1.

Orthographic Projections
a) 1st Angle Projection
b) 3rd Angle Projection
2. Auxiliary Views
3. Sectioning
4. Isometric Drawings

1
Any object has three dimensions, length, width and height. A projection is defined as a representation of an object on a two
dimensional plane. The projections of an object should convey all the three dimensions, along with other details of the object on
a sheet of paper.

2
The principles of orthographic projection may be followed in four different angles or systems, first, second, third and fourth
angle projections. A projection is said to be first, second, third or fourth angle when the object is imagined to be in the first,
second, third or fourth quadrant respectively.

3
• IN THIS METHOD, THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO BE SITUATED IN FIRST QUADRANT MEANS ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP.
• OBJECT IS INBETWEEN OBSERVER & PLANE.

4
• IN THIS METHOD, THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO BE SITUATED IN THIRD QUADRANT ( BELOW HP & BEHIND OF VP. )
• VP PLANE BEING TRANSPARENT AND IS IN BETWEEN OBSERVER & OBJECT.

5
An object positioned in space may be imagined as surrounded by six mutually perpendicular planes. So, for any object, six
different views may be obtained by viewing at it along the six directions, normal to these planes. Figure shows an object with six
possible directions to obtain the different views which are designated as follows:

• View in the direction a = view from the front (front view)

• View in the direction b = view from above (top view)
• View in the direction c = view from the left (left-side view)
• View in the direction d = view from the right (right-side view)
• View in the direction e = view from below (bottom view)
• View in the direction f = view from the rear (back view)

6
Note: A comparison reveals that in both the methods of projection, the views are identical in shape and detail. Only their
location with respect to the view from the front is different.

First Angle Third Angle

Left-side

Front

7
For describing any object completely through its orthographic projections, it is important to select a number of views. The
number of views required to describe any object will depend upon the extent of complexity involved in it. The higher the
symmetry, the lesser the number of views required.

8
One-View Drawings
Some objects with cylindrical, square or hexagonal features or, plates of any size with any number of features in it may be
represented by a single view. In such cases, the diameter of the cylinder, the side of the square, the side of the hexagon or the
thickness of the plate may be expressed by a note or abbreviation.

9
Two-View Drawings
Some objects which are symmetrical about two axes may be represented completely by two views normally, the largest face
showing most of the details of the object is selected for drawing the view from the front. The shape of the object then
determines whether the second view can be a view from above or a side view.

10
Three-View Drawings
In general, most of the objects consisting of either a single component or an assembly of a number of components, are
described with the help of three views. In such cases, the views normally selected are the views from the front, above and left or
right side.

11
When two views of an object are given, the third view may be developed by the use of a mitre line.

To construct (the view from the left) from the two given views

• Draw the views from the front and above.

• Draw the projection lines to the right of the view from above.
• Decide the distance, D from the view from the front at which, the side view is to be drawn.
• Construct a mitre line at 45°.
• From the points of intersection between the mitre line and the projection lines, draw vertical projection lines.
• Draw the horizontal projection lines from the view from the front to intersect the above lines. The figure obtained by joining
the points of intersection in the order is the required view.

12
Construction of the view from above

13
The views of a given object must be positioned on the drawing sheet so as to give a good and balanced appearance. Keeping in
mind, (i) number of views, (ii) scale and (iii) space between the views, the draughtsman should decide about the placement of
views on the drawing sheet. Sufficient space between the views must be provided to facilitate placement of dimensions, notes,
etc., on the drawing without overcrowding.

