2.

TISSUE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The living organisms either unicellular like amoeba or multicellular like human beings have different
life processes. In unicellular organism all the life processes are carried out within a single cell.
In multicellular organisms due to increase in body size, it is difficult for each cell to efficiently cope
with the vast variety of the physiological needs of the organisms, so cells differentiate into specific
tissues to perform specific functions. In human being nerve cells carry messages and blood flows
to transport oxygen, food, hormones and waste materials.
In plants vascular tissues conduct food, water and minerals from one part of the plant to other
part. So multicellular organism shows division of labour.

2.0 TISSUE-DEFINITION
A group of cells that are similar in structure and perform common function is called tissue.
The term tissue was coined by Bichat. The study of internal structure of any part of an organism
is called anatomy. The study of tissue with the help of microscope is called histology.
Importance of tissues
Workload of individual cell has decreased.
Tissues become organized to form organs and organs into organ systems.
Formation of tissues has brought about division of labour in multicellular organisms.
Multicellular organisms have higher survival due to improved body organization and higher efficiency
of functions.

3.0 PLANT TISSUE

Plants are stationary so they require more of supportive tissue for obtaining structural strength.
Most of these tissues are dead and hence they provide more mechanical strength and they require
less energy for their maintenance.
The growth of plants is limited to certain regions.In these regions, growing tissues are present, which
have capacity to divide throughout life.
Plant tissues can be classified into two groups on the basis of their division capacity, meristematic
tissue and permanent tissue.

Plant Tissues

1. Meristematic tissue 2. Permanent tissue

Simple Complex
Apical Parenchyma Xylem
Intercalary Collenchyma Phloem
Lateral Sclerenchyma
3.1 Meristematic Tissue
These are living tissues which are capable of division .
These tissues are found in growing regions of plants. Cytoplasm
Cells have thin cell wall. Nucleus
Cells contain dense cytoplasm and do not have vacuoles.
Cell wall
Cells contain prominent and large nucleus.
Intercellular spaces are absent.
Fig.1 Meristematic tissue
Metabolically active cells and stored food is absent.
Function- Meristematic tissue is responsible for the growth in length and width(girth) of plant.

3.2 Classification of Meristematic Tissue

On the basis of their location meristematic tissues are of three types :
(i) Apical meristem
It is present at the growing tips of shoot and root.
Root apical meristem is covered by root cap which protects it from the rubbing of soil particles.
They are responsible for increase in the length of shoot and root.

Fig.2 Location of different meristems in the plant body

(ii) Intercalary meristem
Intercalary meristem may be present at the internode as in grasses, bamboo and mints
or the base of Pinus leaves.
They are responsible for the growth in length of plant organs.
Apical and intercalary meristem are responsible for primary growth of plant (growth in length).
(iii) Lateral meristem
It lies on the lateral sides of stem and root or occurs along the sides of longitudinal axis
of the plant. It helps in increasing the diameter (girth or width) of plant. Hence helps in
secondary growth.
Lateral meristem is of two types, vascular cambium and cork cambium. Vascular cambium
produces secondary phloem and secondary xylem. Cork cambium (phellogen) produces a
protective cork on the outside.
Table : Difference among three types of meristems
Characters Apical meristem Intercalary meristem Lateral meristem
Position At the apex part At the base of leaves Lateral sides of
of shoot and root. and internode. stem and root.
Function Growth in length. Growth in length of Growth in diameter
leaves and internode. or girth(width).
ACTIVE BIOLOGY
Aim- To demonstrate that apical meristem causes growth in
length of root.
Method- Take two glass jars. Fill them with water. Place an
onion bulb over the mouth of each jar in such a way that stem
base of the bulb dips in water. Observe daily. Roots develop
from the base of the bulbs in both the jars. Measure the length
of the roots daily. On fourth day, remove 1 cm long apical
portion of the roots of bulb 2. Measure the lengths of the roots
in both the bulbs on fifth and sixth day.
Observation- It is seen that roots of bulb 1 continue to grow (1) (2)
on fifth and sixth day. They stop growing in case of bulb 2. Fig.3 Growth of roots in Onion.
The difference between the two jars is that in bulb 1, the root (1) with intact apical meristem.
(2) with apical meristem removed
apical meristem is intact while in bulb 2, the root apical on fourth day.
meristem have been removed.
Conclusion- Apical meristem is responsible for growth in length of the root.

4.0 PERMANENT TISSUE

They are formed by division and differentiation of meristematic tissue.
They are composed of those cells which have lost the power of division (temporarily or permanently)
and attained a permanent shape, size and function. Cells may be living or dead.
Permanent tissues are of two types, simple permanent tissue and complex permanent tissue.
4.1 Simple Permanent Tissue
These tissues are made up of similar types of cells, that perform a common function. They are
protective and supportive in nature. Simple tissues are of three types (i) Parenchyma (ii) Collenchyma
(iii) Sclerenchyma
(i) Parenchyma
It is a living and basic packaging tissue which consists of relatively unspecialised cells.
Parenchyma is the first evolved permanent tissue which is present in all soft parts of plant
(therefore called universal tissue).
Cells of this tissue have thin cell wall which is made up of cellulose.
Cells of this tissue have cytoplasm with small nucleus and large vacuole.
Cells are usually loosely packed so intercellular spaces are present.
Function- This tissue provides support to the plant and help in storage of food.

Vacuole

Intercellular
spaces

Nucleus

(A) (B)
Transverse section Longitudinal section
Fig.4 Parenchyma
 Modification of parenchyma
(a) Chlorenchyma
Chlorenchyma is the type of parenchyma in which chloroplasts (contains chlorophylls) are
found. They are present in mesophyll of leaves.
Function- Synthesis of food (Photosynthesis).
(b) Aerenchyma- Parenchyma made up of rounded cells which surrounds the large air cavities.
It is found in aquatic plants or hydrophytes.
Function- It provides buoyancy to the aquatic plants to help them float.

1. A tissue is made of
(A) cells with similar structures but very different functions
(B) a group of cells that perform similar/common functions
(C) cells with dissimilar structures and functions
(D) same type of cells which form organs

2. Which of the following is not true for a meristematic tissue?

(A) It has living, thin walled cells (B) Cells have dense protoplasm
(C) They have no intercellular spaces (D) They store reserve food material

3. Meristems help in
(A) Absorption of water (B) Absorption of minerals
(C) Translocation of food (D) Growth of plants

4. The meristem present at the root or shoot apices is called

(A) Primary meristem (B) Promeristem
(C) Intercalary meristem (D) Secondary meristem

5. Elongation of internodes of the stems of grasses is facilitated by :

(A) Apical meristem (B) Lateral meristem
(C) Intercalary meristem (D) Secondary meristem

6. The apical meristem of the root is present

(A) Only in radicles (B) Only in tap roots
(C) Only in adventitious roots (D) In all the roots

7. Why plants consume less energy as compared to animals ?

8. Vacuoles are absent in meristematic tissue. Why ?

9. What will happen if apical meristem is damaged or cut?

10. What will happen if the tip of sugarcane plant is removed?

11. What will happen if root cap is removed from root tip?
(ii) Collenchyma
Cells of this tissue are living, flexible, elongated or vary in structure.
Cells of this tissue are irregularly thickened at the corners due to the deposition of pectin.
Intercellular spaces are very little or absent It is present below the epidermis of leaf stalk,
herbaceous dicot stem and at the margin of leaves.

Thickening at
the corners

Vacuole

Nucleus

A B
Transverse section Longitudinal section

Fig.5 Collenchyma
Functions
It provides mechanical support (tensile strength) and elasticity. It allows easy bending in
various parts of plant (leaf and stem) without breaking i.e. it provides flexibility to plant.
(iii) Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells are dead, narrow and long cells which are devoid of protoplasm.
The walls of cells of sclerenchyma are greatly thickened with deposition of lignin. Such cell
walls are called lignified. The cells of sclerenchyma are closely packed without intercellular
spaces. They are found in stems, roots, veins of leaves (in vascular bundle), hard coverings
of seed and fruits.
Functions- They form hypodermis of monocot stem. It is the main mechanical tissue which
provides mechanical support. It makes the plant hard and stiff.

