See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/222512310

Testing models for the Messinian salinity crisis: The Messinian record in
Almería, SE Spain

Article in Sedimentary Geology · June 2006

DOI: 10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.03.002 · Source: OAI

CITATIONS READS

129 2,177

6 authors, including:

Juan C. Braga José M. Martín

University of Granada University of Granada
245 PUBLICATIONS 9,552 CITATIONS 116 PUBLICATIONS 5,090 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Robert Riding Julio Aguirre

University of Tennessee University of Granada
147 PUBLICATIONS 10,660 CITATIONS 126 PUBLICATIONS 3,509 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Marie Curie Initial Training Network "Throughflow" View project

Upper Cretaceous Cyclostratigraphy, Isotope Stratigraphy and Biostratigraphy View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Jaume Dinarès-Turell on 11 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131 – 154
www.elsevier.com/locate/sedgeo

Testing models for the Messinian salinity crisis:

The Messinian record in Almería, SE Spain
Juan C. Braga a,⁎, José M. Martín a , Robert Riding b , Julio Aguirre a ,
Isabel M. Sánchez-Almazo a , Jaume Dinarès-Turell c
a
Departamento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencias, Campus de Fuentenueva s.n., Universidad de Granada,
18002 Granada, Spain
b
School of Earth, Ocean and Planetary Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF10 3YE, United Kingdom
c
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata, 605, 00143 Roma, Italy

Abstract

Neogene intermontane basins in Almería Province, SE Spain, display excellent exposures of Messinian (Late Miocene) sequences.
The Sorbas, Almería-Níjar and Vera basins maintained connection with the Mediterranean throughout the Messinian, except during the
major desiccation phase leading to the formation of salt in the deep centre of the Western Mediterranean. These basins were part of the
Western Mediterranean with no separate link to the Atlantic Ocean. The presence of normal marine sediments in these basins reflects the
Western Mediterranean watermass. Messinian pre-evaporitic sediments in the basins of southeastern Almería do not show gradual
change towards evaporite deposits. Instead they contain stenohaline invertebrates right up to a major erosion surface that separates them
from overlying gypsum deposits. This contradicts suggestion of progressive salinity increase in this part of the Western Mediterranean
prior to the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC); it also indicates that initiation of evaporite precipitation was not synchronous throughout the
Mediterranean Basin. There is no major erosion surface within or at the top of the evaporites in these Almería basins, and the gypsum
beds exhibit upward transition to siliciclastic and carbonate deposits. This is inconsistent with a model of Messinian Mediterranean
evaporite formation whereby deposition of marginal evaporites was followed by their erosion during drawdown that resulted in
formation of evaporites in the centre of the Western Mediterranean. The presence of stenohaline biotas in siliciclastic deposits
interbedded with the gypsum and in the Messinian post-evaporitic sediments, challenges the view that a long-standing large body of
brackish water (the Lago Mare) filled the Western Mediterranean following the MSC and prior to Early Pliocene flooding. It also
contradicts the concept of many relatively small brackish basins spread across an otherwise desiccated Western Mediterranean basin. The
basins of southeastern Almería record normal marine Early Messinian sedimentation that was abruptly interrupted by sealevel fall. This
drawdown most likely resulted in precipitation of evaporites in the central deep Western Mediterranean basin. Following this episode,
final marine reflooding of the Western Mediterranean took place during the Late Messinian, and the Mediterranean Sea rose to a level
similar to, or higher than, that preceding the Salinity Crisis.
© 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Almería; Evaporites; Messinian Salinity Crisis; Palaeoenvironments; Western Mediterranean; Spain

1. Introduction

Essentially, the Messinian Salinity Crisis (MSC)

⁎ Corresponding author. concept is that temporary isolation from the world ocean
E-mail address: [email protected] (J.C. Braga). resulted in Mediterranean desiccation during the Late
0037-0738/$ - see front matter © 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.03.002
132 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

Miocene Messinian Stage (Hsü et al., 1973). This 2001; Lu et al., 2001; Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo,
interpretation astutely accounted for thick Messinian salt 2004). These marginal basins adjacent to the present-day
and gypsum deposits beneath the deep floor of the present- Mediterranean in SE Almería (Almería-Níjar, Sorbas and
day Mediterranean Sea, but at the same time it raised many Vera basins), clearly reflect events during the Crisis, since
questions of detail (Cita, 1991). Now, more than thirty they maintained connection with the Mediterranean
years later, numerous uncertainties remain despite con- throughout the Messinian, except during the MSC itself.
siderable efforts during the past decade to reconstruct At the same time, some important variations exist between
these remarkable events (e.g., Rouchy and Saint-Martin, the sequences that these basins contain, and these
1992; Cornée et al., 1994; Gautier et al., 1994; Butler et al., differences are also instructive.
1995; Clauzon et al., 1996; Cunningham et al., 1997; Here we briefly review the sedimentary record of the
Riding et al., 1998; Krijgsman et al., 1999a). Almería-Níjar, Sorbas and Vera basins to test concepts
The deep Mediterranean evaporites have been regarding the Messinian evolution of the Western
recognized on seismic profiles, but have not been drilled Mediterranean area. We suggest that although the deposits
to their base and their nature and age are incompletely in these three basins cannot reflect all the events that
known. Information obtained from Messinian onland occurred in the Mediterranean basin during the Messinian,
exposures around the present-day Mediterranean Sea has any proposed interpretation of the Western Mediterranean
been used to elucidate the timing of the MSC (Gautier et has to be consistent with their marine sedimentary record.
al., 1994; Krijgsman et al., 1999a) as well as the
palaeoenvironmental changes leading to evaporite 2. Geological setting
deposition in the Mediterranean centre (e.g., Schreiber
et al., 1976; Decima et al., 1988; Pierre et al., 1997; Miocene uplift of the Betic Cordillera led to emergence
Blanc-Valleron et al., 2002). The Messinian successions of a series of islands in this region where the Mediterra-
in these emergent marginal basins have also been the nean Sea connected with the Atlantic Ocean. These
main source of data for interpretation of the post- emerging islands were surrounded by subsiding marine
evaporitic events and the timing of final reconnection of basins that were filled by sediments resulting from the
the Mediterranean Sea with the open ocean (e.g., Riding erosion of adjacent basement uplands (Montenat, 1990;
et al., 1998; Orszag-Sperber et al., 2000; Rouchy et al., Weijermars, 1991). Continued uplift of the Betic chain
2001, 2003; Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004). increased the separation of the Mediterranean Sea and
Using combined information provided by submarine Atlantic Ocean. Whereas the Guadalquivir Basin, the
seismic profiles together with that from drill cores and foreland basin of the Betic Cordillera, remained open to
from onland outcrops in marginal basins, several models the Atlantic Ocean, most of what are now Betic
accounting for the evolution of the Mediterranean intermontane basins were linked to the Mediterranean
during the MSC have been proposed (Hsü et al., 1973; Sea (Esteban et al., 1996; Braga et al., 2002, 2003).
Cita et al., 1978; Sonnenfeld, 1985; Butler et al., 1995; Closure of the last Betic seaway connecting the Mediter-
Clauzon et al., 1996; Riding et al., 1998; Orszag- ranean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean took place in the Early
Sperber et al., 2000; Rouchy et al., 2001, 2003; among Messinian (Martín et al., 2001) (Fig. 2A, B). Inner basins,
others). These models substantially differ in crucial more remote from the present-day coast, such as the
aspects such as overall stratigraphic relationships, basic Granada and Guadix basins, became isolated from the
sedimentological models of evaporite formation, and Mediterranean even before the Messinian (Rouchy, 1982).
large-scale palaeoenvironmental interpretation of the The closure of the connection in the eastern part of the
Mediterranean during post-evaporitic Messinian times. Betic Cordillera took place during the Late Tortonian
The Neogene intermontane basins in Almería Province (Krijgsman et al., 2000). In contrast, outer basins such as
(SE Spain) (Fig. 1) constitute a group of relatively small Almería-Níjar, Sorbas and Vera (the SE Almería basins)
but highly significant onland outcrops of Messinian (Fig. 1) remained connected to the Mediterranean
marine sediments. These well-preserved and readily (Fig. 2B) up to the onset of desiccative drawdown that
accessible Messinian successions have made possible marked inception of the MSC proper. Subsequently, these
detailed palaeontological, sedimentological and chronos- basins were reflooded by the Mediterranean in the latest
tratigraphical investigations that provide key information Messinian, until their emergence during the Pliocene. This
for interpretation of the MSC (Cita et al., 1980; Riding et history was complicated by mutual separation of the SE
al., 1991a; Gautier et al., 1994; Martín and Braga, 1994; Almería basins due to differential uplift of intervening
Riding et al., 1998, 1999; Krijgsman et al., 1999a; Saint areas. The Sorbas Basin became separated from the
Martin et al., 2000; Goubert et al., 2001; Krijgsman et al., Almería-Níjar Basin due to final emergence of Sierra
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 133

Alhamilla at the end of the Tortonian (Weijermars et al., may have occurred both during the inception of drawdown
1985; Martín and Braga, 1994). Separation of the Vera and and during final refilling. In the first case, it has been
Almería-Níjar basins took place in the Late Messinian proposed that fringing reefs pre-dating substantial draw-
when the submarine high, precursor of the Sierra Cabrera, down were ecologically influenced by elevated salinities
eventually emerged (Riding et al., 1998; Braga et al., and geometrically defined by falling sealevel (Esteban et
2003). The Taza-Guercif Basin (Rifian Corridor) was al., 1978). Gradual long-term salinity increase in the main
emergent at 6.0 Ma (Krijgsman et al., 1999b), roughly Mediterranean Sea has also been suggested to account for
coincident with deposition of the youngest Abad marls. aspects of the basinal sequences (e.g., Schreiber et al.,
1976; Troelstra et al., 1980; McKenzie et al., 1980; Orszag-
3. Key questions Sperber et al., 1980; Decima et al., 1988; Pierre et al., 1997;
Kouwenhoven et al., 1999; Krijgsman et al., 1999a;
What are the outstanding questions concerning the Seidenkrantz et al., 2000; Bellanca et al., 2001; Blanc-
Salinity Crisis that may be addressed by study of Valleron et al., 2002; Krijgsman et al., 2002). In the second
successions in SE Almería? The Salinity Crisis is bracketed case, it has been proposed that following deep desiccation
by two key events: (i) the inception of desiccative the Western Mediterranean, including the SE Almería
drawdown of the Western Mediterranean basin, and (ii) basins, was initially refilled by brackish water, the Lago
final refilling that reestablished normal marine salinities. It Mare, prior to recovery of marine salinities (Cita et al.,
has been suggested that substantial salinity fluctuations 1978, 1980; Rouchy et al., 2001, 2003).