Example
For the object given in the figure draw;
• Front view
• Top view
• Right side view
• Left side view

Both in first angle and third angle projections

14
1st Angle Projection 3rd Angle Projection

15
1st Angle Projection
Note; Always dimension your drawings!
Zoom in to see the hidden lines

16
3rd Angle Projection
Note; Always dimension your drawings!
Zoom in to see the hidden lines

17
Assemble the two parts and draw the following views taking the direction indicated by the arrow as the front view;
• Front view
• Top view
• Right side view
• Left side view

Both in first angle and third angle projections

18
1st Angle Projection
Note; always dimension your drawings!
Zoom in to see the hidden lines

19
3rd Angle Projection
Note; always dimension your drawings!
Zoom in to see the hidden lines

20
Draw the front, left-side and top views in 1st angle projection

21
If the surface of an object is inclined to any of the planes of projection, the view of the surface on that plane will not shown its
true shape and size. In certain cases, it will be difficult to read and draw such view. To overcome this difficulty, a view of the
inclined surface is projected on an imaginary plane, parallel to this inclined surface. This imaginary plane is called auxiliary plane
and the view obtained is called auxiliary view.

Principles of Auxiliary Views

Auxiliary view is a projection obtained on the auxiliary plane when viewed in a direction perpendicular to the inclined surface.
The method of projecting the view of the inclined surface of an object onto an auxiliary plane is similar to orthographic
projection.

The need for drawing Auxiliary Views

The basic need of an auxiliary view in a drawing is to show the true shape and size of an inclined surface and the details on it.

22
Classification of Auxiliary Views

1. Primary auxiliary views

These are auxiliary views of surfaces inclined to two of the principal planes but perpendicular to the third one

• Front auxiliary view; auxiliary view projected from the front view.
• Top auxiliary view; auxiliary view projected from the top view.
• Side auxiliary view; auxiliary view projected from the side view.

2. Secondary auxiliary views

3. Symmetrical auxiliary views Self Study
4. Unsymmetrical auxiliary views

23
Examples

24
Examples

25
Examples

26
Sectional Views
Orthographic views when carefully selected, may reveal the external features of even the most complicated objects. However,
there are objects with complicated interior details and when represented by hidden lines, may not effectively reveal the true
interior details. This may be overcome by representing one or more of the views ‘in section’.
This is where an imaginary cutting (sectioning) plane is used to cut through the objects so that the portion in front of the plane
can be imagined to be removed so as to expose inner details.
A section is used to show the detail of a component, or an assembly, on a particular plane which is known as the cutting plane
(section plane, line of section or trace of the cutting plane).
A sectional view is obtained by imagining the object, as if cut by a cutting plane and the portion between the observer and the
section plane being removed.

27
28
1. Full Section
A sectional view obtained by assuming that the object is completely cut by a plane is called a full section or sectional view. The
sectioned view provides all the inner details, better than the unsectioned view with hidden lines for inner details. The cutting
plane is represented by its trace (VT) in the view from the front and the direction of sight to obtain the sectional view is
represented by the arrows.

Full sectional views may be classified as follows:

a) Full sectional front view (elevation)
b) Full sectional top view (plan)
c) Full sectional right side view (end view)
d) Full sectional left side view (end view)

29
It may be noted that, in order to obtain a sectional view, only one half of the object is imagined to be removed, but is not
actually shown removed anywhere except in the sectional view. Further, in a sectional view, the portions of the object that have
been cut by the plane are represented by section lining or hatching. The view should also contain the visible parts behind the
cutting plane.
The figure below represents the correct and incorrect ways of representing a sectional view. Sections are used primarily to
replace hidden line representation, hence, as a rule, hidden lines are omitted in the sectional views.

Why is this
not correct?

30
2. Half Section
A half sectional view is preferred for symmetrical objects. For a half section, the cutting plane removes only one quarter of an
object. For a symmetrical object, a half sectional view is used to indicate both interior and exterior details in the same view.
Even in half sectional views, it is a good practice to omit the hidden lines. It may be noted that a centre line is used to separate
the halves of the half section. Students are also advised to note the representation of the cutting plane in the view from above,
for obtaining the half sectional view from the front.

