏 𝛼𝑎 − 𝛼𝑏 𝛼𝑎 − 𝛼𝑏

∴ W is a subspace of 𝑅2 .
Method 2 : Solution:
𝑎 + 2𝑏 𝑎 2𝑏 1 2
= + =𝑎 +𝑏 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
𝑎−𝑏 𝑎 −𝑏 1 −1
1 2
∴ W = span ,
1 −1
∴ W is a subspace of 𝑅2 .
EXAMPLES
Ex. 2 Show that the set of all symmetric matrices of order 2 × 2 is a subspace of 𝑀2×2 (𝑅).
Solution:
𝑎 𝑐
We will use spanning set theorem i.e we will show that can be expressed as linear combination of
𝑐 𝑏
members of 𝑀2×2 (𝑅).

𝑎 𝑐 1 0 0 0 0 1
Consider =𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐
𝑐 𝑏 0 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 1
∴ H = span , , .
0 0 0 1 1 0
Hence the result.

Ex. 3 𝑟−𝑠
Show that U = 2𝑟 − 5𝑠 + 𝑡 /𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅 subspace of 𝑅 3 .
𝑠+𝑡
Solution:
𝑟−𝑠 𝑟 −𝑠 0 1 −1 0
2𝑟 − 5𝑠 + 𝑡 = 2𝑟 + −5𝑠 + 𝑡 = 𝑟 2 + 𝑠 −5 + 𝑡 1
𝑠+𝑡 0 𝑠 𝑡 0 1 1
1 −1 0
∴ U = span 2 , −5 , 1
0 1 1
Thus, U is subspace of 𝑅 3 .
EXAMPLES
Ex. 4
𝑎−𝑏+𝑐
2𝑎 − 𝑏
Show that 𝐻 = : 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 is a subspace of 𝑅4 .
𝑎 − 𝑏 − 5𝑐
2𝑎 − 𝑐
Solution:

𝑎−𝑏+𝑐 1 −1 1
2𝑎 − 𝑏 2 −1 0
Consider =𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐
𝑎 − 𝑏 − 5𝑐 1 −1 −5
2𝑎 − 𝑐 2 0 −1
1 −1 1
2 −1 0
⇒ H = span , , = span 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , where 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ∈ 𝑅4 .
1 −1 −5
2 0 −1
∴ H is a subspace of 𝑅4 .
Ex. 5
For what value of ℎ, will 𝑦 be in a subspace spanned by 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 .
1 5 −3 −4
where 𝑣1 = −1 , 𝑣2 = −4 , 𝑣3 = 1 , 𝑦 = 5 .
−2 −7 0 ℎ
Solution:
i) Let 𝑦 = 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3
−4 1 5 −3
5 = 𝑐1 −1 + 𝑐2 −4 + 𝑐3 1
ℎ −2 −7 0

This is a non homgeneous system of linear equations

1 5 −3 −4
∴ Consider A B = −1 −4 1 5
−2 −7 0 ℎ
1 5 −3 −4
Reducing to echelon form AB ∼ 0 1 −2 1
0 0 0 ℎ − 11
∴ The system will be consistent if ℎ = 11.

∴ for ℎ = 11, 𝑦 ∈ span 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 .

EXAMPLES

Ex. 6 𝑎 1 5 −3
3
Let 𝑣 = 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 ⋅ 𝑣 = 𝑐1 −1 + 𝑐2 −4 + 𝑐3 1
𝑐 −2 −7 0

Solution: Consider 𝑣 = 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 .We get

𝑐1 + 5𝑐2 − 3𝑐3 = 𝑎, −𝑐1 − 4𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 𝑏, −2𝑐1 − 7𝑐2 = 𝑐

1 5 −3 𝑎
[A: B] = −1 −4 1 𝑏
−2 −7 0 𝑐
Reducing to echelon form
1 5 −3 𝑎
A : B ∼ 0 1 −2 𝑏+𝑎
0 0 0 𝑐 − 3𝑏 − 𝑎
As 𝜌[𝐴] = 2, ∴ the system will not be consistant for every 𝑣 ∈ 𝑅3 .

∴ span 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ≠ 𝑅3 .
SUM OF SUBSPACES
Let U and W are subspaces of a vector space V .
Sum of 𝑈 and 𝑊 is defined as
U + W = {𝑢 + 𝑤 ∈ V: 𝑢 ∈ U and 𝑤 ∈ W}
Show that U + W is a subspace of V .

Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ U + W ∴ 𝑥 = 𝑢1 + 𝑤1 and 𝑦 = 𝑢2 + 𝑤2 where 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ∈ U and 𝑤1 , 𝑤2 ∈ W.

𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑢1 + 𝑤1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑤2
= 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 + 𝑤1 + 𝑤2
but 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝑤1 + 𝑤2 ∈ 𝑊

(as U and 𝑊 are subspaces of 𝑉 ) ∴ 𝑥 + 𝑦 ∈ 𝑈 + 𝑊.

Let 𝛼 be any real number, 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑢1 + 𝑤1 = 𝛼𝑢1 + 𝛼𝑤1 but 𝛼𝑢1 ∈ 𝑈 and 𝛼𝑤1 ∈ 𝑊
(as 𝑈 and 𝑊 are subspaces of 𝑉 ) ∴ 𝛼𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 + 𝑊
∴ 𝑈 + 𝑊 is a subspace of 𝑉.
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
1 1 1
1) Is span 1 , 1 , 0 = 𝑅3
1 0 0

2) Find the value of k , for which 𝑣 = (3,0, 𝑘) be in the subspace spanned by u1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 where
𝑢1 = (1, −1,2), 𝑢2 = (2,4, −2), 𝑢3 = (1,2, −4).

3) Determine if 𝑦 is in the subspace of 𝑅4 spanned by 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , where

6 5 −5 −9
7 8 8 −6
𝑦= , 𝑣2 = , 𝑣1 = , 𝑣1 =
1 −5 −9 3
−4 3 −2 −7
Linear Dependence & Independence Of Vectors
Definition:
Let H = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , … , 𝑣𝑛 be a subset of a vector space V , H is said to be linearly Dependent if there
exist scalars (real numbers) 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , ⋯ , 𝑐𝑛 not all zero such that 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0

i.e system of equation has nontrivial solution also.