Fig. 1. (A) Neogene basins in southeastern Almería. The basins are named after their principal towns. (B) Geographical location and main roads.
Insets show areas of geological maps in Figs. 4,10 and 13.
134 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

unclear to what extent Mediterranean sealevels may have

recovered during these episodes of replenishment and
evaporation. At first sight, it would seem that high
marginal basins such as those in SE Almería are not likely
to offer direct information concerning details of deep basin
evaporite sedimentation. However, two of these marginal
basins, Sorbas and Almería-Níjar, do contain evaporite
deposits up to 130 m thick. So what is the relationship
between these relatively thin marginal evaporites and the
much thicker ones of the adjacent deep Mediterranean?
Furthermore, it is to be expected that evaporative
drawdown on the scale envisaged in the Western
Mediterranean must have result in erosion of marginal
basin successions such as those in Almería. Can this
erosion be recognized within the Messinian sequence?
Thus, at least three fundamental questions arise: (i) Is
progressive salinity increase recorded in the Almería
marginal basins during MSC inception, as proposed? (ii)
What is the relationship between the evaporites of these
Fig. 2. Palaeogeography of the Betic Cordillera, (A) in the earliest marginal basins and those of the deep Mediterranean;
Messinian and (B) during pre-evaporitic reef growth (∼ 6 Ma). The might they be coeval as proposed (Krijgsman et al.,
Guadalhorce Corridor was the last seaway connecting the Mediterra-
nean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean through what would become the
1999a)? (iii) Was marine refilling preceded by Lago
Betic Cordillera. The Almería-Níjar, Sorbas and Vera basins remained Mare conditions in Almería, as proposed?
connected to the Mediterranean up to the moment of desiccative
drawdown (after Martín et al., 2001 and Braga et al., 2003). 4. Messinian record in SE Almería basins

Additional questions concern events connected with the 4.1. Sorbas Basin
deposition of thick evaporites on the floors of the deep
Mediterranean basins. Formation of these deposits must The Sorbas Basin contains up to 700 m of Mid-
have involved repeated brine replenishment, but it is Miocene to Pleistocene sediments (Ott d'Estevou and

Fig. 3. Messinian to Early Pliocene stratigraphy of the Sorbas Basin (modified from Martín and Braga, 1994).
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 135

Montenat, 1990; Mather, 1993; Martín and Braga, 4.1.2. Evaporites

1994). The Messinian part of this sequence can be A basinwide, highly irregular erosion surface (the sub-
separated into pre-evaporitic, evaporitic and post- Yesares surface), is incised into the pre-evaporitic deposits
evaporitic deposits, according to their stratigraphic with relief of up to 240 m (Riding et al., 1998). This
position relative to thick gypsum deposits (Yesares minimum value of relief can be measured (with correction
Gypsum, Ruegg, 1964) at the basin centre (Figs. 3 for slight deformation) from the top of the Fringing Reef
and 4). Unit to the base of the flat-lying beds of Yesares Gypsum
at the northern margin of the gypsum outcrop. The karstic
4.1.1. Pre-evaporitic sequence character of this surface can be observed on top of the
Basin margin carbonates pass basinward to marls, basin margin reef carbonates at Cariatiz (Riding et al.,
silty marls and diatomitic marls (Ott d'Estevou, 1980; 1991a; Martín et al., 1993) and Rambla de Góchar where
Ott d'Estevou and Montenat, 1990; Martín and Braga, the Sorbas Member fills an irregular surface incised into
1994). Marginal carbonate units consist of: (i) Azagador the Fringing Reef Unit (Dabrio et al., 1985; Martín et al.,
Member, temperate bioclastic carbonates; (ii) Bioherm 1993; Roep et al., 1998). In the Hueli area, 4 km SSE of
Unit, platform carbonates with Halimeda and coral Sorbas town, the Yesares Gypsum directly overlies the
patch reefs (Braga et al., 1996; Martín et al., 1997, Bioherm Unit (Fig. 4), suggesting that carving of this
1999); and (iii) Fringing Reef Unit, coral-stromatolite erosion surface removed the Fringing Reef Unit prior to
reefs and talus (Riding et al., 1991a; Braga and Martín, Yesares deposition. In the Hueli-Cuesta Encantada area,
1996). Minor erosion surfaces separating these units at the erosion surface can be traced below the gypsum beds
the basin margins die out basinward as all the units pass from the top of reef bioherms to the top of basinal marls
laterally into the marls of the Abad Member. The (Fig. 4). From this area the surface can be physically
fringing reef deposits contain regular echinoids, together traced without interruption to the basin centre at the
with scleractinians, coralline algae, Halimeda and Molino del Río Aguas section (Fig. 4). Here and
marine bivalves (Riding et al., 1991a). At the basin elsewhere in the basin centre its erosive nature is shown
centre, the Abad marls contain foraminifers and by bed geometries and the stratigraphic patterns of the
calcareous nannoplankton that indicate normal marine overlying gypsum beds. The Yesares Gypsum fills narrow
salinities (Baggley, 2000). The top of these marls, palaeovalleys up to 30 m deep and 500 m wide with
immediately below the Yesares Gypsum, has been dated north–south (Molino del Río Aguas, Riding et al., 1999)
at 5.9 Ma (Gautier et al., 1994) and 5.96 Ma (Krijgsman (Fig. 5) and east–west orientations that truncate, and
et al., 1999a) at the basin centre. locally gully into, the Abad marls (Fig. 6, 1 km north–east

Fig. 4. Geological map of the Sorbas Basin. Modified from Montenat (1990).
136 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

of El Tesoro, Riding et al., 1999). The lowermost gypsum At the basin centre, the Yesares Gypsum is 130 m
beds filling these depressions are onlapped by higher thick and consists of gypsum-pelite cycles (12–13
gypsum units (Riding et al., 1998, 1999, 2000) (Figs. 5 cycles, according to Dronkert, 1977 and Rosell et al.,
and 6). The sub-Yesares erosion surface can also be 1998, 14 cycles according to Krijgsman et al., 2001).
observed at Los Yesos, the westernmost outcrop of the The top two marl–silt interbeds within the Yesares
gypsum in the Sorbas Basin (Fig. 7). Gypsum in the Río Aguas section, 4.5 km east of Sorbas
Despite this field evidence, existence of the sub- town, contain well-preserved planktic marine foramini-
Yesares erosion surface was disputed by Fortuin et al. fers (Table 1). The Yesares Gypsum thins laterally as it
(2000) because observation of the contact is complicat- onlaps the eroded surface. The onlap geometries in the
ed by dissolution effects, local faulting and block falls. basal part are clearly seen on the north-western side of
They argued for a conformable transition from Abad Cerrón de Hueli. At its westernmost outcrop the Yesares
Member marls to Yesares Gypsum based on a constant Gypsum consists of only 4 cycles, 75 m thick in total,
number of pre-evaporitic precession cycles in the basin (Saint Martin et al., 2000; Goubert et al., 2001). At this
centre sections, even though these could also be locality the pelitic interbeds contain rich marine fossil
expected to be affected by the same complications as assemblages, including echinoids, scaphopods, pectinid
those suggested to affect recognition of the erosion bivalves and bryozoans (Saint Martin et al., 2000;
surface. Néraudeau et al., 2001).

Fig. 5. The base of the Yesares Gypsum at Molino del Río Aguas. The lowermost gypsum horizon is wedge shaped with a convex base and flat top. It
pinches out laterally, demonstrating that the Yesares Gypsum onlapped depressions excavated in the underlying pre-evaporitic deposits (Abad marls).
Molino del Río Aguas, 4 km ESE of Sorbas town, viewed from the south-east. Blocks fallen from overlying gypsum beds only locally obscure the
contact. This locality is described in Riding et al. (1999).
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 137

4.1.3. Post-evaporitic deposits limestone (Mather and Stokes, 2001) and on top of the
The Yesares Gypsum grades upwards into the 70 m sequence there is 5–10 m of marine shelly sandstone
thick Sorbas Member (Roep et al., 1979). This consists (Montenat and Ott d'Estevou, 1977). Ruegg (1964)
of basin centre marls, silts and sands (Fig. 8) that pass included both the fluviatile–lacustrine and the marine
marginally into the so-called Terminal Complex, a sediments in the Zorreras Member, and according to Ott
heterogeneous deposit that includes coarse siliciclastic d'Estevou and Montenat (1990) the contact between
sediments, oolite, giant microbial domes, and coral these continental and marine deposits is conformable.
patch reefs (Dabrio et al., 1985; Ott d'Estevou and The spatial relationships of both units, however, instead
Montenat, 1990; Martín et al., 1993; Braga et al., 1995; suggest that they are separated by an unconformity,
Roep et al., 1998) (Fig. 9). Basin centre sediments of the above which the shelly sandstone has a more limited
Sorbas Member contain abundant and generally well areal extent than the underlying deposits. The lower part
preserved foraminifers and calcareous nannoplankton at of the continental sediments of the Zorreras Member is
certain horizons (Table 1) (Riding et al., 1998; Sánchez- Messinian in age (Martín-Suárez et al., 2000), whilst the
Almazo et al., 1999). The foraminiferal assemblages do marine sandstone is probably Early Pliocene (Civis et
not show features typical of reworking, such as size al., 1977; Ott d'Estevou and Montenat, 1990).
sorting and mixture of species of different stages.
The Sorbas Member and Terminal Complex are 4.2. Almería-Níjar Basin
overlain by 75 m of fluviatile clays, sandstones, and
conglomerates. Within this overlying sequence there are The sedimentary fill of the Almería-Nijar Basin
up to four beds (each b 2 m thick) of lacustrine ostracode consists of Mid-Miocene to Quaternary deposits (Dabrio

Fig. 6. Base of the Yesares Gypsum, 1 km northeast of El Tesoro. The gypsum beds fill palaeo-gullies with relief of up to 10 m carved into the
underlying Abad marls. In the palaeo-gully in the centre of the photograph, the lowermost gypsum bed (arrowed) is 2 m thick and only occurs in the
very bottom of the gully. It is separated from the overlying gypsum by a pelitic interbed. The overlying gypsum onlaps the marls at the gully sides.
These relationships show that this contact is essentially undisturbed and is not an artifact of deformation.
138 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

Fig. 7. Base of the Yesares Gypsum at Los Yesos. View looking north. The gypsum fills irregular gullied relief excavated into the underlying Abad
marls. Towards the right, angular unconformity is observed between the Abad marls, which are slightly folded and dip northwestwards (to the left),
and the gypsum which dips northeastwards.

et al., 1981; Serrano, 1990; Montenat et al., 1990; Aguirre, Krijgsman, 2003), may actually be a result of synsedi-
1998). Messinian pre-evaporitic deposits at the basin mentary slumping (Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004).
margin comprise mixed siliciclastic and bioclastic sedi- At the northern margin of the basin, the post-evaporitic
ments overlain by coral reefs (Dabrio et al., 1981). Coeval deposits consist of fluviodeltaic conglomerates, sands,
basinal sediments include marls, silty marls and diatomitic and silts, which laterally interdigitate with marine silty
marls of the Abad Member, the top of which is dated at marls. In distal sections (Fig. 11B), towards the basin
∼5.9 Ma (Sierro et al., 2001) (Figs. 10 and 11). The centre, the Yesares Gypsum beds show gradual upward
Yesares Gypsum overlies the Abad Member and consists transition to silty marls containing foraminifers (Table 1)
of cycles of selenitic gypsum and siliciclastic beds (van de and intercalated thin turbidite sandstones (Aguirre and
Poel, 1991; Lu et al., 2001). The transition between the Sánchez-Almazo, 2004). Brackish environments in the
underlying Abad Marls and the overlying gypsum units is deltaic transition zone to the marine domain are indicated
described as conformable by van de Poel (1991) and by brackish ostracodes with charophytes, scarce oligoha-
Fortuin and Krijgsman (2003), but there is field evidence line benthic foraminifers, and cerithiid gastropods (van de
of angular unconformity between them (Aguirre and Poel, 1991, 1994; Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004).
Sánchez-Almazo, 2004) (Fig. 12). The Yesares Gypsum Foraminifer abundance, species richness and planktic/
unit gradually changes upwards as the gypsum beds thin benthic ratio all progressively increase from middle to top
and the siliciclastic interbeds concomitantly thicken (Lu et of the post-evaporitic unit (Table 1). As in the post-
al., 2002; Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004) (Fig. 11A). evaporitic deposits in the Sorbas Basin, representatives of
The base of a sub-unit of deformed strata, several metres the Globorotalia miotumida group (sensu Sierro, 1985)
above the top gypsum bed, interpreted as an erosional and are common in the foraminiferal assemblages. The ‘last
collapse surface due to gypsum dissolution (Fortuin and regular occurrence’ of this group has been thought to occur
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 139