Lumen

Pit

A B
Transverse section Longitudinal section

Fig.6 Sclerenchyma
 Sclerenchymatous cells are of two types in structure:
1. Sclerenchyma fibres: They constitute the major mechanical tissue of the plants and are
abundantly found in plants. Commercial fibres obtained from plants (e.g. jute, flax, hemp, husk
of coconut) usually are sclerenchymatous fibres.
2. Sclereids (grit or stone cells): They are highly thickened and irregularly shaped dead cells.
They are found in various parts of the plant such as cortex, pith and hard seed coat. Sclereids
provide strength to seed covering and grittiness to the pulp of many fruits, such as guava, apple
and pear.

Table : Comparative study of Parenchyma, Collenchyma and Sclerenchyma

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma
It consists of living It consists of living cells. It consists of dead cells.
cells.
Intercellular spaces are Intercellular spaces may Intercellular spaces are absent.
present. or may not be present.
Cell wall is thin without Cell wall is thick as it has Cell wall is thick as it
having secondary pectin deposition. has lignin deposition.
deposition.
Cells contain Cells contain cytoplasm. Cells are devoid of cytoplasm.
cytoplasm.
They have vital They have both vital as well as It is chiefly a mechanical tissue.
functions like synthesismechanical functions, providing
and storage of food. support and elasticity to plant
body.
Found in monocot stem,
Found in softer tissues Found in dicot stem & leaf stalks
husk of coconut, covering of seeds

4.2 Complex Permanent Tissue

The complex tissues consist of more than one type of cells. All these cells coordinate to perform
a common function. Complex tissues are of the following two types :
(i) Xylem or wood (ii) Phloem or bast
(i) Xylem or wood : Xylem is made up of four types of cells
1. Tracheids ù Fiber Tracheids Vessels
2. Vessels ú Dead elements
3. Xylem fibres úû
4. Xylem parenchyma ùû Living element
Tracheids- Tracheids are elongated cells with tapering
ends. Since tracheids do not have open ends like the vessels,
Xylem parenchyma

so the water has to pass from cell to cell via the pits.
Vessels or tracheae- Very long tube like structures formed
by a row of cells placed end to end.
The transverse walls between the vessels are completely
dissolved to form continuous channels or water-pipes.
Tracheids and vessels help in long distance conduction of
water and minerals vertically or upward from the root
system to various parts of plant.
Tracheids and vessels provide mechanical support. Fig.7 Component of xylem
Xylem fibre- These are dead and lignified sclerenchymatous cells which are mainly supportive
in function.
Xylem parenchyma It is formed of living parenchymatous cells which helps in storage of food
and lateral conduction of water and minerals.

(ii) Phloem- It is also made up of four types of cells

Sieve tubes ù
ú
Companion cells ú living elements
ú
Phloem parenchyma ú
û
Phloem fibres ùû dead element

Parenchyma

Companion cell

Sieve tube

Companion
cell
Sieve plate

Fig.8 Phloem tissue. A. Longitudinal section ; B. Transverse section

Sieve tubes- Sieve tubes are slender, tube like structures composed of elongated cells, placed end
to end.
Their end walls are perforated by numerous pores and are called sieve plates.
The nucleus of each sieve tube degenerates at maturity, however cytoplasm persists in the mature
sieve tube. Thus, nuclei are absent in mature sieve tube elements.
Companion cells
These are associated with sieve tubes.
These are smaller cells having dense cytoplasm and prominent nucleus.
The companion cells help the sieve tubes in the conduction of food material.
Phloem parenchyma
These are living and thin walled cells which helps in sideways conduction of food. They store various
materials like resin, latex and mucilage. They are absent in monocots.
Phloem fibres- are dead sclerenchymatous cells. Phloem or bast fibres of some plants are source of commercial
fibres e.g. Jute, Hemp, Flax.

Function of phloem- Phloem transport photosynthetically prepared food materials in both the
directions from the leaves to the storage organs and latter from storage organs to the growing regions
of the plant body.
 Table:Differences between xylem and phloem
Xylem Phloem
It is composed of vessels, tracheids, xylem It is composed of sieve tubes, companion
parenchyma and xylem fibres. cells, phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.

It conducts water and minerals from roots It translocates food from leaves to different
to leaves. parts of the plant.

Xylem parenchyma are the living cells in Sieve tubes, companion cell and phloem
xylem. parenchyma are the living cells in phloem.

5.0 PROTECTIVE TISSUE

These tissues are primarily protective in function. They are of two types:
(1) Epidermis (2) Cork
5.1 Epidermis
It is the outermost layer of all organs of plant body which is formed from parenchymal cells. In
epidermal cell outside walls are thicker than inner wall. It is mostly single layered but in desert plant
it is multi layered for protection against water loss.
It protects the internal tissue from mechanical injuries and entry of germs.
Cuticle : The outer wall of epidermis of aerial parts of plant secretes and deposits a waxy substance,
called cutin which form a water proof layer called cuticle.
Cuticle Epidermis

Fig.9 Epidermis
It checks the loss of water by transpiration and mechanical injuries and invasion of parasitic fungi.
Epidermis of leaves has large number of microscopic aperture called stomata.

Epidermal cell

Guard
cells

Stoma
Guard cell
(1) (2)
Fig.10 Epidermis showing stomata.
(1) lateral view. (2) surface veiw

Stomata: Each stomata is an elliptical aperture bounded by two kidney shaped guard cells which
regulate opening and closing of stomata.
Transpiration (loss of water in the form of water vapours) takes place through stomata. Stomata
helps in exchange of gases.
 Root hairs: Epidermis of roots (epiblema) have root hairs which greatly increase their surface
area for absorption of water and minerals.
5.2 Cork or Phellem
Cork is the peripheral tissue of old stems and roots of woody trees and is formed due to activity
of cork cambium or phellogen (secondary / lateral meristem).
It is made up of dead cells with thick wall but no intercellular spaces.
The walls of cork cells are heavily thickened by
the deposition of an organic substance (a fatty Epidermis
substance), called suberin. Suberin makes these
cell impermeable to water and gases and it also Phellem
helps in conservation of water in the trees. Phellogen
Cork cambium produces new cells on its both
Phelloderm
sides, thus, forming cork (phellem) on the outer
Cortex
side and the secondary cortex or phelloderm
on the inner side. Fig.11 Cork
Commercial importance of cork- Cork is light and highly compressible and cork is used in
the making of a variety of sports goods such as cricket balls, table tennis, shuttlecocks, wooden
paddles etc.

1. The cells that form a major part of walnut shells are

(A) Fibres (B) Sclereids (C) Collenchyma (D) Parenchyma

2. Cell walls of sclerenchyma are rich in

(A) Cellulose (B) Pectin (C) Lignin (D) Hemicellulose

3. Collenchyma is considered a living tissue because

(A) It has cell walls (B) It has cellulose in its cell walls
(C) It has protoplasm and nucleus (D) It has angular thickenings

4. Collenchyma in plants provide

(A) Flexibility (B) Buoyancy (C) Rigidity (D) Both (A) & (C)

5. A living plant cell without nucleus is

(A) Tracheid (B) Companion cell (C) Parenchyma (D) Sieve tube

6. The components of xylem which help in lateral conduction of water are:

(A) Trachea (B) Tracheids (C) Xylem fibres (D) Xylem parenchyma

7. Apart from the conduction of water, xylem also

(A) Conducts organic food (B) Gives mechanical strength
(C) Helps in gaseous exchange (D) Helps in transpiration

8. Sieve tubes are present in

(A) Phloem (B) Xylem (C) Collenchyma (D) Sclerenchyma
9. The epidermis of root lacks
(A) Cuticle (B) Stomata (C) Guard cells (D) All of those

10. A fatty substance deposited on the walls of cork cells is

(A) Cellulose (B) Lignin (C) Pectin (D) Suberin

11. The only cells of epidermis with chloroplasts are

(A) Stomata (B) Guard cells (C) Cuticle (D) None of these

12. Epidermal cells are:

(A) Guard cells (B) Root hair (C) Trichomes (D) All of the above

13. Why leaf margins in dicot plants are not cracked due to action of wind?

14. Why do sclerenchymatous cells become dead after deposition of lignin ?

15. What will happen when we bite a fruit of pear?

16. What happens to the cells formed by meristematic tissue?

17. Although sieve tube elements do not have nuclei, but they still remain living. Why?
6.0 ANIMAL TISSUE
Types of animal tissue : Based on the location and function, the animal tissues are classified
into four types
Animal Tissues