Otherwise they are said to be linearly independent.

H is said to be linearly Independent if 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0

⇒ 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = ⋯ = 𝑐𝑛 = 0
i.e system has Trivial solution only.
NOTE:
1) A set containing zero vector is linearly dependent.

2) Set consists of single non zero vector is linearly independent.

3) Theorem: - If the set of vectors are linearly dependent then one of the vectors is expressible as a linear
combination of the remaining.
Method of checking Linearly Dependent / Independent Set
Step1: Consider,

𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0
𝑐1
𝑐
𝐴𝐶 = 0 where 𝐴 = 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 …𝑣𝑛 , 𝐶 = 2 .
…
𝑐𝑛
This is a homogenous system of linear equation which is always consistent i.e., the system has trivial
solution always
Step2:
Find rank of A. Let 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟
Step3:
𝑖 ) If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟 = 𝑛 (Number of unknowns), then the set is linearly independent.

ii) If 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟 < 𝑛 (Number of unknowns), then the set is linearly dependent.
Step4:
If dependent find relation between the vectors.
EXAMPLES
Ex. 1

Examine for linear dependence or independence the following system of vectors. If dependent, find the
relation between them.
𝑥1 = (3,1, −4), 𝑥2 = (2,2, −3), 𝑥3 = (0, −4,1)

Solution:

Let 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝑥3 = 0

𝑐1 (3,1, −4) + 𝑐2 (2,2, −3) + 𝑐3 (0, −4,1) =0

3𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 + 0𝑐3 =0
𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 − 4𝑐3 =0
−4𝑐1 − 3𝑐2 + 𝑐3 =0
In matrix form :
3 2 0 𝑐1 0
1 2 −4 𝑐2 = 0
−4 −3 1 𝑐3 0
AC =0
EXAMPLES
Consider augmented matrix.
3 2 0 0
(𝐴, 0) = 1 2 −4 0
−4 −3 1 0
1 2 −4 0
R1 ↔ R 2 3 2 0 0
−4 −3 1 0
1 2 −4 0
R 2 − 3R1 , R 3 + 4R1 0 −4 12 0
0 5 −15 0
1 1 1 2 −4 0
− R2, R3 0 1 −3 0
4 5
0 1 −3 0
1 2 −4 0
R3 − R2 0 1 −3 0
0 0 0 0
∴ System is consistent and has nontrivial solution.
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴, 0) = 2 < number of unknowns.

∴ Vectors are linearly dependent.

EXAMPLES
From R 2 : 𝑐2 − 3𝑐3 = 0
From R1 : 𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 − 4𝑐3 = 0
These are two equations in three unknowns.
∴ We can choose 3 − 2 = 1 parameter.
Let c3 = t be the parameter.
From R 2 : ∴ 𝑐2 = 3𝑡
From R1 : ∴ 𝑐2 − 3𝑡 = 0
𝑐1 + 2(3𝑡) − 4𝑡 = 0
𝑐1 + 6𝑡 − 4𝑡 = 0
𝑐1 + 2𝑡 = 0
𝑐1 = −2𝑡
Relation between 𝐱1 , 𝐱 𝟐 , 𝐱 𝟑

Substitute 𝑐1 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐3 in
c1 x1 + c2 x2 + c3 x3 =0
−2tx1 + 3tx2 + tx3 =0
•
−2x1 + 3x2 + x3 =0
∴ 2x1 = 𝟑𝐱 𝟐 + x𝟑
EXAMPLES
Ex. 2
Examine whether the following vectors are linearly dependent or independent.
x1 = 2,2,7, −1 , x2 = 3, −1,2,4 , x3 = (1,1,3,1)

Solution:

Let 𝑐1 𝑥1 + 𝑐2 𝑥2 + 𝑐3 𝑥3 = 0

𝐶1 2,2,7, −1 + 𝐶2 3, −1,2,4 + 𝐶3 1,1,3,1 = 0

2𝐶1 + 3𝐶2 + 𝐶3 = 0
2𝐶1 − 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 = 0
7𝐶1 + 2𝐶2 + 3𝐶3 = 0
In matrix form:
2 3 1 𝐶 0
1
2 −1 1 𝐶 0
2 =
7 2 3 0
𝐶3
−1 4 1 0
𝐴𝐶 =0
EXAMPLES
Consider augmented matrix.
2 3 1 0
2 −1 1 0
𝐴, 0 =
7 2 3 0
−1 4 1 0

−1 4 1 0
R1 ↔ R 4 2 −1 1 0
7 2 3 0
2 3 1 0

−1 4 1 0
𝑅2 + 2𝑅1, 𝑅3 + 7𝑅1, 𝑅4 + 2𝑅1 0 7 3 0
0 30 10 0
0 11 3 0
−1 4 1 0
0 7 3 0
R 3 − 4R 2 , R 4 − R 2
0 2 −2 0
0 4 0 0
−1 4 1 0
0 1 9 0
R2 − 3R3, 14 R4
0 2 −2 0
0 1 0 0
EXAMPLES

−1 4 1 0
0 1 9 0
R 3 − 2R 2 , R 4 − R 2
0 0 −20 0
0 0 −9 0
−1 4 1 0
−1 −1 0 1 9 0
𝑅3 , 𝑅4
20 9 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
−1 4 1 0
0 1 9 0
R4 − R3
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Matrix is in echelon form.
𝜌(𝐴) = 𝜌(𝐴, 𝐵) = 3 = number of unknowns.
Thus, above system has trivial solution only.

∴ Vectors are linearly independent.

EXAMPLES
Ex. 3
Determine whether 𝑆 = 1 − 𝑡, 2𝑡 + 3𝑡 2 , 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 , 2 + 𝑡 3 is linearly dependent or independent. If dependent,
find the relation between them.