Table 1
Foraminifers and calcareous nannoplankton from the evaporitic and post-evaporitic deposits in the Sorbas and Almería-Níjar basins
Sorbas Basin Almería-Níjar Basin
Evaporitic unit Post-evaporitic unit Evaporitic unit Post-evaporitic unit
(pelitic interbeds) (pelitic interbeds)
Planktic foraminifers Globigerina bulloides Globigerina cf. bulloides Globigerina spp. Globigerina cf. decoraperta
Globigerina cf. Globigerina cf. decoraperta Globigerinoides spp. Globigerina falconensis
decoraperta
Globigerina multiloba Globigerina falconensis Globorotalia group Globigerina sp.
miotumida
Globigerina sp. Globigerina multiloba Globorotalia group scitula Globigerinoides bolli
Globigerinoides Globigerina sp. Neogloboquadrina Globigerinoides
obliquus acostaensis quadrilobatus
Globigerinoides Globigerinoides extremus Neogloboquadrina Globigerinoides trilobus
extremus humerosa
Globigerinoides Globigerinoides obliquus Turborotalita quinqueloba Globorotalia group
sacculifer miotumida
Globigerinoides Globigerinoides sacculifer Neogloboquadrina
trilobus acostaensis
Globorotalia group Globigerinoides trilobus Neogloboquadrina
miotumida humerosa
Neogloboquadrina Globorotalia group Orbulina universa
acostaensis miotumida
Orbulina universa Globorotalia group scitula Turborotalita multiloba
Turborotalia obesa Neogloboquadrina Turborotalita quinqueloba
acostaensis
Turborotalita Neogloboquadrina
quinqueloba humerosa
Orbulina universa
Turborotalia obesa
Turborotalita multiloba
Turborotalita quinqueloba
Benthic foraminifers Ammonia becarii Ammonia becarii Ammonia becarii Ammonia becarii
Ammonia tepida Anomalinoides Brizalina spathulata Ammonia cf. perlucida
Anomalinoides granosus Asterodiscorbis Brizalina sp. Ammonia tepida
Asterigerinata planorbis Brizalina spathulata Cassidulina spp. Asterigerinata planorbis
Bolivina spp. Bulimina aculeata Cibicides refulgens Astrononion boueanum
Brizalina aff. dilatata Bulimina costata Cibicidoides Bolivina arta
pseudoungerianus
Bulimina minima Bulimina inflata Cibicidoides spp. Bolivina marginata
Cibicides refulgens Cibicides lobatulus Elphidium macellum Brizalina dilatata
Cibicidoides sp. Cibicidoides Elphidium sp. Brizalina spathulata
Elphidium crispum Elphidium fischtelianum Melonis soldanii Brizalina sp.
Elphidium fischtelianum Elphidium sp. Nodosarids indet. Bulimina aculeata
Elphidium Eponides Nonion sp. Bulimina costata
margaritaceum
Elphidium sp. Globobulimina cf. auricula Bulimina elongata
Fissurina sp. Gyroidina sp. Bulimina cf. minima
Glandulina laevigatus Hopkinsina bononiensis Bulimina sp.
Globulina gibba Lobatula lobatula Cassidulina spp.
Gyroidinoides sp. Melonis pompilloides Cibicides refulgens
Haynesina germanica Nonion padanum Cibicides sp.
Lagena laevis Rectuvigerina/Hopkinsina spp. Cibicidoides dutemplei
Lobatula lobatula Trifarina bradyii Cibicidoides ungerianus
Neoconorbina terquemi Uvigerina peregrina Cribroelphidium sp.
Oolina sp. Elphidium macellum
Parafissurina sp. Elphidium sp.
Planulina ariminensis Globocassidulina subglobosa
Polymorphina sp. Gyroidina altiformis
(continued on next page)
140 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

Table 1 (continued)
Sorbas Basin Almería-Níjar Basin
Evaporitic unit Post-evaporitic unit Evaporitic unit Post-evaporitic unit
(pelitic interbeds) (pelitic interbeds)
Porosononion granosum Hanzawaia boueana
Reussella spinulosa Hanzawaia sp.
Rosalina globularis Haynesina depressula
Heterolepa bellincioni
Melonis soldanii
Neoponides sp.
Nonion sp.
Planulina ariminensis
Pullenia quinqueloba
Rectuvigerina/Hopkinsina spp.
Siphonina cf. planoconvexa
Trifarina bradyi
Uvigerina peregrina
Uvigerina striatissima
Uvigerina sp.
Nannoplankton calcareous Not studied Amaurolithus aff. primus Not studied Not studied
Amaurolithus cf. amplificas
Calcidiscus leptoporus
Ceratolithus cf. acutus
Coccolithus miopelagicus
Coccolithus pelagicus
Discoaster quinqueramus
Helicosphaera carteri
Sphenolithus moriformis
Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus
Data from van de Poel (1992), Riding et al. (1998), Sánchez-Almazo et al. (1999), Goubert et al. (2001) and Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo (2004).

in the Messinian at a calibrated age of 6.5 Ma (Sprovieri et miotumida species group did persist through the post-
al., 1996; Hilgen and Krijgsman, 1999; Krijgsman et al., evaporitic unit: 1) Prior to the supposed last occurrence in
1999a; Sierro et al., 2001; Krijgsman et al., 2002). the pre-evaporitic deposits, the group exhibits a discon-
However, the following observations suggest that the G. tinuous record and species composing the group are absent

Fig. 8. Gradual transition from the top of the Yesares Gypsum to post-evaporitic sandstones and silts of the Sorbas Member. Gypsum cones
progressively thin while the siliciclastic interbeds thicken. Arrows indicate cones in the highest gypsum bed. Río Aguas section, near Sorbas town.
The stratigraphy at this site is described in detail by Krijgsman et al. (2001).
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 141

Fig. 9. Coral (Porites) patch reefs (arrow) in post-evaporitic deposits at Rambla de Góchar (Sorbas Basin). This locality is described in detail in Martín
et al. (1993).

for long intervals before reappearing (Sierro et al., 2001; the post-evaporitic deposits of the Almería-Nijar Basin the
Blanc-Valleron et al., 2002). 2) In the Atlantic domain foraminiferal assemblages do not show features indicative
(Ain el Beida, Morocco), the last occurrence of G. of reworking, such as size sorting and mixing of
miotumida is recorded in Chron C3An.1n at about 6.2 Ma foraminifers from stages older than the Messinian.
(Benson et al., 1995), much later than its supposed global Furthermore, foraminifers that are common in pre-
disappearance. 3) Specimens of species belonging to the evaporitic Messinian deposits such as G. bulloides are
group have been recorded in the pelitic interbeds in the rare in the post-evaporitic deposits. If reworking were a
Yesares gypsum without having been considered to be general phenomenon, then species such as G. bulloides
reworked (Iaccarino et al., 1975; Hsü et al., 1978a). 4) In should be more conspicuous in the post-evaporitic

Fig. 10. Geological map of the northern part of the Almería-Níjar Basin. Modified from Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo (2004).
142 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

deposits. 5) Species of the G. miotumida group have been (Dinarès-Turell et al., 2004) suggesting Chron C3r,
reported from post-evaporitic deposits at many Mediter- which ranges 6.04–5.24 Ma (Lourens et al., 1996),
ranean localities (Vera basin by Cita et al., 1980; indicating Late Messinian or earliest Pliocene age. The
Carboneras-Nijar basin by van de Poel, 1992, 1994; absence of Pliocene foraminifers makes it likely that this
Cyprus basins by Rouchy et al., 2001; different sites of the post-evaporitic unit is Messinian in age (Aguirre and
western Mediterranean by Iaccarino and Bossio, 1999). In Sánchez-Almazo, 2004; Dinarès-Turell et al., 2004).
these cases, the possibility that the foraminifers reflect At the northwestern margin of the basin, in the Níjar
marine influxes has at first been considered, but then area, bioclastic, oolitic and microbial carbonates
rejected in favour of the view that the assemblages are unconformably overlie the pre-evaporitic reefs (Dabrio
more likely to have been reworked. If our interpretation, et al., 1981; Riding et al., 1991b). Lower Pliocene silts
that the G. miotumida group did persist in post-evaporitic and fine-grained sands unconformably overlie the
deposits, is correct then the previously recognized Messinian deposits (Montenat et al., 1990).
apparent last occurrence of the G. miotumida group
(Sprovieri et al., 1996; Hilgen and Krijgsman, 1999; 4.3. Vera Basin
Krijgsman et al., 1999a; Sierro et al., 2001; Krijgsman et
al., 2002) in the Mediterranean results from sampling The Neogene record of the Vera Basin comprises Early
being restricted to pre-evaporitic Messinian marls together Miocene to Pliocene sediments (Barragán, 1997)
with the mistaken assumption that subsequent occurrences (Fig. 13). The Messinian marginal deposits include
must necessarily be reworked. Palaeomagnetic samples coral reefs (Ott d'Estevou et al., 1990) and mixed
from the post-evaporitic unit have reversed polarity siliciclastic and bioclastic sediments (Braga et al.,

Fig. 11. Messinian to Early Pliocene stratigraphy of the northeastern part of the Almería-Níjar Basin at El Argamasón (A) and Río Alías (B) sections.
See Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo (2004) for additional information.
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 143

2001). These shallow-water deposits pass laterally into age of the laminites is bracketed by strontium isotope
basinal silty marls and marls with turbiditic siliciclastics dates (Fortuin et al., 1995) of 5.8 Ma, at the top of the
and carbonates (Fig. 14). No primary evaporite deposits underlying marine marls, and 5.1 Ma, at the base of the
occur in the Vera Basin (Montenat and Bizon, 1976; Ott overlying Pliocene marine sediments (Cita et al., 1980). In
d'Estevou et al., 1990). In the Cuevas de Almanzora this Cuevas de Almanzora section, the transition from
section a succession of Early Messinian to Early Pliocene Messinian marine marls to thin bedded sediments
fine-grained sediments has been described as continuous containing brackish fauna (Fortuin et al., 1995) is not
(Montenat et al., 1976; Ott d'Estevou et al., 1990; Benson exposed (Fig. 14) as this part of the section is covered by
and Rakic-El Bied, 1991). However, an up to 12 m thick recent debris and soil. At other localities in the Vera Basin,
succession of thin-bedded marls and clays (laminites), Early Pliocene deposits are clearly separated by an
including very thin turbiditic sands, with brackish water erosion surface from underlying marine Messinian
ostracodes and characean algae (Cita et al., 1980; sediments (Fortuin et al., 1995). Pliocene to Quaternary
Geerlings et al., 1980; Benson and Rakic-El Bied, 1991; deposits also blanket a deeply incised surface offshore of
Fortuin et al., 1995) represents the latest Messinian the Vera Basin (Fortuin et al., 1995). West of Garrucha,
deposits and a sharp, inclined surface underlies the olistostrome deposits (Fig. 13) include blocks of diverse
Pliocene sandy marls (Fortuin et al., 1995) (Fig. 14). The provenance, e.g., metamorphic basement and Messinian

Fig. 12. The Yesares Gypsum unconformably overlying pre-evaporitic marls and diatomitic marls. Lines delineate bedding in the marls and gypsum
deposits. Gafares (Almería-Níjar Basin).This locality is described in Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo (2004).
144 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

bioclastic and reef carbonates and gypsum. The age of this fluviatile and lacustrine facies in the latest Messinian. In
chaotic deposit is controversial. It was regarded as Early addition, the geological records of adjacent Neogene
Pliocene by Ott d'Estevou et al. (1990) based on the Betic basins clearly indicate that no direct connection
presence of Pliocene planktic foraminifers in the between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean
overlying sediments, whereas Fortuin et al. (1995) through the Betic Cordillera existed, after ∼ 7 Ma
considered it to be Late Messinian. The olistrostromes (Garcés et al., 1998; Martín et al., 2001; Braga et al.,
occupy depressions scoured into Messinian deposits and 2003), i.e., for most of the Messinian. A principal
show evidence of eastward transport (Fortuin et al., 1995), implication of this is that the marine waters in the SE
indicating a source at the western margin of the Vera Almería basins were not directly linked to the Atlantic
Basin, in particular at its transition to the Sorbas Basin. Ocean and therefore must have been contiguous with
those of the adjacent main Western Mediterranean water
5. Testing proposed models body. Thus, the presence of marine sediments in the
Almería-Níjar, Sorbas and Vera basins during the
The sedimentary record of the Almería-Níjar, Sorbas Messinian implies that the Western Mediterranean
and Vera basins indicates that these basins adjacent to basin was also filled by marine waters whenever the
the present-day coast remained connected to the SE Almería basins were marine. We now return to the
Mediterranean Sea during most of their Messinian key questions posed initially. These relate to (i) pre-
evolution. This is shown by their marine basin centre evaporitic conditions, and particularly whether progres-
successions that are continuous except for an erosional sive salinity increase is recorded in the SE Almería
event in the Late Messinian, and local development of marginal basins prior to evaporate deposition, (ii) the