Epithelial Tissue Muscular Tissue ConnectiveTissue Nervous Tissue

Squamous Cuboidal Columnar Ciliated Pseudostratified

Striated/Skeletal Visceral(smooth) Cardiac

Connective tissue Fluid

Skeletal (solid)
proper connective
connective
tissue tissue
Areolar Dense Regular Adipose (Vascular Tissue)
or Connective connective
Loose Tissue tissue
connective Cartilage Bone Blood Lymph
tissue
Tendon Ligament

6.1 Epithelial Tissue

Word epithelium is composed of two words Epi-upon, Thelio-grows. (Means - A tissue which
grows upon another tissue is called epithelium).
Nature:
It is the simplest tissue. It is the protective tissue of animal's body.
It covers most organs and cavities within the body.
It also forms a barrier to keep different body systems separate.
Epithelial cells are closely packed and have small amount of cementing material, so there is very
little inter-cellular spaces present between the cells. Due to absence or less intercellular spaces,
blood vessels, lymph vessels and capillaries are unable to pierce this tissue, so blood circulation
is absent in epithelium. Hence cells depend for their nutrients on the underlying connective tissue.
It always rest upon underlying connective tissue.
At the junction of the Epithelial tissue and connective tissue a layer is present which is called
basement membrane (non cellular fibrous), formed of mucopolysaccharides and collagen fibrils.
Types of epithelial tissue on the basis of shapes and functions
(i) Squamous
Description: Flattened cells, extremely thin.
Common locations: Blood vessel walls, alveoli of
lungs, Buccal cavity, skin,
Function: Diffusion

Fig.12 Squamous epithelium

(ii) Cuboidal
Description: cube like cells, may have microvilli at
its free surface
Common locations: lining of kidney tubules, thyroid
gland, ducts of salivary glands and sweat gland.
It forms germinal epithelium of gonads (testes and
ovaries)
Function: Secretion, absorption, mechanical support Fig.13 Cuboidal epithelium
and germ cells formation.

(iii) Columnar (Pillar like)

Description: tall slender cells ; may have microvilli
at their free surface.
Common locations: Inner lining of small
intestine, stomach, colon and part of respiratory
tract lining.
Border of microvilli present at free surface end of
Fig.14 Columnar epithelium
each cell increases absorption efficiency in small
intestine.
Function: Secretion, absorption.

(iv) Ciliated epithelium:

Description: It consists of cells that bear hair
like structures (cilia) on its external surfaces.
Cells in it may be cuboidal or columnar in shape.
Cilia helps in the movement of substances.
Common location: It is found in kidney
tubules, trachea, oviduct, etc.
Functions: It helps in movement of substances.
Fig. 15 Ciliated Columnar Epithelium
(v) Pseudostratified Epithelium :
Description: This type of epithelium
contains two types of cells, i.e., long pillar-like
and small triangular.The pillar-like cells are
broad on the free surface and narrow down
towards the basement membrane. In between
the narrow ends are present the small triangular
cells. Hence, it seems to be two-layered but is
actually single-layered.
Fig.16. Pseudostratified Epithelium
 Common location: It is found in lining of the trachea, bronchi etc.
Functions: It is protective in function. Goblet cell Nucleus

(vi) Glandular epithelium

Description: Tall, slender cells, some cells from the
free surface invaginate inside to form secretory
cells – goblet cells.
Common location: Lining of intestine & glands
Function: Secretion of mucus and other secretions.
Fig.17 Glandular epithelium

1. The tissue, which is composed of flat cells that line body cavities is
(A) columnar (B) cuboidal (C) ciliated columnar (D) Squamous

2. Identify this tissue which has tight fitting, single layer, flattened cells.
(A) squamous epithelium (B) ciliated epithelium
(C) striated musclar tissue (D) columnar epithelium

3. Basement membrane is made up of

(A) Epidermal cells only
(B) Endodermal cells only
(C) both epidermal and endodermal cells
(D) No cells at all, but is a product of epithelial cells

4. Inner lining of gut and stomach is made of

(A) Simple squamous epithelium (B) Simple columnar epithelium
(C) Simple cuboidal epithelium (D) All of these

5. Which tissue forms the outer covering of various organs of the body?

6. What will happen if the epithelium lining of the blood vessel is multilayered?

7. "Skin forms the outer covering of our body" Give reason why skin is considered as organ instead
of tissue (epithelial tissue) ?

8. What are the functions of cilia and microvilli present on the surface of epithelial tissue?
7.0 CONNECTIVE TISSUE
The cells of connective tissue are loosely spaced and embedded into a non cellular matrix. The
matrix may be solid (as in bone), soft (as in loose connective tissue), or liquid (as in blood)
On the basis of nature of matrix, connective tissue are:-
(1) Connective tissue proper
(2) Fluid / vascular connective tissue
(3) Skeletal connective tissue
7.1 Connective Tissue Proper
(i) Loose connective tissue or Areolar connective tissue
Loose connective tissue is a mass of widely scattered cells whose matrix is a loose weave
of fibres. Many of the fibres are strong protein fibres called collagen. Loose connective tissue
is found beneath the skin and between organs. It is a binding and packing material whose
main purpose is to provide support to hold other tissue and organs in place.
It is found between the skin and muscles, around blood vessels, nerves and in bone marrow.

Fibrocyte
Matrix

Bundles of
white fibres
Mast cell

Yellow fibres

Histocyte
(Macrophage)
Fig.18 Areolar connective tissue
Functions
(i) It helps to hold various tissues together in any organ.
(ii) It helps in the repair of body tissues after any injury.
(iii) Histocytes (amoeboid cells) of this tissue engulf foreign particles and protect against dis-
eases. These are also known as macrophages.
(iv) Mast cells in the tissue are concerned with allergic and inflammatory reactions.
(v) It binds skin with the underlying tissues.
(ii) Fibrous / dense regular connective tissue
This tissue consists mainly of fibres.
The tissue is of two types.
(a) White fibrous connective tissue
The matrix of this tissue contains abundant
white fibres forming layers or bundles making
it inelastic.
The white fibres are made up of collagen protein.
Sheets of this tissue are found in the coverings
of the bones, cartilages, kidneys etc.
Bundles of this tissue called tendons, attach Fig.19 White Fibrous
muscles to the bones. Connective Tissue
 (b) Yellow fibrous connective tissue
This tissue is very elastic due to the presence
of a network of very elastic yellow fibres in
its matrix.
The yellow fibres are made up of elastin
protein.
Sheets of this tissue are found in covering
of the blood vessels.
Bundles of this tissue are called ligaments
that attach the bones to each other at the
joints.
Fig. 20 Yellow Fibrous Connective Tissue

Table Differences between Tendon and Ligament

S.No. Tendon Ligament

1 It is made up of white fibrous tissue It is made up of yellow elastic tissue
2 Tendon connects a skeletal muscle Ligament connects a bone to
to a bone another bone
3 It is tough and inelastic It is strong but elastic