Solution:
𝑣1 = 1 − 𝑡, 𝑣2 = 2𝑡 + 3𝑡 2 , 𝑣3 = 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 , 𝑣4 = 2 + 𝑡 3

Consider,
𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 + 𝑐4 𝑣4 = 0
𝑐1 (1 − 𝑡) + 𝑐2 2𝑡 + 3𝑡 2 + 𝑐3 𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 3 + 𝑐4 2 + 𝑡 3
= 0 + 0𝑡 + 0𝑡 2 + 0𝑡 3

𝑐1 + 2𝑐4 + −𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 𝑡 + 3𝑐2 + 𝑐3 𝑡 2 + 𝑐4 − 2𝑐3 𝑡 3

Equating coefficients of powers of 𝑡 ,
EXAMPLES

𝑐1 + 2𝑐4 = 0, −𝑐1 + 2𝑐2 = 0, 3𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 0 − 2𝑐3 + 𝑐4 = 0

1 0 0 2
−1 2 0 0
𝐴∼
0 3 1 0
0 0 −2 1

Reducing to echelon form ,

1 0 0 2
0 1 0 1
𝐴∼
0 0 1 −3
0 0 0 5

⇒ 𝜌(𝐴) = 4 = Number of vectors

∴ Set is Linearly independent.

EXAMPLES
Ex. 4: Determine whether the set of vectors are linearly dependent /independent

1 0 −2 1 3 4 −3 −3
𝐻= , , ,
2 3 −1 0 2 3 1 3
Solution:
1 0 −2 1 3 4 −3 −3
Let 𝑣1 = , 𝑣2 = , 𝑣3 = , 𝑣4 =
2 3 −1 0 2 3 1 3
1 0 −2 1 3 4 −3 −3 0 0
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑐3 + 𝑐4 =
2 3 −1 0 2 3 1 3 0 0
𝑐1 − 2𝑐2 + 3𝑐3 − 3𝑐4 = 0
𝑐2 + 4𝑐3 − 3𝑐4 = 0
2𝑐1 − 𝑐2 + 2𝑐3 + 𝑐4 = 0
3𝑐1 + 3𝑐3 + 3𝑐4 = 0

1 −2 3 −3
0 1 4 −3
⇒𝐴=
2 −1 2 1
3 0 3 3
EXAMPLES

1 −2 3 −3 1 −2 3 −3
0 1 4 −3 0 1 4 −3
𝐴∼ ∼
0 3 −4 7 0 0 −16 16
0 6 −6 12 0 0 −30 30

Reducing A to Echelon form

1 −2 3 −3
0 1 4 −3
𝐴∼
0 0 1 −1
0 0 0 0

𝜌[𝐴] = 3 < number of unknowns

∴ The system has a non-trivial solution.
∴ Vectors are linearly dependent.
Ex. 5

𝟏. Determine by inspection if the given set is linearly

independent
1 4 1 3 0 −1 2
𝐚. −1 , 7 , 1 , 1 𝐛. 0 , 5 , 3
6 −2 −2 4 0 7 1

−2 5
1 2 −4
4 −10
𝐜. 1 , 3 , −6 𝐝. 𝑣1 = , 𝑣2 =
6 −15
1 4 −8
10 −25
Answers

𝐚) Set is linearly dependent, because it contains 4−vectors in ℝ3 .

𝐛) Set is linearly dependent, because it contain zero vector.
2 1 −4
𝐜) Set is linearly dependent, because 3 = − −6 .
2
4 −8
𝐝)Set is linearly dependent as there is relation between them.
2 4 6 10 2
as − = − =− = − 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑣1 = − 𝑣2
5 10 15 25 5
PRACTICE EXAMPLES
Q. Are the following vectors linearly dependent? if so find the relation between them.

i) (2, −1,3,2), (1,3,4,2) and (3, −5,3,2)

ii) 3 0 2 4 5 , 7 2 6 1 0 , [ 1 2 2 −7 −10].
iii) [9 0 9], [ 0 6 6], 3 3 0 .
iv) (1, 2, -1, 0), (1, 3, 1, 2), (4, 2, 1, 0), (6, 1, 0, 1).

v) 𝑥1 = (1,1,1,3), 𝑥2 = (1,2,3,4), 𝑥3 = (2,3,4,7)

Check whether the following sets are linearly
independent and spanning sets of 𝑅3

−1 4 −6
1. S1 = 2 , 1 , 3
1 −3 5

1 0 0 1
2. S2 = 1 , 1 , 0 , 0
1 1 1 1

1 0 1 0 0
3. S3 = 1 , 1 4. S4 = 1 , 1 , 0
1 1 1 1 1
A
EXAMPLES
Ex.1 Find the condition on 𝑡 for which the set of {(𝑡, 1,1), (1, 𝑡, 1), (𝑡, 1,3)} is linearly independent.
Solution: Let 𝑣1 = 𝑡, 1,1 , 𝑣2 = 1, 𝑡, 1 , 𝑣3 = (𝑡, 1,3)
Set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 } is linearly independent iff
𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3 = 0
Consider, 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 = 0
i.e. 𝑐1 𝑡, 1,1 + 𝑐2 1, 𝑡, 1 + 𝑐3 𝑡, 1,3 = 0,0,0
Thus, ( 𝑡𝑐1 +𝑐2 + 𝑡𝑐3 , 𝑐1 + 𝑡𝑐2 + 𝑐3 , 𝑐1 +𝑐2 +3𝑐3 ) = 0,0,0
⇒ 𝑡𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 𝑡𝑐3 = 0
𝑐1 + 𝑡𝑐2 + 𝑐3 = 0
𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + 3𝑐3 = 0
Since given set is linearly independent, Above system has trivial solution only.
i.e. 𝑡 1 𝑡
1 𝑡 1 ≠0
1 1 3
A
EXAMPLES
∴ 𝑡 3𝑡 − 1 − 1 3 − 1 + 𝑡 1 − 𝑡 ≠ 0
∴ 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 − 2 + 𝑡 − 𝑡 2 ≠ 0
∴ 2𝑡 2 − 2 ≠ 0
∴ 𝑡2 − 1 ≠ 0
∴ 𝑡2 ≠ 1
∴ 𝑡 ≠ ±1
Thus , 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 ≠ ±1
then the set {(𝑡, 1,1), (1, 𝑡, 1), (𝑡, 1,3)} is linearly independent.
BASIS

A subset 𝐵 = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 of a vector spaceV is a basis of V iff

𝑖) B is linearly independent 𝑖𝑖) 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(B) = V.