Fig. 13. Geological map of the Vera Basin. Modified from Montenat (1990).
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 145

relationship between the evaporites of these marginal et al., 2001, 2003). Towards the basin margins, the
basins and those of the deep Mediterranean, and (iii) youngest fringing reef deposits contain stenohaline
whether final marine refilling of these basins was regular echinoids, together with scleractinians, coralline
preceded by brackish Lago Mare conditions. algae, Halimeda and diverse assemblages of marine
bivalves (Riding et al., 1991a; Jiménez and Braga,
5.1. Pre-evaporitic evolution 1993). At the basin centres, fine-grained sediments
immediately beneath the sub-Yesares erosion surface
Available evidence indicates that fossil assemblages contain foraminifers and calcareous nannoplankton that
are normal marine throughout the pre-evaporitic Messi- indicate normal marine salinities (Sierro et al., 1993;
nian sequence (Baggley, 2000; Goubert et al., 2001; Baggley, 2000; Sierro et al., 2001, 2003). Baggley
Sierro et al., 2001, 2003) up to the erosion surface below (2000), in particular, stressed the lack of any indication
the Yesares Gypsum, and that there is no gradual of salinity increase in the marls beneath the sub-Yesares
transition from normal marine sediments to evaporite surface. According to Baggley (2000), the foraminiferal
deposits (Krijgsman et al., 1999a; Baggley, 2000; Sierro assemblages reflect shallowing in the Late stages of

Fig. 14. Messinian to Early Pliocene stratigraphy and main bioevents at Cuevas de Almanzora section according to Benson and Rakic-El Bied (1991).
Detailed column of the “passage zone” from Fortuin et al. (1995).
146 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

Abad marl deposition and changes in oxygenation of the conditions must be discarded for the Western Mediterra-
bottom waters. The general tendency towards lowering nean. The logic of this is that fully marine conditions in
of sea-level recorded by the foraminiferal assemblages the Sorbas sections at this level must indicate the general
is in agreement with the relative sea level fall shown by environment of the Western Mediterranean, whereas
reefs at the basin margins, which is the net result of sea- locally restricted conditions, e.g., in Sicily, may only
level oscillations (Braga and Martín, 1996). have local significance. The SE Almería record gives no
Changes in the diatom and foraminiferal assemblages indication, on a geological time scale, of gradual change
in the Abad Member, previously attributed to salinity from marine to hypersaline conditions. Rather, the
increase preceding gypsum formation (Rouchy, 1980; environmental changes leading to evaporite formation
Troelstra et al., 1980), may have resulted from water were abrupt from a geological perspective.
stratification (Martín and Braga, 1994; Goubert et al., Local variations in conditions influencing seawater
2001) or changes in nutrient content (Sierro et al., 1997). salinity in the Mediterranean region are likely due to
Some degree of isolation from the open ocean, both for variety of factors. Differential tectonic uplift is one
the Mediterranean Sea and the SE Almería basins, is important factor, well exemplified in southern Spain
suggested by amplified fluctuations in stable isotopic where evaporite precipitation due to isolation from the
values of foraminifer tests (Sánchez-Almazo et al., Mediterranean occurred at different times in a number of
2001), by benthic foraminiferal assemblages (Sánchez- marginal basins, in many cases long before inception of
Almazo et al., 2001; Goubert et al., 2001), and by the MSC. This is evident in the Granada (Late Tortonian),
relatively low-diversity assemblages of planktic for- Lorca and Fortuna (Late Tortonian or Early Messinian
aminifers and calcareous nannoplankton (Sierro et al., depending on the authors) basins (Rouchy, 1982; Riding
1997; Sánchez-Almazo et al., 2001; Sierro et al., 2003). et al., 1998; Garcés et al., 1998; Krijgsman et al., 2000;
In contrast to the record in the SE Almería basins, Garcés et al., 2001). Similar isolation from the main
transition from marine to hypersaline conditions prior to Mediterranean water mass could account for the gradual
evaporite formation have been reported from many peri- increase in salinity reported (references above) in many
Mediterranean basins, e.g., Sicily (Schreiber et al., 1976; basins in central and eastern Mediterranean, including
McKenzie et al., 1980; Decima et al., 1988; Bellanca et Sicily, Cyprus and Gavdos. But other factors are likely to
al., 2001; Blanc-Valleron et al., 2002), Cyprus (Orszag- have operated. For example, we speculate that a salinity
Sperber et al., 1980; Krijgsman et al., 2002), and Gavdos gradient may have developed between normal marine
(Kouwenhoven et al., 1999; Krijgsman et al., 1999a; waters in the Western Mediterranean and waters with
Seidenkrantz et al., 2000). These transitions are reflected higher salinities further east where evaporation may not
in the sedimentology, mineralogy, stable isotope values, have been balanced by Atlantic water inflow.
and fossil assemblages. At first sight, it would seem A plausible explanation for the abrupt onset of
reasonable to postulate that similar signs of transition evaporite conditions in the Western Mediterranean, as
existed in SE Almería basins but were removed by sub- reflected in SE Almería, is tectonic uplift of the
Yesares erosion. There are difficulties with this, however. westernmost Alpine chains (Weijermars, 1988; Martín
The transitional deposits in Falconara/Gibliscemi (Sicily) and Braga, 1996) causing temporary closure/restriction of
are suggested, on the basis of biostratigraphic and the Atlantic portal.
cyclostratigraphic analyses, to be precisely coeval with
the top beds of the pre-evaporitic deposits in the Sorbas 5.2. Evaporite formation in the deep and marginal
Basin (Krijgsman et al., 1999a; Blanc-Valleron et al., Mediterranean basins
2002, Fig. 11). In particular, Krijgsman et al. (1999a)
suggest bed-to-bed correlation of the transitional deposits The following stratigraphic, sedimentological and
at Falconara/Glibiscemi, interpreted as reflecting in- palaeontological features of the evaporites in the SE
creased salinity (Blanc-Valleron et al., 2002), with the Almería basins are of direct significance for understand-
uppermost preserved Abad marls in the Sorbas Basin ing their genesis and relationships with the evaporites
which do not show any salinity increase (Baggley, 2000). deposited in the deep Mediterranean centre. a) In these
In addition the stenohaline biotas of the Fringing Reefs in three basins, evaporites only occur in the Sorbas and
SE Almería clearly indicate normal marine conditions at Almería-Níjar basins. No primary evaporite deposition is
this same level. Consequently, if the correlation between recorded in the Vera Basin (Montenat and Bizon, 1976;
Almería and Sicily suggested by Krijgsman et al. (1999a) Ott d'Estevou et al., 1990). b) Evaporites in the Sorbas
and Blanc-Valleron et al. (2002) is correct, then inference and Almería-Níjar basins are separated from underlying
of gradual long-term evolution towards evaporite basin deposits by an erosional surface (Figs. 3,5–7,12), which
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 147

in the case of the Sorbas Basin had an original relief deep and marginal basins could be expected to have
difference of ∼ 240 m (Riding et al., 1998, 1999). c) The promoted evaporite formation in the Vera Basin, but this
evaporite sediments are mainly gypsum; no halite has is not recorded.
been recorded. The brines were of marine origin as We reason that since the evaporites in the Sorbas and
evidenced by geochemical signatures (Playà et al., 1997; Almería-Níjar basins precipitated from marine brines,
Lu et al., 2001, 2002) and by fossil assemblages in the they cannot be exactly coeval with shallow-water
siliciclastic interbeds (Riding et al., 1998; Saint Martin et evaporites deposited in the deep Mediterranean, at a
al., 2000; Goubert et al., 2001). d) The gypsum beds level more than 1 km lower than that of these marginal
onlap the underlying erosion surface, indicating that they basins (Riding et al., 1998). We therefore infer that
formed during relative sea-level rise (Martín and Braga, marginal basin evaporites, such as those in SE Almería,
1994; Riding et al., 1998, 1999; Aguirre and Sánchez- must have precipitated prior to drawdown, or during
Almazo, 2004) (Fig. 5). They gradually change upwards reflooding. Evaporites formed prior to drawdown would
into siliciclastic deposits (the Sorbas Member) by have been prone to exposure and erosion as Mediterra-
progressive thickening of terrigenous beds and concom- nean sealevel fell. In contrast, evaporites formed during
itant thinning and final disappearance of the gypsum reflooding would have been deposited on the eroded
layers (Fig. 8). No erosion surfaces occur within or landscape that developed during deep desiccation of the
immediately above the Yesares Gypsum (Dronkert, Mediterranean centre. In the case of the SE Almería
1977; Krijgsman et al., 2001). evaporites, it is clear that they overlie a major erosion
These observed stratigraphic features contradict two surface, and that their tops are not eroded. From these
step desiccation model of Clauzon et al. (1996) of the fundamental stratigraphic relationships we conclude that
Mediterranean during the MSC. Clauzon et al. (1996) evaporites in the Sorbas and Almería-Níjar basins did not
postulated i) an initial relatively small (few hundred of predate Mediterranean drawdown but instead were
metres) drawdown leading to formation of marginal formed during final refilling of the Western Mediterra-
basin evaporites, followed by ii) final drawdown, nean (Riding et al., 1998, 1999). We also suggest that it is
resulting in salt precipitation in the Mediterranean centre the erosion surface below the Yesares Gypsum, rather
while the evaporites previously formed in the marginal than the Yesares Gypsum itself, that is coeval with a
basins were exposed to erosion. In opposition to this Mediterranean base level hundreds of metres below the
model, in the Sorbas and Almería-Nijar basins, instead of floor of the SE Almería basins (Fig. 15). The Yesares
gradual transition from pre-evaporitic (fringing reefs and Gypsum therefore formed during relative sea-level rise
Abad Member) to evaporitic deposits (Yesares Member) (Riding et al., 1998, 1999) from brines fed by normal
there is a marked erosion surface between them. marine waters of the Mediterranean, as suggested by
Additionally, instead of the top of the Yesares Gypsum geochemical data (Playà et al., 1997; Lu et al., 2002) and
being eroded, it shows well-exposed gradual transition to stenohaline biotic components, such as echinoids, in the
the overlying sediments of the Sorbas Member. fossil assemblages (Saint Martin et al., 2000; Goubert et
The erosion surface beneath the Yesares Gypsum al., 2001). Thus, the SE Almería evaporites postdate the
means that dates for the top of the underlying Abad marls deep Mediterranean basin evaporites (Riding et al.,
(Gautier et al., 1994; Krijgsman et al., 1999a; Sierro et al., 1998, 1999). Furthermore, these marginal evaporites
2003) can only reflect the age of the youngest uneroded preferentially accumulated in barred basins, partially
Abad marl, not the age of the beginning of gypsum isolated from the main Mediterranean water body, such
formation in the Sorbas and Almería-Níjar basins. as the Sorbas and Almería-Níjar basins, rather than in
Nonetheless, these dates provide the best currently basins more fully connected to the Mediterranean such as
available constraint on the timing of the start of evaporite the Vera Basin (Fig. 10).
precipitation in the Mediterranean centre if, as suggested
by Riding et al. (1998, 1999), the major erosion surface 5.3. Post-evaporitic evolution
below the gypsum in the Sorbas Basin was carved during
Mediterranean drawdown and deep desiccation. Sediments overlying the Yesares Gypsum in the SE
The distribution of evaporites in the SE Almería Almería basins show three features relevant to under-
basins also challenges the view that onset of evaporite standing Late Messinian events in the Western Medi-
deposition occurred simultaneously in marginal basins terranean basin. Firstly, they contain marine fossil
and in the centre of the deep Mediterranean basin assemblages, at least in certain horizons. These fossils
(Krijgsman et al., 1999a). Precipitation of evaporites include echinoids, scleractinians and bivalves of
over the floor of a Mediterranean Sea that filled both the undeniable marine origin in shallow basin-margin
148 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