Fig.21 Tendons and ligaments

(iii) Adipose tissue
Fat Cell
It consists of adipose cells (Adipocytes)
Blood vessel
filled with fat globules in loose
connective tissue. Each adipose cell
stores a large droplet of fat which is used
to provide energy. Adipose tissue pads Connective
Tissue Fibres
and insulates the animal body.
Fat Droplets
Location: It is found in the subcutaneous
layer below the skin, around the heart, Connective
brain and below the eye balls, blubber Tissue Cells
of whales & elephants, hump of camel, Nucleus Cytoplasm
etc. It is a prominent component of skin Fig.22 Adipose tissue
of mammals living in polar regions.
 Functions
(i) It acts as insulator and prevents loss of heat from the body.
(ii) It helps in the storage of food in the form of fats.
(iii) It provides body contours (shapes).
(iv) It forms cushion like shock-absorbing structures below the vital organs such as heart, kidney,
eye balls etc.
7.2 Fluid / Vascular Connective Tissue
It is a special type of connective tissue which maintains link among different parts of the body.
It receives materials from certain parts of the body and transports them to the other parts.
It constitutes the transport system of animals.
It consists of two basic components – blood and lymph.
(i) Blood
Blood is composed of blood cells present in liquid matrix called plasma.
Blood is approximately 55 percent of plasma and 45 percent blood corpuscles.
Plasma contains water, salts, sugars, lipids and amino acids.
Blood corpuscles are of 3 types:
(A) Red blood cells or Erythrocytes.
(B) White blood cells or leucocytes
(C) Platelets or thrombocytes.
(A) RBC’s or Erythrocytes
These are the most abundant corpuscles out of all the types and are about 5 million in
one mm3 of blood. They are biconcave, nonnucleated, disc-like in mammals, whereas
oval, biconvex and nucleated in fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds. They contain
red-coloured respiratory pigment called haemoglobin that helps in the transportation
of respiratory gases.
(B) WBC’s or Leucocytes
These are irregular, amoeboid, phagocytic cells with one to many lobed nucleus. These
cells protect the body against diseases by engulfing bacteria and other foreign particles
(phagocytosis) and are hence called ‘soldiers of the body’. They also provide
resistance against diseases by producing proteinaceous substances called antibodies.
Their number is about 6000-8000 per mm3 of blood. They are of five types : monocytes,
lymphocytes, acidophils, basophils and neutrophils.
On the basis of nucleus & nature of cytoplasm, leucocyte are of two types.
(1) Granulocytes
In their cytoplasm granules are present which can be stained by specific dye.
Nucleus is multilobed and lobes are interconnected by protoplasmic strand.
Produced in Bone marrow –
They are (i) Acidophils, (ii) Basophils (iii) Neutrophils
(i) Acidophils/Eosinophils
Amoeboid in shape.
In their cytoplasm acidophilic granules are present which can be stained by acidic dye Eosin.
Nucleus is bilobed.
They protect body against allergy & parasitic infection.
(ii) Basophils
Amoeboid in shape.
Smallest granulocytes.
In their cytoplasm basophilic granules are present which can be stained with basic dye
methylene blue.
Nucleus is 3 lobed. 'S' shaped.
Their main function is to secrete heparin, histamine & serotonin.
(iii) Neutrophils
Maximum in number.
Amoeboidal in shape.
In their cytoplasm granules can be stained by any dye (acidic, neutral, basic).
Nucleus is multilobed.
They can squeeze & comes out from the wall of blood capillaries in tissue. This phenomenon
is called Diapedesis.
Phagocytic in nature
Destroy bacteria & viruses by phagocytosis.
Due to their smaller size & phagocytic nature they are called Micropolice man.
(2) Agranulocytes
Cytoplasm is clear & granular.
Produced in bone marrow.
They are of 2 types (i) Monocytes (ii) Lymphocytes
(i) Monocytes
Largest Blood Corpuscles.
Nucleus kidney shaped/bean shaped.
Power of diapedesis is present.
Active motile WBC.
Phagocytic in nature.
Destroy bacteria & viruses by phagocytosis so called Macropoliceman.
Also called scavanger of blood because they engulf damaged or dead & minute bits of
blood corpuscles.
(ii) Lymphocytes
Amoeboid shape.
Life span in blood - 5 - 7 days or less than 10 days but in connective tissue it may be month/
year/whole life.
Lymphocytes are of two types.
A. T – LYMPHOCYTES
Produced in bone marrow but mature in thymus gland.
B. B – LYMPHOCYTES
Produced in bone marrow and mature in bone marrow. Its function is to produce, synthesize
& transport antibodies.
(C) Blood Platelets or Thrombocytes
These are spindle-shaped non-nucleated cells numbering 200, 000 to 300,000 per mm3 of
blood. They help in the clotting of blood.

Fig.23 Components of Blood

 Functions of blood
(i) It transports nutrients, hormones and vitamins to the tissues and carries excretory
products from the tissues to the excretory organs.
(ii) The RBC's of blood helps in the transport of respiratory gases, (oxygen & CO2 ).
(iii) The WBCs fight with diseases by producing antibodies and engulfing the germs (antigens).
(iv) Blood platelets help in the clotting of blood.
(v) Blood helps in thermoregulation, water balance and maintenance of pH of body.
(ii) Lymph
Lymph is actually filtered blood which is similar to blood in composition except that it is
devoid of RBC, platelets and some blood protein. WBC are present in abundance in lymph.
Due to the absence of RBC(haemoglobin), lymph is colourless.
Functions of lymph
(i) It acts as a "middle man" for exchange of various material between blood and tissue.
(ii) Helps in the transportation of fat absorbed from intestine to the venous blood.
(iii) Keeps the tissues and organs of the body moist.
(iv) Lymphatic organs (lymph nodes, spleen) produce lymphocytes which in turn produce
antibodies to strengthen the immune system of the body.

1. Maximum intercellular substance is found in

(A) Connective tissue (B) Nervous tissue (C) Epithelial tissue (D) Muscular tissue

2. Tissue connecting bones to bone is

(A) Tendon (B) Ligament (C) Areolar tissue (D) Adipose tissue

3. Fat is abundant in
(A) Liver cells (B) Areolar tissue (C) Adipose tissue (D) Lymph glands

4. Blood platelets are

(A) Nucleated (B) Nucleus is many lobed
(C) Nucleus is very small (D) Non-nucleated

5. Mineral found in red pigment of human blood is

(A) Mg (B) Fe (C) Ca (D) Cr

6. Fluid part of blood after removal of corpuscles is:

(A) Plasma (B) Lymph (C) Serum (D) Vaccine

7. Which WBC increase in Allergy:

(A) Acidophil (B) Monocyte (C) Lymphocyte (D) Neutrophil

8. Which tissue act as fat depot of our body?

9. Name the blood cells which deal with immune reaction.

10. Name the connective tissue that lacks fibres in its matrix.
7.3 Skeletal Connective Tissue
Mainly consist of bones and cartilages, that provide a strong supportive framework for the body.
(i) Bone- It is a rigid connective tissue that has a matrix of collagen fibres embedded in calcium
and phosphorous compounds, giving it greater rigidity and strength.
It is the hardest connective tissue that forms the skeleton of vertebrates.
Bone is surrounded by a thick sheath called periosteum.
Like other connective tissues it is also made of matrix and cells. The matrix of bone is
very hard because of the presence of salts such as calcium phosphate( maximum in
vertebrate bone), CaCO3, etc. and a protein ossein.
The long bones are usually hollow containing a cavity called marrow cavity. It is full of
bone marrow. In the solid matrix are present longitudinal canals called haversian canals,
which are interconnected by transverse Volkmann’s canal.
The matrix is present in the form of layers called lamellae. These lamellae are present
in the form of concentric rings around the marrow cavity and around the canals. In these
lamellae are present spaces called, lacunae.
The lacunae have fine channels called canaliculi. The lacunae contain bone forming cells
osteocytes. Another type of bone-forming cells called osteoblasts are present in the form
of two layers, one outer and the other inner to matrix. Growth of bone is bidirectional.
Functions of Bone
Most of the skeletal system comprises of bone.
It provides support for muscle attachment.
It protects the internal organs from mechanical injury.
It serves as a reservoir for calcium.

Fig.24 T. S. of Bone
 LAMELLAE

LACUNAE

CANALICULI

VOLKMANN'S CANAL
PERIOSTEUM
HAVERSIAN
CANAL

Fig. 25 Longitudinal section of a part of long bone

(ii) Cartilage
It is a connective tissue with an abundant number of collagen fibres in a rubbery matrix.
The matrix is made up of proteins and sugars.
This tissue is elastic, harder than connective
tissue proper but softer than bone. The matrix
of cartilage is solid but elastic because of
the presence of a protein called chondrin
and some inorganic salts. In the solid matrix
are present fluid-filled spaces called lacunae.
Lacunae contain cartilage-forming cells called
chondroblasts and chondrocytes,
usually in the form of groups. The matrix of
cartilage may also contain white or yellow
fibres. It is both strong and flexible but softer
than bone.
It forms the embryonic skeleton of
vertebrates and the adult skeleton of sharks
and rays. Fig .26. T.S. of Hyaline Cartilage
It also occurs in the human body in the ears, tip of the nose and surrounding ends of joints
such as knees.

1. Longitudinal channels of bone are called:-

(A) Haversian canal (B) Volkmann's canals (C) Matrix cavity (D) Lacunae

2. Major inorganic components of bone:-

(A) Calcium phosphate (B) Calcium carbonate (C) Sodium hydroxide (D) Potassium hydroxide

3. Haversian system is feature of:-

(A) Amphibian Bones (B) Reptilian Bones (C) Pneumatic Bones (D) Mammalian Bones

4. Bone desolving cells:-

(A) Osteoblast (B) Osteocyte (C) Osteoclast (D) Fibroblast
5. Protein present in cartilage and bone:-
(A) Chondrin & ossein respectively (B) Chondrotin sulphate
(C) Cartilagein (D) None
6. Give reason why cartilage is softer than bones.
8.0 MUSCULAR TISSUE
Muscular tissue is distinguished from other tissues by its unique ability to contract & relax and
thereby perform mechanical work. It is responsible for movement of body organs and locomotion
of body.
8.1 General Structure
The structural unit of muscle tissue is the muscle cells which because of its elongated shape is
also called muscle fibre.
The contractility is due to the presence of contractile proteins (Actin & Myosin) in the muscle
fibre.
The plasma membrane of muscle cells is called sarcolemma and endoplasmic reticulum of muscle
cell is called sarcoplasmic reticulum.
8.2 General Functions of Muscular Tissue
(i) It supports the bones and other organs of the body.
(ii) Muscles help in peristalsis of gut, heart beat, etc.
(iii) Muscles cause movements of body parts and locomotion of the animals.
(iv) Facial expression also depends on muscles.
(v) Contraction of muscles causes birth of a baby.