DIMENSION OF VECTOR SPACE

 Number of elements in a basis is known as the dimension of the vector space.

 If basis of vector space V contains finite number of vectors, then vector space is

finite dimensional.
IMPORTANT

𝑖) A given vector space may have more than one basis.

𝑖𝑖) A set having maximum number of linearly independent vectors is the basis.

𝑖𝑖𝑖) Minimum number of vectors which spans the vector space is the basis.

𝑖𝑣) Let B = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 is basis for vector space V,

then every vector in V can be written in one and only one way as a linear combination of vectors in B.

𝑣)If a vector space V has one basis with n vectors,then every basis for V has n vectors.
NOTE

Note:

If basis of a vector space V has 𝑛 vectors then

𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 V = dim( V) = 𝑛 & dim{ 0} 𝑖𝑠 defined 𝑎𝑠 0.

1) In an n − dimensional vector space V, any set of “n + 1” vectors or more is always linearly dependent.
2) In an n − dimensional vector space V, any set having " less than n " vectors cannot span vector space V.
STANDARD BASIS
1. V = 𝑅𝑛 , 𝐵 = {𝑒1 , 𝑒2 , … , 𝑒𝑛 }
where 𝑒1 = (1,0, … , 0), 𝑒2 = (0,1, … , 0), . . . , e𝑛 = (0,0, … , 1).
dim( 𝑅𝑛 ) = 𝑛.

1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
2. V = 𝑀2×2 (𝑅), 𝐵 = , , ,
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1

∴ dim( 𝑀2×2 (𝑅)) = 4. In general , ∴ dim( 𝑀𝑚×𝑛 (𝑅)) = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑛

3. 𝑉 = 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥)𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛.

𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑛 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝐵 = 1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , … , 𝑥 𝑛 . ∴ dim 𝑃𝑛 (𝑥) = 𝑛 + 1.

NOTE
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞:

If Basis of subsapce V of 𝑅 𝑛 contains

𝑖) 1−vector,then geometrically it is a straight line in 𝑅𝑛 through origin.

ii) 2−vectors, then geometrically it is a plane in 𝑅𝑛 through origin.

1 −1
Consider B = 2 , 2
1 1
1. Is it basis of 𝑅2 ? 2. Is it basis of 𝑅3 ?
ANS : No, as 𝐵 ⊄ 𝑅2 . ANS: No, as 𝐷𝑖𝑚 𝑅3 = 3 and B contains two linearly
independent vectors.

1 −1 1 1
Is 𝐵 = 2 , 2 , 1 , 2 a basis of 𝑅3 ?
1 1 1 3

ANS: No, as 𝐷𝑖𝑚 𝑅3 = 3 and B contains two linearly

independent vectors.
SUMMARY

To check whether a given set is basis or not.

Consider, the given set of 𝑝 vectors B= 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , ⋯ , 𝑣𝑝
of vector spaces 𝑅𝑛 𝑜𝑟 M𝑚×𝑛 𝑅 𝑜𝑟 P𝑛 .
Compare 𝑝 with the dimension of given vector space, i.e., 𝐧 or 𝐦𝐧 or 𝐧 + 𝟏 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐲

Suppose subset B of vector space V is given.

We want to check whether subset B is basis of V or not.
Suppose 𝐵 = 𝑝 i.e. (B has p elements in it)
And dim 𝑉 = 𝑛 .

Test 𝒑<𝒏 𝒑>𝒏 𝒑=𝒏

Conclusion It can’t be Always Linearly Check for linear
spanning set. dependent Independence
Hence not Basis. Hence not Basis If yes, then is
basis
EXAMPLES
Ex. 𝟏. Determine whether the set is a basis for𝑀2×2 𝑅 ?

1 0 −1 0 2 1 1 1
𝑆= , , ,
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1

Solution:
Since dim( 𝑀2×2 (𝑅)) = 4, and S contains 4 vectors, therefore
S is a basis for𝑀2×2 (𝑅) if and only if given set of vectors
are linearly independent.

1 0 −1 0 2 1 1 1
Let 𝑣1 = , 𝑣2 = , 𝑣3 = , 𝑣4 =
0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
Let us check whether {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 , 𝑣4 } is linearly independent or not.
Consider 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 + 𝑐4 𝑣4 = 0. . . (1)

1 −1 2 1
0 0 1 1
A𝐶 = 0 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 A =
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1

1 −1 2 1
0 1 1 0
Reducing it to echelon form we get A ~
0 0 1 1
0 0 0 4
𝜌(𝐴) = 4
∴ System 1 has trivial solution only. ∴ S is linearly independent.
∴ S is a basis for 𝑀2×2 𝑅 .
Method of determining the dimension of a subspace:

Dimension of a subspace can be determined by

finding a set of linearly independent vectors that spans
the subspace. This set is a basis for the subspace and its
dimension is number of vectors in its basis.
EXAMPLES
Question: 0
𝑎)Show that H = 𝑡 : 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅 is a subspace of 𝑅3 . Find the basis and dimension.
𝑡
0 0
b)Is B = 𝑣1 = 0 , v2 = 1 a basis of for 𝐻?
1 0
Solution:
0 0 0 0
𝑎) Note that 𝑡 = 𝑡 1 , 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅. This means 𝐻 = 𝑡 1 , 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ H=span 1 .
𝑡 1 1 1
0
Every span is a subspace,hence H is a subspace. Further𝐵 = 1 is a
1
spanning set of H.
Also set B contains a single non−zero vector, therefore it is a
0
linearly independent set. Thus 𝐵 = 1 is linearly independent
1
spanning set of H. Hence B is a basis of H.
Therefore dim(H)=1
0 0
b) B = 𝑣1 = 0 , v2 = 1 , is a linearly independent set with
1 0
two vectors and dim(H)=1, hence B is not a basis of H.
EXAMPLES 4
Question: Determine the dimension of each subspace of 𝑅 .
𝐚) 𝑆 = 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑐 : 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅
𝐛)𝑆 = 3𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
Solution:
𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑏, 𝑏, 𝑎 − 𝑐 = 𝑎(1,1,0,1) + 𝑏(0,1,1,0) + 𝑐(0,0,0, −1)
we cansee that S is spanned by (1,1,0,1), 0,1,1,0 & (0,0,0, −1).
Thus, 𝐵 = (1,1,0,1), (0,1,1,0), (0,0,0, −1) is spans subspace S.