sediments (Martín et al., 1993; Riding et al., 1998; Roep Gliozzi, 1999; Roveri et al., 2001; Bassetti et al., 2003,
et al., 1998). Secondly, they continue to exhibit the 2004; Matano et al., 2005), Cyprus (Di Stefano et al.,
onlapping relationships with the sub-Yesares erosion 1999; Orszag-Sperber et al., 2000; Rouchy et al., 2001),
surface that were initiated by the Yesares Gypsum beds. DSDP and ODP sites (Lawrence, 1973; Schreiber et al.,
This is observed at localities where shallow-water post- 1976; Blanc-Valleron et al., 1998; Pierre et al., 1998;
evaporitic deposits rest on eroded pre-evaporitic coral- Spezzaferri et al., 1998; Iaccarino and Bossio, 1999),
reef platforms (Riding et al., 1998; Martín et al., 1999). and Spain (Cita et al., 1980; Geerlings et al., 1980;
Thirdly, fluviatile, deltaic and lacustrine deposits (the Fortuin et al., 1995; Fortuin and Krijgsman, 2003). The
Zorreras Member) with brackish fossil assemblages sedimentary record of the SE Almería basins, however,
have a limited extent within the SE Almería basins both does not support the hypothesis of a large body of
in their vertical and lateral distribution (Ott d'Estevou brackish water (the “Lago Mare”) (Cita et al., 1978;
and Montenat, 1990; Mather and Stokes, 2001; Aguirre Fortuin and Krijgsman, 2003) filling the Western
and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004). Mediterranean throughout the Late Messinian. The
These features suggest that at least for significant Messinian post-evaporitic history of the SE Almería
periods during the post-evaporitic Late Messinian the basins also conflicts with the view that many indepen-
Western Mediterranean Sea was a fully marine basin dent brackish basins were present, perched at different
(Fig. 15), and that it had recovered to levels similar to, or
higher than, those prior to the MSC when pre-evaporitic
fringing coral reefs formed. The occurrence of planktic
foraminifers and calcareous nannoplankton in deeper
basinal silty marls (Sánchez-Almazo et al., 1999;
Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004) is in agreement
with the presence of marine faunas at the margins of the
basins reflooded by marine waters. Although there is
little information regarding Late Messinian marine
deposits in central parts of the deep Western Mediter-
ranean, it appears that the Upper Evaporites are overlain
by Messinian marls with small and dwarf planktic
foraminifers at Sites DSDP 372 and ODP 974B and
975B (Hsü et al., 1977, 1978a,b; Cita et al., 1978;
Comas et al., 1996; Iaccarino et al., 1999; Iaccarino and
Bossio, 1999). Iaccarino et al. (1999, appendices A and
C) record up to 30 species of planktic foraminifers, all of
which are Messinian in age and therefore do not suggest
reworking from earlier stages. Cita et al. (1978) and
Iaccarino and Bossio (1999) interpreted these Late
Messinian marls as brackish (Lago Mare) deposits, but
the latter authors also stated in the conclusion that “in
Hole 975B it cannot be entirely ruled out that at the end
of the Messinian marine incursions from the Atlantic
could have arrived and been mixed with the lacustrine
water” (Iaccarino and Bossio, 1999, page 539). We see Fig. 15. Model of Messinian events in the SE Almería basins relative to
in these foraminifer assemblages the deep basin record the deep Western Mediterranean. (A), The Sorbas Basin had an open
of the marine sea waters that necessarily had to fill the connection with the Mediterranean during deposition of the pre-
evaporitic deposits. (B), Shortly after ∼5.9 Ma, during drawdown and
western Mediterranean to account for the occurrence of desiccation of the deep Mediterranean Basin, the pre-evaporitic
corals and echinoids in the SE Almería basins. sediments in the SE Almería basins were deeply eroded. (C), Refilling
Late Messinian deposits with sedimentary features of the Western Mediterranean culminated in reflooding of the SE
and fossil assemblages characteristic of brackish Almería basins. Local deposition of evaporites took place in barred
palaeonvironments, and reported as “Lago Mare facies”, basins such as Almería-Níjar and Sorbas, but not in the Vera Basin.
(D), As Mediterranean reflooding continued, sealevel rise restored
have been recorded in many Mediterranean localities, open marine conditions to all the SE Almería basins, depositing post-
e.g., Sicily (Ruggieri and Sprovieri, 1976; Cita and evaporitic marine sediments with coral reefs, planktic foraminifers and
Colombo, 1979), Apennines (Cipollari et al., 1999; calcareous nannoplankton (modified after Riding et al., 1998).
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 149

altitudes in a generally non-marine Mediterranean basin margins of the Sorbas Basin, Lower-Pliocene coastal
(Orszag-Sperber et al., 2000; Rouchy et al., 2001, 2003). deposits lie at the toe of slope of Late Messinian carbonate
Instead, the occurrence of the post-evaporitic Messinian platforms (Terminal Complex-Sorbas Member) that rise
marine deposits in SE Almería implies the presence of to more than 150 m above this level (Braga et al., 2003). In
normal marine waters filling the Western Mediterranean, contrast, at the northern margin of the Almería-Níjar
with sea level at least as high as it was during the Basin the difference in altitude between shallow water
formation of pre-evaporitic Messinian reefs (Fig. 15). (deltaic) Late Messinian rocks and coastal Zanclean
Any variations in salinity that may have occurred due to (Early Pliocene) deposits is only a few tens of metres.
incomplete connection with the Atlantic Ocean are A similar tectonic origin for an erosion surface
therefore likely to have been only temporary excursions associated with Messinian and Pliocene sediments in the
from normal marine waters. In this respect, the vicinity of Site 976B in the Alboran Basin has been
significance of the SE Almería basins, which admittedly invoked by Comas and Soto (1999, p. 338). Comas et al.
are quite small, is that they contain marine Messinian (1999, p. 570) consider the hiatus related to this erosion
sediments. This gives these basins a regional signifi- surface to be associated with contemporaneous uplifting
cance that far exceeds their limited physical extent and is and structures related to the culmination of a steep reverse
a key to understanding the MSC in the Western fault at Site 977. They report that the entire Lower
Mediterranean, because the only way that marine Pliocene sequence is missing in the eastern flank of the
conditions could have occurred in any of the SE Yusuf Ridge and all older reflectors are uplifted and
Almería basins was for a coeval body of marine water dragging up on the steep-faulted ridge flank (Comas et al.,
to have filled the Western Mediterranean Sea up to the 1999, p. 570). This erosion surface has also tentatively
elevation of these basins (Fig. 15). been related to emersion of basements highs (Comas and
The Zorreras Member in the Sorbas and Almería- Soto, 1999, p. 339), although it extends to the adjacent
Níjar basins has been interpreted as Late Messinian relative depressions (Comas et al., 1999). Comas et al.
Lago Mare sediments due to the occurrence of lacustrine (1999, p. 560) suggested a “general” correlation of this
carbonates with brackish ostracode faunas (van de Poel, surface “with the top of the Messinian evaporite sequence
1992, 1994; Fortuin and Krijgsman, 2003). Rather than recognized throughout the Mediterranean”. However, the
a representing Mediterranean-wide Lago Mare, howev- ages of the deposits underlying and overlying the surface
er, these thin (b 2 m) and laterally restricted (b 15 km are very poorly constrained in the Alboran Basin. Comas
extent) deposits formed in small, ephemeral lakes et al. (1999, p. 568) doubted whether the gravel overlying
(Mather and Stokes, 2001) or deltas (Aguirre and the surface in Site 978 is latest Messinian or Pliocene. In
Sánchez-Almazo, 2004). Furthermore, these essentially Hole 977B, Siesser and de Kaenel (1999, p. 230) reported
continental sediments pass laterally and vertically into common and abundant calcareous nannofossils in Zone
marine sediments within the basins in which they occur NN12b (middle part of the NN12 zone of Martini, 1971,
(Ott d'Estevou and Montenat, 1990; Mather and Stokes, spanning the Late Messinian–Early Pliocene), although
2001; Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004), and there- the calcareous matrix surrounding the pebbles of the
fore reflect only local subaerial deposition. gravel marking the erosion surface contains calcareous
Lower Pliocene marine bioclastic sandstones and silts nannofossils of older Miocene zones. According to
unconformably overlie the Messinian sequences in SE Siesser and de Kaenel (1999, p 229) calcareous
Almería. In the Almería-Níjar basin, the unconformity nannofossils suggested that the major hiatuses in Hole
below the Lower Pliocene rocks is a major erosion surface 976B are Lower Tortonian and between the Early and
(Montenat et al., 1990; Aguirre, 1998; Aguirre and Late Pliocene. These authors considered that the Late
Sánchez-Almazo, 2004), carving a topography that Tortonian, Messinan and Early Pliocene intervals (cal-
strongly differs from Late Messinian palaeogeography, careous nannoplankton Zones NN11 to NN12 of Martini,
mainly due to uplift and tectonic re-structuring of the 1971) consist of open marine fine-grained sediments.
region. As a result of this regional uplift, the Lower They did not recognise any interruption in the record of
Pliocene sediments do not completely onlap the Late “common to abundant Neogene nannofossils” within,
Messinian marine rocks and relative sea level during the below or above NN12 and consequently they were not
Lower Pliocene remained at lower levels than in the Late able to date any erosion surface in the Late Messinian–
Messinian (Mather and Stokes, 2001; Braga et al., 2003). Pliocene interval. In short, additional research is needed to
The effects of this differential uplift can be seen by constrain the timing and regional significance of the
comparing Late Messinian and Early Pliocene relation- erosion surface associated with Late Messinian–Early
ships in the Sorbas and Almería-Nijar basins. At the Pliocene sediments in the Alboran Sea.
150 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