Table : Types of muscles

Type of Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle
Muscle Tissue Tissue Tissue Tissue
Location in Attached to Wall of the Walls of hollow
body bones of the heart only internal structures,
skeleton including-
In the case of Blood Vessels
facial muscles, Stomach
attached to other Intestine
tissues including Gall bladder
skin-hence Urinary Bladder
muscles "of facial Airways to
expression" the lungs,
iris of eye

Voluntary or Voluntary Involuntary Involuntary

involuntary

Striations (alternate Yes, Striated Yes, Striated No, "Nonstriated"

light and dark bands) Muscle Muscle

Cell Nuclei Many nuclei One (centrally One (centrally

(located at located) nucleus located) nucleus
periphery of long
cylindrical muscles
fibre)

Cell Shape Elongated cylindrical Cylindrical and Spindle shaped

and unbranched branched and unbranched
 Central nucleus Central nucleus
Spindle
Intercalated disc shaped
Sarcolemma cells
Striations

Fig.27 Skeletal muscle Fig.28 Cardiac muscle Fig.29 Smooth muscle

1. The structural and functional unit of striated muscle fibre is :

(A) Sarcomere (B) Sarcolemma (C) Sarcoplasm (D) Myofibril

2. The characteristic of cardiac muscles is :

(A) Similar to those of striated muscles
(B) Similar to those of non-striated muscles
(C) A mixture of those of striated & non striated muscles
(D) These are voluntary muscles

3. Muscles involved in the movement of the arm are :

(A) Striated (B) Non striated (C) Cardiac (D) Smooth

4. Sarcolemma is the outer membrane of :

(A) Muscle fibre (B) Cartilage (C) Nerve fibre (D) Collagen fibre

5. Name the structural proteins found in the muscular tissue.

9.0 NERVOUS TISSUE
The nervous tissue, contains densely packed cells called nerve cells or neurons, is present in the
brain, spinal cord and nerves. The neurons are specialised for conduction of nerve impulses. They
receive stimuli from within or outside the body and conduct impulses (signals) which travel from
one neuron to another neuron.
Each neuron has following 2 parts
1. Cyton or cell body : Contains a central nucleus and cytoplasm with characteristic deeply
stained particles called Nissl's granules.
2. Cell Processes
(i) Dendron : These may be one to many, generally short and branched cytoplasmic processes.
Dendrites are afferent processes because they receive impulse from receptor or other neuron
and bring it to cyton.
Dendrite
(ii) Axon: It is single long efferent process which
Dendron
conducts impulse away from cyton to other
neuron. Cell body or cyton
Nucleus
Longest cell in body is neuron because axon can
be upto one metre long.
Axon is divided terminally into fine branches
called terminal arborizations. The latter end
Axon
in muscles, glands, skin and other structures Node of ranvier
for providing an impulse for activity. At places
terminal arborizations are connected with
dendrite branches of an adjacent neuron.
Each such junction is called synapse. It is
meant for transmission of impulse from one
neuron to the next. Transmission of impulse Axon
endings
is generally carried out with the help of a
neurotransmitter chemical, e.g., acetylcholine.
Fig.30 Structure of Neuron
Table Differences between Axon and Dendron
Axon Dendron
1. It is long uniformly thickened fibre-like It is a short tapering process of a neuron.
process of a neuron.
2. It is always ensheathed. A sheath is absent.

3. Nissl's granules are absent. Neurofibrils Both Nissl's granules and neurofibrils are
are, however, present. present.
4. It carries impulses away from the cell It carries impulses towards the cell body.
body.
9.1 Types of Neurons
A neuron can be sensory or motor but not both. The impulse is transferred from sensory to motor
neuron with the help of a third kind of neuron called interneuron.

1. Sensory or Afferent Neurons : They carry impulses from sense organs to brain or
spinal cord.

2. Motor or Efferent Neurons : The neurons carry message from brain or spinal cord to
muscles, glands and other effector organs.

3. Interneurons (Connector Neurons) : They transmit message from a sensory neuron to

motor neuron and vice versa.

1. A unit of nervous system is :

(A) Cyton (B) Axon (C) Neuron (D) Dendrite

2. Axon is the part of neuron, modified for :

(A) Transformation of stimulus (B) Reception of stimuli
(C) Stimuli of neurons (D) Conduction of impulse

3. Covering membrane around nerve fibre is known as

(A) Neurilemma (B) Plasmalemma (C) Sarcolemma (D) Myolemma

4. A nerve is a bundle of
(A) Ganglia (B) Dendrites (C) Synapse (D) Axons
l Differentiation is the development process in which cells take up a permanent shape, size and
perform a specific function.

l Lignin is a complex polymer which acts as a cement and hardens cell wall. Lignin makes the cell wall
impermeable so important substances are unable to pass through it. As a result, cells that are heavily
lignified do not have living content (protoplasm).

l Dedifferentiation takes place only in permanent cell. In this process the specialized cells regain the
division power and become meristematic e.g. cork cambium.

l The layer of adipose tissue found in whale is known as Blubber. The Hump of camel is also rich in
adipose tissue.

l Heparin, is a natural anti-coagulant in our blood that prevents the blood from clotting inside the
blood vessels

l Excessive pulling or overstretching of ligaments produces sprain.

l Bone is the hardest tissue of our body but the hardest substance in our body is enamel, found as
covering on teeth.
l Presence of intercalated discs and oblique bridges are unique features of cardiac muscles. These
help the muscles in faster conduction of wave of contraction.

l Neuron is longest cells of our body (upto 1m). They have least power of regeneration.

l Neuroglia cells : These are non -nervous, irregular cells present between the neurons in brain.
They act as packing cells between neurons. Neuro secretory cells of brain secrete neurohor-
mones.
l Ependymal cells : These are ciliated cuboidal cells which line cavities of brain & spinal cord.
1. Presence of tissues in a multicellular organism ensures
(A) Faster development (B) Division of labour
(C) Higher reproductive potential (D) Body strength

2. A tissue is made up of:

(A) One type of cells (B) Two types of cells
(C) One or many types of cells (D) Many types of cells

3. Apical meristem is free from–

(A) Cytoplasm (B) Vacuoles
(C) Vacuoles and viruses (D) cytoplasm and viruses

4. Increase in the length of the plant is caused by-

(A) cork cambium (B) vascular cambium (C) apical meristem (D) permanent tissue

5. Bases of leaves and internodes have-

(A) lateral meristem (B) apical meristem
(C) intercalary meristem (D) none of these

6. Name the tissue where the cells are living, thin walled, isodiametric with intercellular spaces.
(A) Collenchyma (B) Parenchyma (C) Meristematic cells (D) Sclerenchyma

7. Tissue that is present in hypodermis of herbaceous dicots stem is

(A) Aerenchyma (B) Chlorenchyma (C) Collenchyma (D) Sclerenchyma

8. Which tissue provides mechanical strength to plants?

(A) Sclerenchyma (B) Parenchyma (C) Aerenchyma (D) Chlorenchyma

9. What is true for collenchyma?

(A) It has cytoplasm and nucleus
(B) It is absent in roots and monocot stems
(C) Uneven pecto-cellulose thickening at corner
(D) All of the above

10. In sclerenchyma, the cell wall is-

(A) lignified (B) suberised (C) pectinised (D) cutinised

11. Grit of pear is formed of

(A) Sclereids (B) Sclerenchyma fibres
(C) Tracheids (D) Companion cells

12. Xylem takes part in-

(A) Conduction of water in the plant body. (B) Conduction of food material
(C) Providing buoyancy (D) Both (A) and (B).
13. The tissue that takes part in the transport of food materials is-
(A) Parenchyma (B) Phloem (C) Xylem (D) None of these