31
2. Half Section (cont.)
Half sectional views may be classified as follows:

1. Top half sectional views: 3. Right half sectional views:

a) Front view, top half in section a) Front view, right half in section
b) Top view, top half in section b) Top view, right half in section
c) Right side view, top half in section c) Right side view, right half in section
d) Left side view, right half in section
d) Left side view, top half in section

4. Left half sectional views

2. Bottom half sectional views: a) Front view, left half in section
a) Front view, bottom half in section b) Top view, left half in section
b) Top view, bottom half in section c) Right side view, left half in section
c) Right side view, bottom half in section d) Left side view, left half in section
d) Left side view, bottom half in section

32
3. Auxiliary Sections
Auxiliary sections may be used to supplement the principal views used in orthographic projections. A sectional view projected
on an auxiliary plane, inclined to the principal planes of projection, shows the cross-sectional shapes of features such as arms,
ribs and so on.

33
4. Partial (local) or broken section
In this type of section, only a small portion of the component is shown for the purpose of revealing details.

5. Revolved section
Here the cutting plane, which is perpendicular to the axis of the object, is revolved to bring it into the plane of the axis.

34
6. Removed section
When the revolved section is removed outside the object, then it is called removed section.

35
7. Offset section
To expose more details by a single cutting, the section plane is offset through the details.

36
Hatching is done by drawing continuous thin lines at a convenient angle and equally spaced. The preferred hatching angle is 45˚
for principle outlines or line of symmetry of the sections.

Hatching of adjacent components is

done in different directions or spacing.
Hatching may be interrupted for dimensioning, if it is
not possible to place dimensions outside the
hatching.

37
38
When a cutting plane passes longitudinally through the center of a rib or a web, the rib should not be sectioned. But the rib is
shown in section when the cutting plane passes crosswise through the rib.

39
Spokes or arms of wheels or pulleys, shafts and fasteners like bolts, nuts, rods, rivets, keys, pins, cotters, balls, rollers, similar
symmetrical parts etc. are not sectioned longitudinally. Hence, they should not be hatched. They are shown in section, if the
cutting plane is at right angles to their axis.

40
41
42
43
44
45
Class Exercise

Orthographic views (1st angle projection) of a forked end of a machine part are shown in the figure. Draw the following views:
• Front view, top half in section
• Top view, bottom half in section

46
Solution

47
• IT IS A TYPE OF PICTORIAL PROJECTION IN WHICH ALL THREE DIMENSIONS OF AN OBJECT ARE SHOWN IN ONE VIEW AND IF REQUIRED,
THEIR ACTUAL SIZES CAN BE MEASURED DIRECTLY FROM IT.
• PURPOSE OF ISOMETRIC DRAWING IS TO UNDERSTAND OVERALL SHAPE, SIZE & APPEARANCE OF AN OBJECT PRIOR TO IT’S PRODUCTION.
• IN AN ISOMETRIC DRAWING OF AN OBJECT, ALL THREE DIMENSIONAL AXES ARE MENTAINED AT EQUAL INCLINATIONS WITH EACH OTHER.

48
 3D Isometric

Orthographic
Sectioning

49
Orthographic

Isometric

50
Some Important Terms
• The three lines AL, AD and AH, meeting at point A and making 120˚ angles with each other are termed Isometric Axes.
• The lines parallel to these axes are called Isometric Lines.
• The planes representing the faces of the cube as well as other planes parallel to these planes are called Isometric Planes.

• When one holds the object in such a way that all three dimensions are visible then in the process all dimensions become
proportionally inclined to observer’s eye sight and hence appear apparent in lengths.
• This reduction is 0.815 or 9/11 (approx.) It forms a reducing scale which Is used to draw isometric drawings and is called
Isometric scale.
• In practice, while drawing isometric projection, it is necessary to convert true lengths into isometric lengths for measuring
and marking the sizes.

51
52
Drawing circles in isometric

53
Drawing objects in Isometric
Simple engineering objects can be very clearly described by isometric projection or view. Since the preparation of isometric view
is simpler, generally that is preferred for engineering objects. The hidden lines are shown only if they are necessary

54
Examples
Draw an isometric projection of an object given below. The views are given in third angle projection.

55
Examples
Draw an isometric projection of an object given below. The views are given in first angle projection.

56