6. Conclusions standing, large body of brackish water (the Lago Mare)

filled the Western Mediterranean following drawdown
The Almería-Níjar, Sorbas and Vera basins (SE and prior to an Early Pliocene reflooding, nor does it
Almería basins) adjacent to the present-day Mediterra- agree with the concept of many relatively small brackish
nean in SE Spain, contain well-exposed and almost basins distributed through a generally empty Western
continuous Messinian marine sequences. These small Mediterranean basin.
basins maintained connection with the Mediterranean In summary, our reading of the sedimentary record in
throughout the Messinian, except during the major the SE Almería basins (Fig. 15) (Riding et al., 1991a,
drawdown phase of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. As a 1998, 1999; Aguirre and Sánchez-Almazo, 2004) is that
result, they contain an exceptional record of the events normal marine deposits were substantially eroded (sub-
preceding and postdating the MSC. Successions in other Yesares surface) following abrupt sealevel fall that we
Neogene basins of the Betic Cordillera to the north and suggest represents Mediterranean drawdown. It was
west show that there was no direct connection between during this sealevel fall that evaporites formed on the
the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean through deep Mediterranean floor. The overlying Yesares
the Betic Cordillera after the earliest Messinian. Gypsum beds and post-evaporitic Sorbas Member
Consequently, for most of the Messinian the SE Almería deposits that onlap the sub-Yesares erosion surface,
basins were isolated from the Atlantic and their marine represent final marine reflooding of the Western
connection was with the Mediterranean. This setting of Mediterranean following deep desiccation. The gypsum
the SE Almería basins does not preclude substantially in the SE Almería basins therefore formed in the silled
different Messinian histories elsewhere in the Mediter- marginal Sorbas and Almería-Níjar basins and postdates
ranean region, but it does require that such other histories the evaporites of the central Mediterranean. Subse-
must be consistent with those recorded in SE Almería. quently, in the Late Messinian, Mediterranean sea-level
This particularly applies to the Western Mediterranean. recovered to heights similar to, or higher than, those
The stratigraphy and palaeoenvironmental history of the preceding initial drawdown. Latest Messinian Zorreras
SE Almería basins therefore provide a unique record Member continental deposits containing brackish fossil
against which models of the MSC can be tested. assemblages rather than representing a widespread Lago
Fossil assemblages in the marine pre-evaporitic Mare are stratigraphically and spatially restricted and
sediments of these basins do not support the hypothesis pass laterally to marine deposits within the individual
that gradual salinity increase affected shallow marine basins. They reflect transition to the generally non-
biotas in the Western Mediterranean prior to the MSC. marine conditions associated with the uplift and erosion
Specifically, there is no evidence of gradual change of the Betic Cordillera that continue to the present-day.
from pre-evaporitic marine sediments to the Yesares
Gypsum. Instead, a major erosion surface separates the Acknowledgements
gypsum from the underlying marine deposits, which
contain stenohaline invertebrates to their very top. The We thank reviewers Silvia Iaccarino, Federico Ortí
only obvious sign of changing conditions is that benthic and Martyn Pedley for helpful comments. We are
foraminifers and stable isotopic values indicate some grateful to Jean-Marie Rouchy for constructive advice
degree of isolation from the open ocean. and suggestions. The work of JCB, JMM, JA and ISA
The presence of an erosion surface below the was supported by DGCYT (Ministerio de Educación y
gypsum, with no gradual transition from underlying Ciencia, Spain) Project 30P3023000.
sediments, together with absence of a major erosion
surface within the evaporites in the SE Almería basins or
References
immediately overlying them, contradicts two step model
of Clauzon et al. (1996) of the Messinian evaporite
Aguirre, J., 1998. El Plioceno del SE de la Península Ibérica (provincia
formation in the Mediterranean. Similarly, the lack of de Almería). Síntesis estratigráfica, sedimentaria, bioestratigráfica
gypsum in the Vera Basin suggests that evaporite y paleogeográfica. Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 11, 295–315.
precipitation was not synchronous throughout the Aguirre, J., Sánchez-Almazo, I.M., 2004. The Messinian post-
Mediterranean in both deep and marginal basins. evaporitic deposits of the Gafares area (Almería-Níjar basin, SE
Spain). A new view of the “Lago-Mare” facies. Sediment. Geol.
The occurrence of stenohaline invertebrate assem-
168, 71–95.
blages in siliciclastic deposits interbedded with the Baggley, K.A., 2000. Late Tortonian–Early Messinian foraminiferal
gypsum beds, and in the Messinian post-evaporitic record of the Abad Member (Turre Formation), Sorbas Basin,
sediments, is not consistent with the view that a long- Almería, south-east Spain. Palaeontology 43, 1069–1112.
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 151

Barragán, G., 1997. Evolución geodinámica de la Depresión de Vera. central Apennines (Italy). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoe-
Provincia de Almería. Cordilleras Béticas. Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. col. 151, 149–166.
Granada, Spain (unpublished). 698 pp. Cita, M.B., 1991. Development of a scientific controversy. In: Müller,
Bassetti, M.A., Miculan, P., Lucchi, F.R., 2003. Ostracod faunas and D.W., McKenzie, J.A., Weissert, H. (Eds.), Controversies in Mo-
brackish-water environments of the Late Messinian Sapigno dern Geology. Evolution of Geological Theories in Sedimentology,
section (northern Apennines, Italy). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Earth History and Tectonics. Academic Press, London, pp. 13–23.
Palaeoecol. 198, 335–352. Cita, M.B., Colombo, L., 1979. Sedimentation in the latest Messinian
Bassetti, M.A., Manzi, V., Lugli, S., Roveri, M., Longinelli, A., at Cape Rossello (Sicily). Sedimentology 26, 497–522.
Lucchi, F.R., Barbieri, M., 2004. Paleoenvironmental significance Cita, M.B., Wright, R.C., Ryan, W.B.F., Longinelli, A., 1978. Messinian
of Messinian post-evaporitic lacustrine carbonates in the northern paleoenvironments. In: Hsü, K.J., Montadert, L., et al. (Eds.), Initial
Apennines, Italy. Sediment. Geol. 172, 1–18. Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 42A. U.S. Govern-
Bellanca, A., Caruso, A., Ferruzza, G., Neri, R., Rouchy, J.M., ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., pp. 1003–1035.
Sprovieri, M., Blanc-Valleron, M.M., 2001. Transition from Cita, M.B., Vismara Schilling, A., Bossio, A., 1980. Stratigraphy and
marine to hypersaline conditions in the Messinian Tripoli paleoenvironment of the Cuevas del Almanzora section (Vera
Formation from the marginal areas of the central Sicilian Basin. Basin). A re-interpretation. Riv. Ital. Paleontol. 86, 215–240.
Sediment. Geol. 140, 87–105. Civis, J., Martinell, J., Porta, J., 1977. Precisiones sobre la edad del
Benson, R.H., Rakic-El Bied, K., 1991. The Messinian parastratotype at miembro Zorreras (Sorbas, Almería). Messinian Seminar Málaga,
Cuevas del Almanzora, Vera basin, SE Spain: refutation of the deep- Abst., vol. 3, pp. 31–32.
basin, shallow-water hypothesis? Micropaleontology 37, 289–302. Clauzon, G., Suc, J.P., Gautier, F., Berger, A., Loutre, M.F., 1996.
Benson, R.H., Hayeck, L.A.C., Hodell, D.A., Rakic-El Bied, K., 1995. Alternate interpretation of the Messinian salinity crisis: controver-
Extending the climatic precession curve back into the Late sy resolved? Geology 24, 363–366.
Miocene by signature template comparison. Paleoceanography Comas, M.C., Soto, J.I., 1999. Brittle deformation in the metamorphic
10, 5–20. basement at Site 976: implications for Middle Miocene extensional
Blanc-Valleron, M.-M., Rouchy, J.-M., Pierre, C., Badaut-Trauth, D., tectonics in the Western Alboran Basin. In: Zahn, R., Comas, M.C.,
Schuler, M., 1998. Evidence of Messinian non-marine deposition Klaus, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Project,
at Site 968 (Cyprus Lower Slope). In: Robertson, A.E.H., Emeis, Scientific Results, College Station, TX, vol. 161, pp. 331–344.
K.-C., Richter, C., Camerlighi, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Comas, M.C., Zahn, R., Klaus, J.I., et al., 1996. Proceedings of the
Drilling Project, College Station, TX, Scientific Results, vol. 160, Ocean Drilling Program. Init. Repts., vol. 161. Ocean Drilling
pp. 437–445. Program, College Station, TX. 1023 pp.
Blanc-Valleron, M.M., Pierre, C., Caulet, J.P., Caruso, A., Rouchy, J.M., Comas, M.C., Platt, J.P., Soto, J.I., Watts, A.B., 1999. The origin and
Cespuglio, G., Sprovieri, R., Pestrea, S., Di Stefano, E., 2002. tectonic history of the Alboran Basin: insights from Leg 161
Sedimentary, stable isotope and micropaleontological records of results. In: Zahn, R., Comas, M.C., Klaus, A. (Eds.), Proceedings
paleoceanographic change in the Messinian Tripoli Formation of the Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, Scientific
(Sicily, Italy). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 185, Results, vol. 161, pp. 555–580.
255–286. Cornée, J.J., Saint-Martin, J.P., Conesa, G., Muller, J., 1994. Geometry,
Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., 1996. Geometries of reef advance in paleoenvironments and relative sea-level (accommodation)
response to relative sea-level changes in a Messinian (uppermost changes in the Messinian Murdjadjo carbonate platform (Oran,
Miocene) fringing reef (Cariatiz reef, Sorbas Basin, SE Spain). western Algeria). Consequences. Sediment. Geol. 89, 143–158.
Sediment. Geol. 107, 61–81. Cunningham, K.J., Benson, R.H., Rakic-El Bied, K., McKenna, L.W.,
Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., Riding, R., 1995. Controls on microbial 1997. Eustatic implications of Late Miocene depositional
dome fabric development along a carbonate-siliciclastic shelf- sequences in the Melilla Basin, northeastern Morocco. Sediment.
basin transect, Miocene, SE Spain. Palaios 10, 347–361. Geol. 107, 147–165.
Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., Riding, R., 1996. Internal structure of Dabrio, C.J., Esteban, M., Martín, J.M., 1981. The coral reef of Níjar,
segment reefs: Halimeda algal mounds in the Mediterranean Messinian (uppermost Miocene), Almería province, S.E. Spain.
Miocene. Geology 24, 35–38. J. Sediment. Petrol. 51, 521–539.
Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., Wood, J.L., 2001. Submarine lobes and Dabrio, C.J., Martín, J.M., Megías, A.G., 1985. The tectosedimentary
feeder channels of redeposited, temperate carbonate and mixed evolution of Mio-Pliocene reefs in the Province of Almería. In: Milá,
siliciclastic-carbonate platform deposits (Vera basin, Almería, M.D., Rosell, J. (Eds.), 6th European Regional Meeting of
southern Spain). Sedimentology 48, 99–116. Sedimentologists, Excursion Guidebook, Lleida, Spain,
Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., Aguirre, J., 2002. Southern Spain. In: pp. 269–305.
Gibbons, W., Moreno, T. (Eds.), The Geology of Spain. Geol. Soc, Decima, A., McKenzie, J.A., Schreiber, B.C., 1988. The origin of
London, pp. 320–327. evaporative limestones — an example from the Messinian of
Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., Quesada, C., 2003. Patterns and average Sicily (Italy). J. Sediment. Petrol. 58, 256–272.
rates of Late Neogene–Recent uplift of the Betic Cordillera, SE Di Stefano, E., Cita, M.B., Spezzaferri, S., Sprovieri, R., 1999. The
Spain. Geomorphology 50, 3–26. Messinian–Zanclean Pissouri section (Cyprus, Eastern Mediterra-
Butler, R.W.H., Lickorish, W.H., Grasso, M., Pedley, H.M., Ramberti, nean). Mem. Soc. Geol. Ital. 54, 133–144.
L., 1995. Tectonics and sequence stratigraphy in Messinian basins, Dinarès-Turell, J., Aguirre, J., Sánchez-Almazo, I.M., 2004. Magne-
Sicily: constraints on the initiation and termination of the tobiostratigraphic age constraint of post-evaporitic deposits:
Mediterranean salinity crisis. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 107, 425–439. Gafares, Almería-Níjar basin, SE Spain. 4th International Con-
Cipollari, P., Cosentino, D., Esu, D., Girotti, O., Gliozzi, E., Praturlon, gress: The Messinian Salinity Crisis Revisited, Corte, p. 30.
A., 1999. Thrust-top lacustrine–lagoonal basin development in Dronkert, H., 1977. The evaporites of the Sorbas Basin. Rev. Inst.
accretionary wedges: Late Messinian (Lago-Mare) episode in the Invest. Geol. Diput. Prov. Barc. 32, 55–76.
152 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