Let us check Linear independence.

Let 𝑣1 = (1,1,0,1) , 𝑣2 = (0,1,1,0) , 𝑣3 = (0,0,0, −1)
Set of vectors {𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 } is linearly independent iff
𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 + 𝑐3 𝑣3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐1 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐3 = 0

𝑐1 (1,1,0,1) + 𝑐2 (0,1,1,0) + 𝑐3 (0,0,0, −1) = 0,0,0,0

⇒ 𝑐1 , 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 , 𝑐2 , 𝑐1 − 𝑐3 = 0,0,0,0
Thus, we get
𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0, 𝑐1 − 𝑐3 = 0
EXAMPLES
Solution continued :
∴ 𝑐1 = 0, 𝑐2 = 0 and 𝑐1 − 𝑐3 = 0 ⇒ 0 − 𝑐3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑐3 = 0
Thus, above system has trivial solution only.
∴ The set of vectors are linearly independent.

B spans S and B is also linearly independent.

∴ 𝐵 = (1,1,0,1), (0,1,1,0), (0,0,0, −1)
is a basis for S.
∴ dim( 𝑆) = 𝐵 = 3
EXAMPLES

𝐛) 𝑆 = 3𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 : 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛:
3𝑎, 𝑎, 𝑏, 0 = 𝑎(3,1,0,0) + b( 0,0,1,0)
we can see that S is spanned by (3,1,0,0), (0,0,1,0)
∴ 𝐵 = (3,1,0,0), 0,0,1,0 spans S .

As 3,1,0,0 and 0,0,1,0 are not scalar multiples of each other .

∴ The set of vectors is linearly independent.
∴ 𝐵 = (3,1,0,0), 0,0,1,0 is a basis for S.

∴ dim( 𝑆) = 𝐵 = 2.
EXAMPLES
𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶

Determine the dimension of each subspace of𝑅3 .

𝑎+𝑐
S = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 𝑐 /𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝑅 ⊆ 𝑅3
𝑎+𝑏
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∶

𝑎+𝑐 𝑎 0 𝑐 1 0 1
𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑎 + 2𝑏 + −𝑐 = 𝑎 1 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 −1
𝑎+𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 0 1 1 0
1 0 1
∴ S = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 1 , 2 , −1 ⇒ S is a subspace.
1 1 0
1 0 1
Note that 1 , 2 , −1 is a spanning set but
1 1 0
1 0 1 vectors in above set are
1 − 2 = −1 ⇒ not linearly independent.
1 1 0
1 0 1
Hence 1 , 2 , −1 is not a basis.
1 1 0
 1 0
To find the basis, note that if 𝑢 = 1 , 𝑣 = 2
1 1
1
and 𝑤 = −1 then we have 𝑢 − 𝑣 = 𝑤.
0

Hence 𝑢, 𝑣 OR 𝑣, 𝑤 are linearly independent.

Further note that 𝑢, 𝑣 is also a spanning set.

Because any 𝑥 ∈ S is
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑐𝑤 = 𝑎𝑢 + 𝑏𝑣 + 𝑐 𝑢 − 𝑣 = (𝑎 + 𝑐)𝑢 + (𝑏 − 𝑐)𝑣.

Similarly, 𝑣, 𝑤 is also a spanning set.

1 0 0 1
Thus basis of S is 1 , 2 OR 2 , −1 .
1 1 1 0

Therefore dimension of S is 2.
EXAMPLES
Question
𝑎 𝑏
If W = : 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ is a subspace of M2×2 .
0 𝑐
what is a dimension of W?

Solution:

𝑎 𝑏 1 0 0 1 0 0
=𝑎 +𝑏 +𝑐
0 𝑐 0 0 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 1 0 0
W = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 , ,
0 0 0 0 0 1

W is a subspace of M2×2

dim( 𝑊) = 3.
EXAMPLES Question:

Find a basis and dimension of the solution space of

the homogeneous system of equations.
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 + 11𝑥4 + 3𝑥5 = 0,2 𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 + 15𝑥4 + 2𝑥5 = 0
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 4𝑥4 + 5𝑥5 = 0, 3𝑥1 + 6𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 + 19𝑥4 − 2𝑥5 = 0

Solution:
1 2 −5 11 3
2 4 −5 15 2
Consider AX = 0 where A =
1 2 0 4 5
3 6 −5 19 −2

1 2 −5 11 3
0 0 5 −7 −4
Reducing A to Echelon form we get A~
0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0
Equivalent system is
𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 − 5𝑥3 + 11𝑥4 − 3𝑥5 = 0, 5𝑥3 − 7𝑥4 − 𝑥5 = 0, 𝑥5 = 0
 7
Let 𝑥4 = 𝑠, 𝑥2 = 𝑡, 𝑥3 = 𝑠, 𝑥1 = −2𝑡 − 4𝑠
5

𝑥1 −2𝑡 − 4𝑠 −2 −20
𝑥2 𝑡 1
7 𝑠 0
∴ Solutionis 𝑥3 = 𝑠 =𝑡 0 + 7
𝑥4 5 5
𝑠 1 5
𝑥5 0 0
0

−2 −20
1 0
𝐵= 0 , 7 is a basis for solution space of homgeneous system.
1 5
0 0

dim( 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒) = 2.

EXAMPLES Question. Let H = 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 and W = 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , where
5 1 2 0
𝑣1 = 3 , 𝑣2 = 3 , 𝑢1 = −1 , and 𝑢2 = 0
8 4 4 1
and K = H ∩ W, find the basis for K.

Solution:

Geometrically H and W are the planes in 𝑅3 .