14. Companion cells are associated with-

(A) Sieve tubes (B) Sclerenchyma (C) Vessels (D) Parenchyma

15. What is correct for xylem?

(A) Vessels and tracheids provide conduction and support
(B) Parenchyma in xylem store and distribute carbohydrates
(C) Fibres give support
(D) All the above

16. Which is not a function of epidermis ?

(A) Protection from adverse condition (B) Gaseous exchange
(C) Conduction of water (D) Transpiration

17. A pair of kidney shaped cells present around stomata are called
(A) Guard cells (B) Subsidiary cells (C) Epidermal cells (D) Trichomes

18. Ciliated epithelium is found in–

(A) Uterus and trachea (B) Renal tubule and trachea
(C) Lung and trachea (D) Liver and trachea

19. Which of the following is present in the alveoli of lungs?

(A) Simple columnar epithelium (B) Simple cuboidal epithelium
(C) Simple squamous epithelium (D) Sensory epithelium

20. Cells of squamous epithelium are

(A) columnar (B) tall with elongated nuclei
(C) flat plate-like (D) cube like

21. The inner surface of the large intestine is–

(A) Lined by muscular tissue (B) Lined by epithelial tissue
(C) Lined by both tissues (D) Lined by all four types of tissues

22. Endothelium of the inner surface of blood vessels in vertebrates is formed of

(A) simple squamous epithelium (B) columnar epithelium
(C) cuboidal epithelium (D) ciliated cells

23. Tendon connects a:

(A) Ligament with muscle (B) Bone with muscle
(C) Cartilage with muscle (D) Bone with bone

24. Adipose tissue stores

(A) Hormones (B) Enzymes (C) Vitamins (D) Fats

25. Tendons and ligaments are tissues of the category of–

(A) Connective (B) Cartilage (C) Bone (D) Muscles
26. Which tissue is widely distributed in the body and also forms most of the parts of body?
(A) Connective tissue (B) Muscular tissue (C) Nervous tissues (D) Epithelial tissue

27. Collagen fibres are found maximum in–

(A) Ligaments (B) Tendons (C) Bone (D) Cartilage

28. Fibrous tissue which connects bones is–

(A) Tendon (B) Adipose tissue (C) Ligament (D) Connective tissue

29. Smooth muscles occur in

(A) vein (B) artery (C) uterus (D) all the above

30. In a neuron, dendrite may be one or many and axon is generally:

(A) One (B) Two (C) Three (D) More than one
1. Collenchyma differs from sclerenchyma in
(A) Having suberin cell walls and protoplasm
(B) Having lignin cell walls and protoplasm
(C) Not having protoplasm and pectin cell walls
(D) Having pectin deposition on cell walls and protoplasm

2. Nucleus is not present in-

(A) companion cell (B) mature sieve tube (C) phloem parenchyma (D) collenchyma

3. Elongated lignified cells with pointed ends belong to-

(A) collenchyma (B) parenchyma (C) sclerenchyma (D) none of these

4. In tracheids the passage of water from cell to cell is through–

(A) Perforations of partition walls (B) Lignin of partition walls
(C) Cellulose of partition walls (D) Pit pairs of partition walls

5. Phloem is concerned with the function of–

(A) Water conduction, food conduction and mechanical support
(B) Food conduction, food storage and mechanical support
(C) Water conduction, food conduction and food manufacture
(D) Food conduction, food manufacture and mechanical support

6. To which question, the answer is negative?

(A) Do some epidermal cells have chloroplast?
(B) Do each tissue has a characteristic position and structure?
(C) Are all dicot leaves dorsiventral?
(D) Does the root cortex contain sclerenchyma?

7. Cork cambium is an example of-

(A) lateral meristem (B) primary meristem (C) apical meristem (D) intercalary meristem

8. Non-keratinised stratified squamous epithelium is found in

(A) Epidermis of skin of land vertebrates (B) Oral cavity and pharynx
(C) Vagina and cervix (D) Both (B) and (C)

9. In which portion of uriniferous tubule, (nephron) the lumen is lined with brush-border microvilli?
(A) Proximal convoluted tubule (B) Distal tubule
(C) Collecting tubule (D) Loop of Henle

10. Pseudostratified epithelium is present in

(A) Trachea (B) Urinary bladder (C) Larynx (D) Nephron

11. Major protein of connective tissue is:

(A) Myosin (B) Melanin (C) Collagen (D) Keratin

12. Areolar connective tissue joins–

(A) Bone with bone (B) Fat body with muscles
(C) Integument with muscles (D) Bone with muscles
13. The mast cells are found in–
(A) Adipose tissue (B) Yellow fibrous tissue
(C) White fibrous tissue (D) Aerolar tissue

14. Component of blood responsible for producing antibodies is

(A) Thromobocytes (B) Monocytes (C) Erythrocytes (D) Lymphocytes

15. Concave surface of mammalian RBCs is helpful in–

(A) Formation of more haemoglobin
(B) Increasing surface area of RBCs
(C) Reducing surface tension of plasma membrane
(D) Providing more space for haemoglobin

16. Bone forming cells are

(A) osteoblasts (B) osteoclasts (C) chondroblasts (D) chondroclasts

17. Haversian system is typically found in bones of

(A) Amphibians (B) Invertebrates (C) Reptiles (D) Mammals

18. Elastic cartilage is found in–

(A) Ear pinna (B) The trachea
(C) Intervertebral discs (D) None of these

19. Intervertebral discs are composed of–

(A) Hyaline cartilage (B) Elastic cartilage (C) Fibrous cartilage (D) None of these

20. Cardiac muscles are–

(A) Striated and voluntary (B) Containing less mitochondria
(C) Unstriated and voluntary (D) Striated and involuntary

21. Striated muscles are found in

(A) gall bladder (B) wall of bronchi (C) leg muscles (D) lungs

22. Cardiac muscle is made of branched fibres that are

(A) nonstriated and under voluntary control (B) striated and not under voluntary control
(C) nonstriated and not under voluntary control (D) striated and under voluntary control

23. Smooth muscle is found in all the sites except:

(A) Gastrointestinal tract (B) Fallopian tube (C) Blood vessel
(D) Eyeball muscle

24. The tissue having cells that has central nucleus, tapered at both ends and control movement that
are not under conscious control is :
(A) Striated muscle (B) Unstriated muscle (C) Cardiac muscle (D) Skeletal muscle

25. Which one of the following receives stimulus from previous nerve cell?
(A) Dendrites (B) Axon
(C) Dendrites and Axon both (D) Terminal ends of Axon
Very short answer type questions
1. What is a tissue? [NCERT Based Question]

2. What is the utility of tissues in multi-cellular organisms? [NCERT Based Question]

3. Give one example of (i) Apical meristem and (ii) Lateral meristem.

4. What is the main function of parenchyma?

5. Give one main function of collenchyma.

6. Which type of simple tissue is used for making ropes?

7. Give one example of protective tissue in the plant.

8. Which type of epithelium is present in the organs where exchange of substance takes place?

9. In which type of connective tissue matrix is solid.

Short answer type questions

10. Name the types of simple permanent tissues. Explain their three different types.
[NCERT Based Question]

11. Draw a well labelled diagram of phloem.

12. Give three features of cardiac muscles. [NCERT Based Question]

13. What are the functions of areolar tissue? [NCERT Based Question]

14. Distinguish between xylem and phloem.

15. What is the function of bone, cartilage, ligament and tendon?

16. Write the four types of animal tissue based on location and function.

Long answer type questions

17. What are tissues? Why are plant and animal tissues different?

18. Differentiate between striated, unstriated and cardiac muscles on the basis of their structure and
site/location in the body. [NCERT Based Question]

19. Draw a labelled diagram of a neuron. [NCERT Based Question]

20. Write short notes on :

(1) Connective tissue proper

(2) Skeletal tissue

21. Describe the composition and functions of blood.

1. In a wound 'pus' is a: [KVPY-2007]
(A) A mixture of destroyed germs, killed leucocytes and damaged cells
(B) Concentrated blood plasma
(C) Thick mucus secretion
(D) Concentrated secretion of the sebaceous gland

2. Match the items of column A with that of column B. [NTSE/Raj./2007]

Column A Column B
(a) Platelets 1. Attach bone with muscle
(b) Neuron 2. Locomotion
(c) Tendon 3. Blood coagulation
(d)Striated muscles 4. Respond to stimuli
Which of the following is correct
(A) (a - 2), (b -3), (c- 4), (d - 1) (B) (a - 3), (b -4), (c- 1), (d - 2)
(C) (a - 4), (b -1), (c- 2), (d - 3) (D) (a - 1), (b -2), (c- 3), (d - 4)