Esteban, M., Calvet, F., Dabrio, C.J., Barón, A., Giner, J., Pomar, L., and 978). In: Zahn, R., Comas, M.C., Klaus, A. (Eds.),
Salas, R., 1978. Aberrant features of the Messinian coral reefs, Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX,
Spain. Acta Geol. Hisp. 13, 20–22. Scientific Results, vol. 161, pp. 529–541.
Esteban, M., Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., Santisteban, C., 1996. Western Iaccarino, S., Morlotti, E., Papani, G., Pelosio, G., Raffi, S., 1975.
Mediterranean reef complexes. In: Franseen, E.K., Esteban, M., Litostratigrafia e biostratigrafia di alcune serie neogeniche della
Ward, W.C., Rouchy, J.M. (Eds.), Models for Carbonate Stratig- provincia di Almería (Andalusia orientale — Spagna). Ateneo
raphy from Miocene Reef Complexes of Mediterranean Regions. Parm., Acta Nat. 11, 237–313.
SEPM. Concepts in Sedimentology and Paleontology Series, vol. 5, Iaccarino, S., Cita, M.B., Gaboardi, S., Gruppini, G.M., 1999. High-
pp. 55–72. resolution biostratigraphy at the Miocene–Pliocene boundary in
Fortuin, A.R., Krijgsman, W., 2003. The Messinian of the Nijar basin Holes 974B and 975B, western Mediterranean. In: Zahn, R., Comas,
(SE Spain): sedimentation, depositional environments and paleo- M.C., Klaus, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program,
geographic evolution. Sediment. Geol. 160, 213–242. College Station, TX, Scientific Results, vol. 161, pp. 197–221.
Fortuin, A.R., Kelling, J.M.D., Roep, T.B., 1995. The enigmatic Jiménez, A.P., Braga, J.C., 1993. Occurrence and taphonomy of
Messinian–Pliocene section of Cuevas del Almanzora (Vera basin, bivalves from the Níjar reef (Messinian, Late Miocene, SE Spain).
SE Spain) revisited — erosional feature and strontium isotope Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 102, 239–251.
ages. Sediment. Geol. 97, 177–201. Kouwenhoven, T.J., Seidenkrantz, M.S., van der Zwaan, G.J., 1999.
Fortuin, A., Krijgsman, W., Hilgen, F.J., Sierro, F.J., 2000. Late Miocene Deep-water changes: the near-synchronous disappearance of a
Mediterranean desiccation: topography and significance of the group of benthic foraminifera from the Late Miocene Mediterra-
‘Salinity Crisis’ erosion surface on-land in southeast Spain: nean. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 152, 259–281.
comment. Sediment. Geol. 133, 167–174. Krijgsman, W., Hilgen, F.J., Raffi, I., Sierro, F.J., Wilson, D.S., 1999a.
Garcés, M., Krijgsman, W., Agustí, J., 1998. Chronology of the Late Chronology, causes and progression of the Messinian salinity
Turolian deposits of the Fortuna basin: implications for the crisis. Nature 400, 652–655.
Messinian evolution of the eastern Betics. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. Krijgsman, W., Langereis, C.G., Zachariasse, W.J., Boccaletti, M.,
163, 69–81. Moratti, G., Gelati, R., Iaccarino, S., Papani, G., Villa, G., 1999b.
Garcés, M., Krijgsman, W., Agustí, J., 2001. Chronostratigraphic Late Negene evolution of the Taza–Guercif Basin (Rifian Corridor,
framework and evolution of the Fortuna basin (eastern Betics) Morocco) and implications for the Messinian salinity crisis. Mar.
since the Late Miocene. Basin Res. 13, 199–216. Geol. 153, 147–160.
Gautier, F., Clauzon, G., Suc, J.P., Cravatte, J., Violanti, D., 1994. Age Krijgsman, W., Garcés, M., Agustí, J., Raffi, I., Taberner, C., Zachariasse,
et durée de la crise de la salinité messinienne. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris W.J., 2000. The ‘Tortonian salinity crisis’ of the eastern Betics
318, 1103–1109. (Spain). Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 181, 497–511.
Geerlings, L.P.A., Dronkert, H., van de Post, H.M., van Hinte, J.E., Krijgsman, W., Fortuin, A.R., Hilgen, F.J., Sierro, F.J., 2001.
1980. Chara sp. In Mio–Pliocene marls at Cuevas del Almanzora, Astrochronology for the Messinian Sorbas basin (SE Spain) and
Vera basin, S.E. Spain. Proc. K. Ned. Akad. Wet., Ser. B 83, 29–37. orbital (precessional) forcing for evaporite cyclicity. Sediment.
Gliozzi, E., 1999. A Late Messinian brackish water ostracod fauna of Geol. 140, 43–60.
Paratethyan aspect from Le Vicenne basin (Abruzzi, central Krijgsman, W., Blanc-Valleron, M.M., Flecker, R., Hilgen, F.J., Kou-
Apennines, Italy). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 151, wenhoven, T.J., Merle, D., Orszag-Sperber, F., Rouchy, J.M.,
191–208. 2002. The onset of the Messinian salinity crisis in the Eastern
Goubert, E., Néraudeau, D., Rouchy, J.M., Lacour, D., 2001. Fora- Mediterranean (Pissouri Basin, cyprus). Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
miniferal record of environmental changes: Messinian of the Los 194, 299–310.
Yesos area (Sorbas basin, SE Spain). Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Lawrence, J.R., 1973. Stable oxygen and carbon isotope variations in
Palaeoecol. 175, 61–78. bulk carbonates from Late Miocene to present, in Tyrrhenian Basin
Hilgen, F.J., Krijgsman, W., 1999. Cyclostratigraphy and astrochro- — Site 132. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 13.
nology of the Tripoli diatomite formation (pre-evaporite Messi- U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C, pp. 796–798.
nian, Sicily, Italy). Terra Nova 11, 16–22. Lourens, L.J., Antonarakou, A., Hilgen, F.J., Van Hoof, A.A.M.,
Hsü, K.J., Cita, M.B., Ryan, W.B.F., 1973. The origin of the Medi- Vergnaud-Grazzini, C., Zachariasse, W., 1996. Evaluation of the
terranean evaporites. In: Ryan, W.B.F., Hsü, K.J. (Eds.), Initial Re- Plio-Pleistocene astronomical timescale. Paleoceanography 11,
ports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, vol. 13. U.S. Government 391–413.
Printing Office, Washington, D.C, pp. 1203–1231. Lu, F.H., Meyers, W.J., Schoonen, M.A., 2001. S and O (SO4)
Hsü, K.J., Montadert, L., Bernoulli, D., Cita, M.B., Erickson, A., isotopes, simultaneous modelling, and environmental significance
Garrison, R.E., Kidd, R.B., Mèlierés, F., Müller, C., Wright, R., 1977. of the Nijar Messinian gypsum, Spain. Geochim. Cosmochim.
History of the Messinian salinity crisis. Nature 267, 399–403. Acta 65, 3081–3092.
Hsü, K.J., Montadert, L., Bernoulli, D., Cita, M.B., Erickson, A., Lu, F.H., Meyers, W.J., Hanson, G.N., 2002. Trace elements and
Garrison, R.E., Kidd, R.B., Melières, F., Müller, C., Wright, R., environmental significance of Messinian gypsum deposits, the
1978a. History of the Mediterranean salinity crisis. In: Hsü, K.J., Nijar basin, southeastern Spain. Chem. Geol. 192, 149–161.
Montadert, L., et al. (Eds.), Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Martín, J.M., Braga, J.C., 1994. Messinian events in the Sorbas basin
Project, vol. 42a. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, in southeastern Spain and their implications in the recent history of
D.C, pp. 1053–1078. the Mediterranean. Sediment. Geol. 90, 257–268.
Hsü, K.J., Montadert, L., et al., 1978b. Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Martín, J.M., Braga, J.C., 1996. Tectonic signals in the Messinian
Drilling Project, vol. 42a. U.S. Government Printing Office, stratigraphy of the Sorbas basin (Almería, SE Spain). In: Friend, P.F.,
Washington, D.C, pp. 1–1249. Dabrio, C.J. (Eds.), Tertiary basins of Spain: the stratigraphic record
Iaccarino, S., Bossio, A., 1999. Paleoenvironment of uppermost of crustal kinematics. World and Regional Geology Series, vol. 6.
Messinian sequences in the western Mediterranean (Sites 974, 975, Cambridge University Press, pp. 387–391.
 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154 153