∴ H ∩ W is a line of intersection of the planes H and W.
∴ K can be written 𝑎𝑠 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 and also as 𝑐3 𝑢1 + 𝑐4 𝑢2 .

K is a solution space of 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 = 𝑐3 𝑢1 + 𝑐4 𝑢2 .
𝑖. 𝑒. K is a solution space of 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 − 𝑐3 𝑢1 − 𝑐4 𝑢2 = 0
5 1 −2 0
Coefficient matrixA = 3 3 1 0
8 4 −4 −1
1 5 4 0
By reducing it to echelon form A ∼ 0−12−11 0
0 0 −3 −1
∴ 𝜌(A) = 3
Let 𝑐4 = 𝑘 free variable

1 11 7
𝑐3 = − 𝑘, 𝑐2 = 𝑘, 𝑐1 = − 𝑘.
3 36 36

7 11 1
Thus 𝑐1 = − 𝑘, 𝑐2 = 𝑘, 𝑐3 = − 𝑘, 𝑐4 = 𝑘
36 36 3

Every vector in K is either 𝑐1 𝑣1 + 𝑐2 𝑣2 𝑜𝑟𝑐3 𝑢1 + 𝑐4 𝑢2 .

−24𝑘/36
7 5 11 1 𝑘 −2
− 𝑘 3 + 𝑘 3 = 12𝑘/36 = 1
36 36 3
8 4 −12𝑘/36 −1

1 2 0 𝑘 −2 −2
OR − 𝑘 −1 + 𝑘 0 = 1 ∴ Basis for 𝐾 = 1 .
3 3
4 1 −1 −1
Exercise

1. Determine whether the set is a basis for the

vector space if it is avector space determine its
dimension.
1 0 0 −1 1 1 1 1
𝑎)V = M2×2 , B = , , , .
0 1 1 0 1 1 1 −1
𝑏)V = P2 , 1 − 𝑥, 1 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 − 𝑥 2

2. Find the basis and dimension of vector space V.

𝑎)V = 𝑝(𝑥) ∈ P2 : 𝑝(1) = 0 .
𝑏)V = 𝑝(𝑥) ∈ P2 : 𝑥𝑝′ (x) = 𝑝(𝑥) .
𝑐)V = A ∈ M2×2 : A = A𝑇 .

3. Find the basis for span 1 − 2𝑥, 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 , 1 − 𝑥 2 , 1 + 𝑥 2 .

1 0 1 −1 1 0 −1 1
4. Find the basis for span
1 1 1 1 0 −1 −1 1
 FUNDAMENTAL SUBSPACES

Given a matrix A of order 𝑚 × 𝑛, its rows are vectors in ℝ𝑛

and columns of are vectors in ℝ𝑚 .
ROW SPACE
The collection of all possible linear combinations of rows of A,
i.e., span of rows of A, denoted as row(A)/Row(A) is defined as
Row space.
row(A)=span R1 , R 2 , ⋯ , R 𝑚 .
The set of all linearly independent rows of A
form basis of row(A) and dim(row(A))=rank of A=𝜌(A).

COLUMN SPACE
The collection of all possible linear combinations of columns of A,
i.e., span of columns of A, denoted as col(A)/Col(A) is defined as
Column space.
col(A)=span C1 , C2 , ⋯ , C𝑛 .
The set of all linearly independent columns of A
form basis of col(A) and dim(col(A))=rank of A=𝜌(A).
NOTE

Column of A𝑡 = rows of A and rows of A𝑡 = column of A

Hence row(A𝑡 )=col(A) and col(A𝑡 )=row(A).
Hence to find basis of col(A)

1. Reduce A𝑡 to echelon form and the non−zero rows in

echelon form of A𝑡 constitute basis of col(A).

OR

2. Reduce A to echelon form, the columns of A with pivot

positions constitute basis of col(A).
NULL SPACE
Let A be 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix

Null space of A=Null(A) = X ∈ 𝑅𝑛 : AX = 0

𝑖. 𝑒. , Null A is the solution space of

homogeneous system of linear equations AX=0.

𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑚

0 0
NULL SPACE
Null( A) 𝑖𝑠 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 of 𝑅𝑛 .

Null( A) = X ∈ 𝑅𝑛 : AX = 0

Let X,Y ∈ Null( A) ⇒ AX = 0, AY = 0

A (X + Y) = AX + AY = 0 + 0 = 0 ⇒ X + Y ∈ Null( A)

Let 𝑘 ∈ 𝑅and X ∈ Null( A)

A 𝑘X = 𝑘AX=𝑘0=0 ⇒ 𝑘X ∈ Null( A)

Null( A) is closed under addition and scalar

multiplication.
 If 𝜌(A) = 𝑟, then dim( Null(A)) = 𝑛 − 𝑟
and is called as nullity.

Null space of A𝑡
Null(A𝑡 ) = Y ∈ 𝑅𝑚 : A𝑡 Y = 0 is a subspace of 𝑅𝑚 .
The dimension of this subspace is known as nullity of A𝑡 .

The dimension of Null(A𝑡 ) = 𝑚 − 𝑟, where 𝑟 = 𝜌 A

NOTE
Null space of A𝑡 is also known as left null space of A and denoted as LNull(A)/lNull(A).
EXAMPLES
1 3 −5 −3
1. 𝐼𝑠 𝑢 = 3 ∈ Null(A), 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 A = 6 −2 0 ?
−4 −8 4 1
Solution:
3 −5 −3 1 0
Consider, A𝑢 = 6 −2 0 3 = 0 . ∴ 𝑢 ∈ Null(A).
−8 4 1 −4 0

5 3 −5 −3
2. 𝐼𝑠 𝑢 = 3 ∈ Null A , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 A = 6 −2 0 ?
0 −8 4 1
Solution:
3 −5 −3 5 0
A𝑢 = 6 −2 0 3 = 18 ≠ 0 ∴ 𝑢 ∉ Null(A).
−8 4 1 0 52
EXAMPLES 3. Find the Basis and dimension for row A , col A and Null( A)
1 2 −1 0 3
𝑡
Null(A ), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 A = 0 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 1 0 1

Solution:
1 2 −1 0 3
Consider, A = 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 1

1 2 −1 0 3
Reduce it to echelon form 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
From echelon form of A,𝜌 A = 2.
Thus dimension of row space dim(row(A))=2.
row(A)=span 1,2, −1,0,3 , 0,0,1,0,1 and the basis is
1,2, −1,0,3 , 0,0,1,0,1 .