3. The number of so far known bones in human skeleton is: [NTSE-2011]

(A) 200 (B) 206 (C) 600 (D) 602

4. In plants water is transported through: [NTSE-2012]

(A) Xylem (B) Phloem (C) Stomata (D) Root hair

5. In forensic science, DNA fingerprinting is a useful technique to trace genetic identity, relatedness
and tissue matching. Which of the following material/tissue DOES NOT find any use in DNA
fingerprinting? [INJSO-2012]
(A) Leucocytes (B) Erythrocytes (C) Sperms (D) Saliva

6. Neurons have a unique property that makes them to communicate with other cells via
[NTSE-I/Delhi./2012]
(A) Nerve cords (B) Glial cells (C) Synapse (D) Schwann cells

7. Blood is a type of connective tissue, which has- [NTSE-I/Raj./2013]

(A) RBC (B) WBC (C) Platelets (D) All of the above

8. Phloem tissues in plants are responsible for [NTSE-I/Raj./2013]

(A) Transportation of water (B) Transportation of food
(C) Transportation of amino acids (D) Transportation of oxygen

9. What is lacking in human red blood cell? [NTSE-I/Guj./2013]

(A) Nucleus (B) Golgi bodies (C) E. R. (D) All of these

10. The function of xylem in plants is ......... [NTSE-I/MP/2013]

(A) Transport of food (B) Transport of oxygen
(C) Transport of water and minerals (D) Transport of amino acids
11. What imparts red colour to blood [NTSE-I/Guj./2013]
(A) RBC (B) Blood plasma (C) Leucoplast (D) Thrombocytes

12. The muscles found connected to the bones are— [NTSE-I/MP/2013]

(A) Striated muscles (B) Unstriated muscles (C) Cardiac muscles (D) All of the above

13. Which of the following blood cells is responsible for distribution of oxygen in the body?
(NTSE-I /Cha./2013)
(A) Erythrocytes (B) Thrombocytes (C) Leucocytes (D) Lymphocyte

14. The tissue which is helpful for the movement of ovum in the Fallopian tube is
[NTSE-I/Kar./2013]
(A) Columnar Epithelial Tissue (B) Ciliated Columnar Epithelial Tissue
(C) Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue (D) Squamous Epithelial Tissue

15. The structure that connect a bone with muscles is known as [NTSE-I/Raj./2014]
(A) Tendon (B) Cartilage (C) Ligament (D) Areolar tissue.

16. Intercalary meristem is present in [NTSE/Raj./2015]

(A) at the base of the leaves and both the sides of node
(B) in the roots
(C) at the tip of the leaves
(D) at the shoot apex

17. In plants transport of soluble products in the process of photosynthesis occurs in

[NTSE/Raj./2015]
(A) xylem (B) phloem (C) both of these (D) none of these

18. How many types of muscle tissue are found ? [NTSE/Raj./2015]

(A) Striated and unstriated (B) Striated and cardiac
(C) Cardiac and unstriated (D) Striated, unstriated and cardiac

19. Synapse is [NTSE/Raj./2015]

(A) Gap between two muscle cells (B) Gap beween two bones
(C) Gap between two neurons (D) Gap between muscle and bone

20. Which of the following are characteristic features of cells of meristematic tissue?
[NTSE-2/2015]
(A) Actively dividing cells with dense cytoplasm, thick cell wall and prominent nuclei.
(B) Actively dividing cells with dense cytoplasm, thin cell wall and no vacuoles.
(C) Actively dividing cells with little cytoplasm, thin cell wall and prominent nuclei.
(D) Actively dividing cells with thin cytoplasm, thin cell wall and no vacuoles.

21. The tissue which makes the plants hard and stiff is– [NTSE-I./Raj./2016]
(A) Parenchyma (B) Chlorenchyma (C) Collenchyma (D) Sclerenchyma
22. The lining of oesophagus and mouth is covered with which type of tissues?
[NTSE-1/Raj./2016]
(A) Cuboidal epithelium (B) Squamous epithelium
(C) Columnar epithelium (D) Stratified squamous epithelium

23. Which one of the following demonstrates the characteristics of cardiac muscle cells ?
[NTSE Stage-II/2017]
(A) Involuntary and multinucleated (B) Unbranched and uninucleated
(C) Cylindrical and uninucleated (D) Unbranched and involuntary

24. Which tissue is found in fibrous covering of coconut ? [NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2017]

(A) Parenchyma (B) Collenchyma (C) Sclerenchyma (D) Meristematic tissue

25. Example of connective tissue is [NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2017]

(A) cartilage (B) skeletal muscles (C) skin of animals (D) nerve cells

26. Eukaryotic organisms have different levels of organization. Select the combination where the levels
are arranged in the descending order.
(A) DNA, chromosome, cell, nucleus, tissue (B) Tissue, cell, nucleus, chromosome, DNA
(C) Nucleus, cell, DNA, chromosome, tissue (D) Tissue, cell, chromosome, nucleus, DNA
[NTSE Stage-II/2018]

27. The bark of which plant is used as medicine ?

(A) Aloe vera (B) Terminalia arjuna (C) Curcuma longa (D) Papaver somniferum
[NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2018]

28. Universal donor blood group is

(A) A (B) O (C) AB (D) B
[NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2018]

29. Skeletal muscles are

(A) striated and voluntary (B) unstriated and voluntary
(C) striated and involuntary (D) unstriated and involuntary
[NTSE Stage-I/Raj./2018]

*****
 ANSWERS
CHECK POST-1
1. (B) 2. (D) 3. (D) 4. (A) 5. (C) 6.(D)

CHECK POST-2
1. (B) 2. (C) 3. (C) 4. (A) 5. (D) 6. (D)
7. (B) 8. (A) 9. (D) 10.(D) 11. (B) 12. (D)

CHECK POST-3
1. (D) 2. (A) 3. (D) 4. (B)

CHECK POST-4
1. (A) 2. (B) 3. (C) 4. (D) 5. (B) 6. (A)
7. (A)

CHECK POST-5
1. (A) 2. (A) 3. (D) 4. (C) 5. (A)

CHECK POST-6
1. (A) 2. (C) 3. (A) 4. (A)

CHECK POST-7
1. (C) 2. (D) 3. (A) 4. (D)

EXERCISE-1 ELEMENTARY)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. B C C C C B C A D A A A B A D
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. C A B C C B A B D A A B C D A

EXERCISE-2 (SEASONED)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. D B C D B D A D A A C C D D B
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Ans. A D A C D C B D B A