Martín, J.M., Braga, J.C., Riding, R., 1993. Siliciclastic stromatolites Orszag-Sperber, F., Rouchy, J.M., Blanc-Valleron, M.M., 2000. La
and thrombolites, Late Miocene, S.E. Spain. J. Sediment. Petrol. transition Messinien-Pliocène en Méditerranée orientale (Chypre):
63, 131–139. la période du Lago-Mare et sa signification. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris
Martín, J.M., Braga, J.C., Riding, R., 1997. Late Miocene Halimeda 331, 483–490.
alga-microbial segment reefs in the marginal Mediterranean Sorbas Ott d'Estevou, P., 1980. Evolution dynamique du bassin néogène de
Basin, Spain. Sedimentology 44, 441–456. Sorbas (Cordillères bétiques orientales, Espagne). Thèse Sci., Doc.
Martín, J.M., Braga, J.C., Sánchez-Almazo, I.M., 1999. The Messinian et Trav. IGAL, Paris, 1, 1–264.
record of the outcropping marginal Alboran basin deposits: Ott d'Estevou, P., Montenat, C., 1990. Le bassin de Sorbas-Tabernas.
significance and implications. In: Zahn, R., Comas, M.C., Klaus, A. In: Montenat, C. (Ed.), Les Bassins Néogènes du Domaine Bétique
(Eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, Orientale (Espagne): Tectonique et Sédimentation dans un Couloir
TX, Scientific Results, vol. 161, pp. 543–551. de Décrochement. Doc. Trav. IGAL, vol. 12–13, pp. 101–128.
Martín, J.M., Braga, J.C., Betzler, C., 2001. The Messinian Ott d'Estevou, P., Montenat, C., Alvado, J.C., 1990. Le bassin de Vera-
Guadalhorce corridor: the last northern, Atlantic–Mediterranean Garrucha. In: Montenat, C. (Ed.), Les Bassins Néogènes du
gateway. Terra Nova 13, 418–424. Domaine Bétique Orientale (Espagne): Tectonique et Sédimenta-
Martini, E., 1971. Standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous tion dans un Couloir de Décrochement. Doc. Trav. IGAL, vol. 12–
nannoplankton zonation. In: Farinacci, A. (Ed.), Proceedings of 13, pp. 165–187.
the Second Planktonic Conference, Roma 1970. Tecnoscienze, Pierre, C., Blanc-Valleron, M.M., Caulet, J.P., Rouchy, J.M., Sproviery,
Roma, pp. 739–785. R., Di Stefano, E., Caruso, A., Taberner, C., Pueyo, J.J., 1997.
Martín-Suárez, E., Freudenthal, M., Krijgsman, W., Fortuin, A.R., Sedimentary, stable isotopes and micropaleontological records of
2000. On the age of the continental deposits of the Zorreras paleoceanographic changes during the deposition of the Lower
Member (Sorbas basin, SE Spain). Geobios 33, 505–512. Messinian Tripoli Formation of the Gibliscemi–Falconara section
Matano, F., Barbieri, M., Di Nocera, S., Torre, M., 2005. Stratigraphy (Sicily). International Conference on Neogene Paleoceanography,
and strontium geochemistry of Messinian evaporite-bearing Erice (Italy), p. 54.
successions of the southern Apennines foredeep, Italy: implications Pierre, C., Rouchy, J.M., Blanc-Valleron, M.M., 1998. Sedimentolog-
for the Mediterranean “salinity crisis” and regional palaeogeogra- ical and stable isotope changes at the Messinian/Pliocene boundary
phy. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 217, 87–114. in the eastern Mediterranean (Holes 968B, and 969B). Proceedings
Mather, A., 1993. Basin inversion: some consequences for drainage of the Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, Scientific
evolution and alluvial architecture. Sedimentology 40, 1069–1089. Results, vol. 160, pp. 3–8.
Mather, A., Stokes, M., 2001. Marine to continental transition. In: Playà, E., Rosell, L., Ortí, F., 1997. Geoquímica isotópica (δ34S, 87Sr/86Sr)
Mather, A., Martín, J.M., Harvey, A.M., Braga, J.C. (Eds.), A Field y contenidos en estroncio de las evaporitas messinienses de la cuenca
Guide to the Neogene Sedimentary Basins of the Almería Province, de Sorbas (Almería). In: Calvo, J.P., Morales, J. (Eds.), Avances en el
South-East Spain. Blackwell Science, Oxford, pp. 186–189. Conocimiento del Terciario Ibérico. Univ. Complutense de Madrid-
McKenzie, J.A., Jenkyns, H.C., Bennet, G.G., 1980. Stable isotope Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales, Madrid, pp. 161–164.
study of the cyclic diatomite-claystones from the Tripoli Riding, R., Martín, J.M., Braga, J.C., 1991a. Coral–stromatolite reef
Formation, Sicily: a prelude to the Messinian salinity crisis. framework, Upper Miocene, Almería, Spain. Sedimentology 38,
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 29, 125–141. 799–818.
Montenat, C. (Ed.), 1990. Les Bassins Néogènes du Domaine Bétique Riding, R., Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., 1991b. Oolite stromatolites and
Orientale (Espagne): Tectonique et Sédimentation dans un Couloir thrombolites, Miocene, Spain: analogues of Recent giant Baha-
de Décrochement. Doc. Trav. IGAL, vol. 12–13. 392 pp. mian examples. Sediment. Geol. 71, 121–127.
Montenat, C., Bizon, G., 1976. A propos de l'évolution géodynamique Riding, R., Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., Sánchez-Almazo, I.M., 1998.
mio-pliocène en Méditerranée occidentale. L'exemple du bassin de Mediterranean Messinian salinity crisis: constraints from a coeval
Vera (Cordillères bétiques, Espagne méridionale). C. R. Somm. marginal basin, Sorbas, southeastern Spain. Mar. Geol. 146, 1–20.
Soc. Géol. Fr. 1, 15–16. Riding, R., Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., 1999. Late Miocene Mediterranean
Montenat, Ch., Ott d'Estevou, P., 1977. Présence du Pliocène marin dans desiccation: topography and significance of the ‘Salinity Crisis’
le bassin de Sorbas (Espagne méridionale). Conséquences paléogéo- erosion surface on-land in southeast Spain. Sediment. Geol. 123, 1–7.
graphiques et tectoniques. C. R. Somm. Soc. Géol. Fr. 4, 209–211. Riding, R., Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., 2000. Late Miocene Mediter-
Montenat, C., Bizon, G., Bizon, J.J., 1976. Continuité ou discontinuité ranean desiccation: topography and significance of the ‘Salinity
de sédimentation marine mio-pliocène en Méditerranée occiden- Crisis’ erosion surface on-land in southeast Spain: reply. Sediment.
tale: l'exemple du bassin de Vera (Espagne méridionale). Rev. IFP Geol. 133, 175–184.
31, 613–663. Roep, T.B., Beets, D.J., Dronkert, H., Pagnier, H., 1979. A prograding
Montenat, C., Ott d'Estevou, P., La Chapelle, G., 1990. La bassin de coastal sequence of wave-built structures of Messinian age,
Nijar-Carboneras et le couloir du bas-Andarax. In: Montenat, C. Sorbas, Almería, Spain. Sediment. Geol. 22, 135–163.
(Ed.), Les Bassins Néogènes du Domaine Bétique Orientale Roep, T.B., Dabrio, C.J., Fortuin, A.R., Polo, M.D., 1998. Late
(Espagne): Tectonique et Sédimentation dans un Couloir de highstand patterns of shifting and stepping coastal barriers and
Décrochement. Doc. et Trav. IGAL, vol. 12–13, pp. 129–164. washover-fans (Late Messinian, Sorbas Basina, SE Spain).
Néraudeau, D., Goubert, E., Lacour, D., Rouchy, J.M., 2001. Sediment. Geol. 116, 27–56.
Changing biodiversity of Mediterranean irregular echinoids from Rosell, L., Orti, F., Playà, E., Peryt, T.M., 1998. Strontium geochemistry
the Messinian to the present-day. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. of Miocene primary gypsum: Messinian of southeastern Spain and
Palaeoecol. 175, 43–60. Sicily and Badenian of Poland. J. Sediment. Res. 68, 63–79.
Orszag-Sperber, F., Rouchy, J.M., Bizon, G., Bizon, J.J., Cravatte, J., Rouchy, J.M., 1980. La genèse des évaporites messiniennes de
Muller, C., 1980. La sédimentation messinienne dans le bassin de Méditerranée: un bilan. Bull. Cent. Rech. Explor. Prod. Elf-
Polemi (Chypre). Géol. Méditerr. 7, 91–102. Aquitaine 4, 511–545.
154 J.C. Braga et al. / Sedimentary Geology 188–189 (2006) 131–154

Rouchy, J.M., 1982. La genèse des évaporites messiniennes de Sierro, F.J., Flores, J.A., Zamarreno, I., Vázquez, A., Utrilla, R.,
Méditerranee. Mem. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. Sér. C, Sci. Terre L. 267 pp. Francés, G., Hilgen, F., Krijgsman, W., 1997. Astronomical
Rouchy, J.M., Saint-Martin, J.P., 1992. Late Miocene events in the cyclicity and sapropels in the pre-evaporitic Messinian of the
Mediterranean as recorded by carbonate–evaporite relations. Sorbas basin (Western Mediterranean). Geogaceta 21, 199–202.
Geology 20, 629–632. Sierro, F.J., Hilgen, F.J., Krijgsman, W., Flores, J.A., 2001. The Abad
Rouchy, J.M., Orszag-Sperber, F., Blanc-Valleron, M.M., Pierre, C., composite (SE Spain): a Messinian reference section for the
Rivière, M., Combourieu-Nebout, N., Panayides, I., 2001. Mediterranean and the APTS. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Paleoenvironmental changes at the Messinian–Pliocene boundary Palaeoecol. 168, 141–169.
in the eastern Mediterranean (southern Cyprus basins): signifi- Sierro, F.J., Flores, J.A., Francés, G., Vázquez, A., Utrilla, R.,
cance of the Messinian Lago-Mare. Sediment. Geol. 145, 93–117. Zamarreño, I., Erlenkeuser, H., Barcena, M.A., 2003. Orbitally-
Rouchy, J.M., Pierre, C., Et-Touhami, M., Kerzazi, K., Caruso, A., controlled oscillations in planktic communities and cyclic changes
Blanc-Valleron, M.M., 2003. Late Messinian to Early Pliocene in western Mediterranean hydrography during the Messinian.
paleoenvironmentaal changes in the Melilla basin (NE Morocco) and Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 190, 289–316.
their relation to Mediterranean evolution. Sediment. Geol. 163, 1–27. Siesser, W.G., de Kaenel, E.P., 1999. Neogene calcareous nannofos-
Roveri, M., Bassetti, M.A., Lucchi, F.R., 2001. The Mediterranean sils: western Mediterranean biostratigraphy and paleoclimatology.
Messinian salinity crisis: an Apennine foredeep perspective. In: Zahn, R., Comas, M.C., Klaus, A. (Eds.), Proceedings of the
Sediment. Geol. 140, 201–214. Ocean Drilling Program, College Station, TX, Scientific Results,
Ruegg, G.J.H., 1964. Geologische Onderzoekingen in het Bekken van vol. 161, pp. 223–237.
Sorbas, S Spanje. Amsterdam Geological Institut, University of Sonnenfeld, P., 1985. Models of Upper Miocene evaporite genesis in
Amsterdam. 64 pp. the Mediterranean region. In: Stanley, D.J., Wezel, F.C. (Eds.),
Ruggieri, G., Sprovieri, R., 1976. Messinian Salinity Crisis and its Geological Evolution of the Mediterranean Basin. Springer-Verlag,
paleogeographical implications. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. New York, pp. 347–353.
Palaeoecol. 20, 13–21. Spezzaferri, S., Cita, M.B., McKenzie, J.A., 1998. The Miocene/
Saint Martin, J.P., Néraudeau, D., Lauriat-Rage, A., Goubert, E., Pliocene boundary in the Eastern Mediterranean: results from Sites
Secrétan, S., Babinot, J.F., Boukli-Hacene, S., Pouyet, S., Lacour, 976 and 969. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, College
D., Pestrea, S., Conesa, G., 2000. La faune interstratifiée dans les Station, TX, Scientific Results, vol. 161, pp. 9–28.
gypses messiniens de Los Yesos (bassin de Sorbas, SE Espagne): Sprovieri, R., Di Stefano, E., Sprovieri, M., 1996. High resolution
implications. Geobios 33, 637–649. chronology for Late Miocene Mediterranean stratigraphic events.
Sánchez-Almazo, I.M., Bellas, S., Civis, J., Aguirre, J., 1999. Palaeo- Riv. Ital. Paleontol. 102, 77–104.
environmental and biostratigraphical significance of the microfos- Troelstra, S.R., van de Poel, H.M., Huisman, C.H.A., Geerlings, L.P.A.,
sil assemblages of the uppermost Messinian marine deposits of the Dronkert, H., 1980. Paleoecological changes in the latest Miocene
Sorbas basin (Almería, SE Spain). Europ. Palaeontol. Assembl. of the Sorbas Basin, SE Spain. Geol. Méditerr. 7, 115–126.
Workshop, Lisbon, pp. 102–106. van de Poel, H.M., 1991. Messinian stratigraphy of the Nijar basin (S.E.
Sánchez-Almazo, I.M., Spiro, B., Braga, J.C., Martín, J.M., 2001. Spain) and the origin of its gypsum–ghost limestones. Geol. Mijnb.
Constraints of stable isotope signatures on the depositional 70, 215–234.
palaeoenvironments of Upper Miocene reef and temperate van de Poel, H.M., 1992. Foraminiferal biostratigraphy and palaeoen-
carbonates in the Sorbas basin, SE Spain. Palaeogeogr. Palaeocli- vironmens of the Miocene–Pliocene Carboneras-Nijar basin (S.E.
matol. Palaeoecol. 175, 153–172. Spain). Scr. Geol. 102, 1–32.
Schreiber, B.C., Friedman, G.M., Decima, A., Schreiber, E., 1976. van de Poel, H.M., 1994. Messinian marginal-marine and continental
Depositional environments of Upper Miocene (Messinian) evap- facies and their stratigraphy in the eastern Almeria province (S.E.
orite deposits of Sicilian Basin. Sedimentology 23, 729–760. Spain). Actes Lab. Géol. Sédiment Paléontol., vol. 23. Univ. Paul-
Seidenkrantz, M.S., Kouwenhoven, T.J., Jorissen, F.J., Shackleton, N.J., Sabatier, Toulouse. 202 pp.
van der Zwaan, G.J., 2000. Benthic foraminifera as indicators of Weijermars, R., 1988. Neogene tectonics in the western Mediterranean
changing Mediterranean–Atlantic water exchange in the Late may have caused the Messinian salinity crisis and an associated
Miocene. Mar. Geol. 163, 387–407. glacial event. Tectonophysics 148, 211–219.
Serrano, F., 1990. El Mioceno en el área de Níjar (Almería, España). Weijermars, R., 1991. Geology and tectonics of the Betic Zone, SE
Rev. Soc. Geol. Esp. 3, 65–76. Spain. Earth-Sci. Rev. 31, 153–184.
Sierro, F.J., 1985. The replacement of the “Globorotalia menardii” Weijermars, R., Roep, T.B., van den Eeckhout, B., Postma, G.,
group by the Globorotalia miotumida group: an aid to recognizing Kleverlaan, K., 1985. Uplift history of the Betic fold nappe
the Tortonian–Messinian boundary in the Mediterranean and inferred from Neogene–Quaternary sedimentation and tectonics
adjacent Atlantic. Mar. Micropaleontol. 9, 525–535. (in the Sierra Alhamilla and Almería, Sorbas and Tabernas basins
Sierro, F.J., Flores, J.A., Civis, J., González-Delgado, J.A., Francés, G., of the Betic Cordilleras, SE Spain). Geol. Mijnb. 64, 397–411.
1993. Late Miocene globorotaliid event-stratigraphy and biogeog-
raphy in the NE-Atlantic and Mediterranean. Mar. Micropaleontol.
21, 143–168.

View publication stats