To find Null space

By definition, Null(A) = X: AX=0 , i.e., solution
set of AX=0.
 𝑥1
1 2 −1 0 3 𝑥2 0 𝑥 + 2𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + 3𝑥5 = 0
0 0 1 0 1 𝑥3 = 0 ⇒ 1 𝑥3 + 𝑥5 = 0
0 0 0 0 0 𝑥4 0
𝑥5

Free variables are 𝑥2 , 𝑥4 and 𝑥5 . Therefore

let 𝑥2 = 𝑟, 𝑥4 =s and 𝑥5 = 𝑡, 𝑟, 𝑠, 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅.
Hence 𝑥3 = −𝑡 and 𝑥1 = −2𝑟 − 4𝑡
EXAMPLES 1 0 0
2 0 0
Example: Consider, A𝑡 = −1 1 1 . Reduce the matrix to echelon form
0 0 0
3 1 1

Solution:
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
−1 1 1 ~ 0 1 1 ~ 0 1 1 ~ 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

⇒ 𝜌 A𝑡 = 2
 1 0 1 0
Thus, col(A)=span 0 , 1 and basis of col(A) is 0 , 1 .
0 1 0 1
Dimension of col(A)=2.

1 0 0 0
0 1 1 𝑦1 0 𝑦 =0
0 0 0 𝑦2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 +1 𝑦 = 0
2 3
0 0 0 𝑦3 0
0 0 0 0
Here free variable is 𝑦3 , let 𝑦3 = 𝑡 ∈ 𝑅
𝑦1 0 0 0
𝑦2 = −𝑡 = 𝑡 −1 ∴ Null(A )=span −1 .
𝑡
𝑦3 𝑡 1 1
0
Further, −1 is also linearly independent.
1
0
∴ Basis of Null(A𝑡 ) is −1 and dimension of
1
𝑡 𝑡
Null(A ), i.e., nullity of A is 1.
Another Method to find basis of column space of A

1 2 −1 0 3
Consider, A = 0 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 1 0 1
1 2 −1 0 3
Echelon form of A is 0 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 0 0 0
Here the pivot elements are observed in column 1 and
column 3. Hence consider first and third columns of A.

Thus, the basis of col(A) is

1 −1
0 , 1
0 1
EXAMPLES 𝑄𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 Null( A) , row A & 𝑑𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑡 dimension.
1 2 −1 0 3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 A = 0 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 0 0 1
𝑢1
1 2 −1 0 3 𝑢2
Solution: Let 𝑢 ∈ Null(A), ∴ Au = 0 0 1 0 1 𝑢3 = 0
0 0 0 0 1 𝑢4
𝑢5
Here 𝜌 𝐴 = 3. Therefore there are 2 free variables.
here 𝑢2 and 𝑢4 are free variables. Let 𝑢2 = 𝑠, 𝑢4 = 𝑡

Equivalent system is 𝑢1 + 2𝑢2 − 𝑢3 + 3𝑢5 = 0

𝑢3 − 𝑢5 = 0, 𝑢5 = 0 ⇒ 𝑢3 = 0, 𝑢1 = −2𝑠
𝑢1 −2𝑠 −2 0 −2 0
𝑢2 𝑠 1 0 1 0
𝑢3 = 0 =𝑠 0 +𝑡 0 ∴ Null space of A is 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 A = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 0 , 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑢4 𝑡 0 1 0 1
𝑢5 0 0 0 0 0

−2 0
1 0
basisis 0 , 0 . 𝐷𝑖𝑚(𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙(A)) = 2.
0 1
0 0
EXAMPLES
Find basis for 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 (A), 𝐶𝑜𝑙(A) and 𝑅𝑜𝑤(A)𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
2 −4 0 2 0
A = −1 2 1 2 4
2 −2 1 4 4
Solution:
We will reduce A to echelon form
1 −2 1 4 4 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 1 −2 1 4 4
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ⇒ −1 2 1 2 4 ⇒ 0 0 2 6 8
𝑅3 − 2𝑅1
2 −2 1 4 4 0 2 −1 −4 −4

1 −2 1 4 4 1 −2 1 4 4
1
𝑅23 ⇒ 0 2 −1 −4 −4 𝑅 ⇒ 0 2 −1 −4 −4
2 3
0 0 2 6 8 0 0 1 3 4

2 −4 0
Basis for 𝐶𝑜𝑙(A) = −1 , 2 , 1 and dim 𝐶𝑜𝑙(A) = 3.
2 −2 1

Basis for 𝑅𝑜𝑤(A)

1−2144 , 0 2 −1−4−4 , 00134
and dim 𝑅𝑜𝑤(A) = 3.

𝑢1 𝑢1
𝑢2 1 −2 1 4 4 𝑢2 0
Let 𝑥 = 𝑢3 ∈ 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙(A) ⇒ 0 2 −1 −4 −4 𝑢3 = 0
𝑢4 0 0 1 3 4 𝑢4 0
𝑢5 𝑢5
This gives 𝑢3 + 3𝑢4 + 4𝑢5 = 0,2𝑢2 − 𝑢3 − 4𝑢4 − 4𝑢5 = 0
𝑢1 − 2𝑢2 + 𝑢3 + 4𝑢4 + 4𝑢5 = 0.
𝑡
Let 𝑢4 = 𝑡, 𝑢5 = 𝑠, 𝑡, 𝑠 ∈ 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑢3 = −3𝑡 − 4𝑠, 𝑢2 = , 𝑢1 = 0
2

The solution is
0 0 0 0 0
𝑡/2 𝑡 1 0 1 0
−3𝑡 − 4𝑠 = −6 + 𝑠 −4 ⇒ 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙(A) = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 −6 , −4
2
𝑡 2 0 2 0
𝑠 0 1 0 1
dim( 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙(A)) = 2.
EXAMPLES −8 −2 −9 2
Let A = 6 4 8 and𝑤 = 1 .
4 0 4 −2
𝑖)determine if 𝑤 is in column space of A.
𝑖𝑖)Is 𝑤 in null space of A? 𝑖𝑖𝑖)Is 𝑤 in row space of A?

Solution: 𝑖) 𝑤 will be in column space of A, if there exists

some vector 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 3 such that A𝑥 = 𝑤isconsistant.
−8 −2 −9 2 2 0 2−1
let 𝐴, 𝑤 = 6 4 8 1 ~ 0 4 24
4 0 4 −2 0 0 00
𝜌 A, 𝑤 = 𝜌 A = 2, ∴ the system of linear equationsis consistant.
∴ 𝑤 ∈ 𝑐𝑜𝑙(A)

𝑖𝑖)𝑤is in 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙(A) if and only if A 𝑤 = 0

−8 −2 −9 2 0
𝐴𝑤 = 6 4 8 1 = 0 ∴ 𝑤 ∈ 𝑛𝑢𝑙𝑙(A).
4 0 4 −2 0
𝐢𝐢𝐢)𝑤 will be in row space of 𝐴, if there exists
some vector 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 3 such that 𝐴𝑇 𝑥 = 𝑤isconsistant
−8 6 4 2
𝑇
𝐴 , 𝑤 = −2 4 0 1
−9 8 4−2
 1 −2 00
A𝑇 𝑤~ 0 −10 4−2 ∴ 𝜌 A, 𝑤 ≠ 𝜌 A ∴ 𝑤 ∉ 𝑅𝑜𝑤(A).
0 0 01

EXAMPLES
Ex : LetA3×3 be such that A ≠ 0, 𝑓ind
fundamental subspaces of A.Let B = A A ,
also find Fundamental subspacesofB. Further,
find bases for all subspaces.
Solution:
1 2 3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 A = 0 1 5 . since A ≠ 0, AX=0has a trivial solution,
0 0 1
0
therefore 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙(A) = 0 . As A is in euchelon form, all columns of
0
1 2 3
A are pivot columns, 𝐶𝑜𝑙(A) = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 0 , 1 , 5 and
0 0 1
𝑅𝑜𝑤(A) = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 1,2,3 , 0,1,5 , 0,0,1 .
1 2 3
Basis of 𝐶𝑜𝑙(A) is 0 , 1 , 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑basis of 𝑅𝑜𝑤(A)
0 0 1
is 1,2,3 , 0,1,5 , 0,0,1 .
 1 0 0 1 0 0
B= A A = 0 1 0 0 1 0 . B is in echelon form,
0 0 1 0 0 1

first three columns of A are pivot columns. Therefore,

1 0 0 1 0 0
𝐶𝑜𝑙(A) = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 0 , 1 , 0 . Basis is 0 , 1 , 0 .
0 0 1 0 0 1

𝑅𝑜𝑤(A) = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 1,0,0,1,0,0 , 0,1,0,0,1,0 , 0,0,1,0,0,1 .

Basis of 𝑅𝑜𝑤(A)is 1,0,0,1,0,0 , 0,1,0,0,1,0 , 0,0,1,0,0,1 .

To find null space of B, solve BX=0.
𝑥1
𝑥2
1 0 0 1 0 0 𝑥 0 𝑥1 + 𝑥4 = 0
3
0 1 0 0 1 0 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 + 𝑥5 = 0
4
0 0 1 0 0 1 𝑥 0 𝑥3 + 𝑥6 = 0
5
𝑥6
Free variables are 𝑥4 , 𝑥5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥6 .
Let 𝑥4 = 𝑡, 𝑥5 = 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥6 = 𝑟, 𝑡, 𝑠, 𝑟 ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑥1 = −𝑡, 𝑥2 = −𝑠, 𝑥3 = −𝑟.
𝑥1 𝑡 1 0 0
𝑥2 𝑠 0 1 0
𝑥3 𝑟 0 0 1
∴X= 𝑥 = =𝑡 +𝑠 +𝑟 .
4 −𝑡 −1 0 0
𝑥5 −𝑠 0 −1 0
𝑥6 −𝑟 0 0 −1
1 0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
Thus𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙 A = 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛 , , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 basisis , ,
−1 0 0 −1 0 0
0 −1 0 0 −1 0
0 0 −1 0 0 −1
EXAMPLES
Ex: If AX = V and AX = W are both consistant.
Is the equation AX = V + W consistant?

SOLUTION
AX = V is consistant means V ∈ 𝑐𝑜𝑙 A , &
AX = W 𝑖𝑠 consistant means W ∈ 𝑐𝑜𝑙(A).
But 𝑐 𝑜𝑙 A 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒. ∴ V + W ∈ 𝑐𝑜𝑙(A) ∴ AX = V + W is consistant.
THEOREM
𝐿𝑒𝑡𝐴 𝑏𝑒 𝑚 × 𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌(𝐴) = 𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
dim( 𝑐𝑜𝑙(A)) + dim( 𝑁𝑢𝑙𝑙(A)) = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 A.

EXAMPLES
Ex: 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝜌 𝐴6×8 = 5, 𝑊ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 dimensions of four subspaces?

SOLUTION
dim(Col(A)) = dim(Row(A))=5.
Dim(NullA)=3,dim(LNullA)=dim(NullA𝑡 )=1.
QUESTION

• Question: Determine if the following statements are true or false, and justify your answers.

a) A linearly independent set in a subspace H is a basis for H.

b) The columns of a non singular matrix forms a basis for Col(A).

c) The null space of an m × n matrix Ais a subsapce of 𝑅𝑚 .

𝑑) Col A is a set of vectors that can be written as 𝐴𝑋 for some 𝑋

𝑒)𝐴 plane in 𝑅3 is two dimensional subspace of 𝑅3 .

𝑓)The dimension of vector space P3

set of all polynomials at most of Degree 3 , is 3.

g) If the 6 × 3 matrix A rank 3, then dimension of N ull(A) = 0.

ℎ) If the 4 × 5 matrix A has 4 pivot columns, then col(A) = R4 .