EXERCISE-4 (COMPETITIVE ASSESSMENT)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. A B B A B C D B D C A A A B A
Que. 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Ans. A B D C B D B C C A B B B A
 3. IMPROVEMENT IN FOOD RESOURCES
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Food is the source of energy for all living organisms. Plants, animals and micro organisms all
require food. Some organisms such as plants are able to prepare their food by photosynthesis.
Other organisms like animals and fungi can not prepare their food by themselves. So, they depend
on plants for their food requirement.
"Food is the combination of various organic and inorganic substances which are
capable of providing energy for the various metabolic activities."
It usually consists of plant or animal origin, that contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates,
fats, proteins, vitamins and minerals, and is ingested and assimilated by an organism to produce
energy, stimulate growth and maintain life.
1.1 Food Sources
(i) Plants: Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. Plant provides cereals, vegetables,
spices and fruits.
(ii) Animals: Animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce.
Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal.
Food products produced by animals include milk, which is processed into dairy products
such as cheese or butter.
In addition birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey,
using nectar from flowers, which is a popular sweetener in many cultures.
1.2 Why do we Need to Improve Crops?
As the population of the world continues to increase, the demand for food also increases. Some
estimates suggest that to provide enough food for the increasing population, we need to produce as
much food in the next 20 years as we had in the last 10,000 years.
Increased crop yields, pest resistance and tolerance to environmental stresses have been the targets
of plant breeders. There is also progress towards improving food quality, as well as quantity, by
improving the nutritional benefits of food crops.
The Green revolution, great increase in the field of food grains, especially wheat crop is a sterling
example of how the development of strains suited for developing countries, and a multifaceted
approach to agriculture, can greatly increase food production.
1.3 Impacts of Green Revolution
The green revolution launched the use of synthetic chemical pesticides and insecticides on a large
scale, causing unimaginable damage to the fertility of the soil and destroying the micro nutrients in
it.
The hybrid variety of crops intended to boost productivity could not resist pests. Further only a few
varieties of seed were promoted. This led to the loss of variety in seeds and crops. The excessive
use for water that the green revolution promoted has led to the drying up of water sources.
Thus, it has become far more important that we should increase food production without degrading
our environment and disturbing the natural balance. Therefore, there is a need of practising farming
using principles of ecology.
 The practice of farming and production of maximum agriculture yield through management of
natural resources without disturbing the environment is known as sustainable agriculture. It has
the following objectives :
(i) Satisfy human food and needs.
(ii) Sustainable use of fertilizers and pesticides.
(iii) Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.
2.0 IMPROVEMENT IN CROP YIELDS
Crops: Plants of same kind which are grown and cultivated at one place on a large scale are
known as crops.
2.1 Types of Crops
(i) Cereals : These are rich in carbohydrate and thus provide energy.
Example : Rice, wheat, maize, sorghum, barley, millets.
(ii) Pulses : These are rich in protein and thus helpful for body building.
Example: Gram(chana), moong, pea(matar), lentil(masoor), urad(blackgram), pigeon pea.
(iii) Oil seed crops: These are rich in oil and fatty acids.
Example: Groundnut, linseed, sunflower, soyabean, mustard, sesame.
(iv) Vegetable crops : These provide vitamins, minerals along with small quantities of
carbohydrate, protein and oils.
Leaves : Cabbage, spinach, lettuce
Roots : Carrot, radish, turnip, sweet potato
Stems : Potato, corms, rhizomes (ginger)
Bulbs : Onion, garlic
Fruits : Tomato, brinjal, gourd, cucumber
Flowers : Cauliflower
(v) Spices : They are used for enhancing palatability.
Example : Chilly, black pepper, ginger, turmeric.
(vi) Fodder crops : These provide green fodder to the cattle.
Example : Berseem, sorghum, maize, oat, sudan grass, alfalfa.

2.2 Types of Crops on the Basis of Season

Different types of crops require different climatic conditions like temperature, humidity and
photoperiods (duration of sunlight).
Crops are divided into two groups on the basis of growing season.
Kharif crops : These crops are sown in the months of June/July and harvested in September/
October every year.
Example : Paddy, maize, sorghum, pearl millet.
Rabi crops : These crops are sown in the months of October/November and harvested in March/
April every year.
Example : Wheat, oat, barley and pea.
 Table: Differences between Kharif and Rabi crops

Kharif crops Rabi crops

These are autumn or monsoon crops. The
The sowing starts in winter season.
sowing starts in rainy season.
They are sown in June-July. They are sown in October-November.
They are harvested in September-October. They are harvested in March-April.

They require warm and wet weather. They require dry and cold weather.
They need a lot of water. They do not need lot of water.
They can be converted into rabi crops if
They can not be converted into kharif crops.
plenty of water is available.
eg. – Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Jowar, eg. – Wheat, Barley, Gram, Pea, Mustard,
Groundnut, Maize,Spinach, soyabean, Linseed, Potato, Orange, Apple.
pigeonpea
3.0 AGRICULTURE
It is an applied biological science which deals with the production of plants and raising of livestock
for human use.
Agriculture

Agronomy Animal husbandry

1. Horticulture - production of fruits, Ornamental plants, nuts etc. 1. Cattle farming
2. Olericulture - production of vegetables and herbaceous plants for food. 2. Poultry
3. Floriculture - production of flowers 3. Pisciculture
3. Apiculture
In India there has been a four times increase in the production of food grains from 1960 to 2004
with only 25% increase in the cultivable land area.
The major groups of activities for improving crop yields can be classified as :
(i) Crop variety improvement (the choice of seed for planting).
(ii) Crop production management (the nurturing of the crop plant).
(iii) Crop protection management (the protection of the growing and harvested crops from loss)
4.0 CROP VARIETY IMPROVEMENT
Methods of crop improvement
(1) The traditional method of crop improvement is by sexual hybridization, making crosses
between two genetically dissimilar plants with desirable characteristics. At fertilization, the
genetic information from each parent recombines, so characteristics from each parent are
inherited to the offspring. However, many other features are also inherited, along with the
desirable one.
In order to obtain improved variety following steps should be taken.
Choice of Parents : Select two varieties of crop plants, each of which has at least one desirable
quality, such as high yield or resistance to disease.
Cross breeding : Pollen grains of plants of one variety are dusted over the stigmas of plants of the
other variety and vice-versa. It produces a new variety which has good characteristics of both the
parents.
 Table: Some hybrid seeds
Wheat Kalyan, sarbati sonara, sonalika
Maize Ganga, ambar, jawahar
Rice Jaya, padma, pusa basmati, IR8
Bajra HB-1, HB-3 and 4
Soyabean JS 335
Pea Bougainvilleae
Brinjal Pusa purple, Pusa Kranti
Cotton G-57, Bt (GM)
Hybridization may be of three types
(a) Intervarietal (between two different varieties of same species).
(b) Interspecific (between two different species of the same genera).
(c) Intergeneric (between two different genera).
(2) Alternative methods to develop new crop varieties are to use chemicals or radiation to cause
imprecise alterations to the plant’s genetic information. These cause random changes to the
DNA. In some cases, may be of agricultural benefit to the plant.
(3) Genetic modification, or plant transformation, is the newest method of crop improvement.
The plant in which the foreign gene has been introduced is called transgenic plant or genetically
modified plant.
For example – Bt cotton is a genetically modified crop which carries bacterial gene that protect the
crop plants from insects.
The various aspects for crop variety improvement carried out are as follows.
(1) Higher yield : To increase the productivity of crop per acre. The main aim of crop variety
improvement is to obtain higher yield e.g. grains, tubers. Such a variety is called HYV or high
yielding variety.
Need of higher crop yield : There is an urgent need to continuously increase crop yield because
of
(i) Rising human population.
(ii) Rising animal population.
(iii) Increasing realization about intake of proper diet.
(iv) Limited cropping area.
(2) Better quality : Quality consideration such as baking quality in wheat, protein quality
in pulses, oil quality in oil seeds and preserving quality in fruits and vegetables vary from
crop to crop.
(3) Biotic and abiotic resistance : Crop production can go down due to biotic (microbes,
insects, rodents) and abiotic stresses (Flood, drought, frost). Varieties resistant to these
stresses can improve crop production.
(4) Change in maturity duration : The shorter is the duration of crop from sowing to
harvesting, the more economical is the variety.
(i) It helps the farmers in raising multiple rounds of crops in a year from the same field.
(ii) Cost of production is reduced.
 (5) Wider adaptability : Developing varieties for wider adaptability will help in stabilizing
the crop production under different environmental conditions.
(6) Desirable agronomic characteristics : Developing varieties of desired agronomic
characters helps to give higher productivity. To achieve high productivity, the food crops
(cereals) should be dwarf (short height), so that they consume less nutrients, become
stronger and withstand strong winds (prevent lodging). The fodder crops should be tall and
should have profuse branching.

1. Increase in food grain is termed as :

(A) Blue revolution (B) White revolution (C) Green revolution (D) Yellow revolution

2. Food is required for :

(A) Energy (B) Growth (C) Regeneration (D) All the above

3. Applied biology which deals with the production of fruits and nuts known as
(A) Horticulture (B) Olericulture (C) Floriculture (D) Apiculture

4. Disease resistant crop is obtained by

(A) Crossing with new varieties (B) Crossing with wild varieties
(C) Injecting with organic compounds (D) None of the above

5. Cultivation practices and crop yield are related to Environmental conditions. Explain.

6. Group the following and tabulate them as energy yielding, protein yielding, oil yielding and fodder crop.
Peanut plant, mustard plant, berseem, rice plant.

7. What do we get from cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables?

8. What are the desirable agronomic characteristics for crop-improvement ?

9. What is hybridization?

10. Which type of hybridization is commonly used in plant breeding ?

11. How do biotic and abiotic factors affect crop production ?

5.0 CROP PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT
For successful crop production thorough understanding of how crops develop and grow, the
various factors that affect crop growth and development and how each factor can be modified or
managed are essential. Plant responses to soil conditions and atmospheric environment must be
exploited to the maximum to produce a high yield per unit area of land. The production
practices include ‘‘no cost’’ production, ‘‘low cost’’ production and ‘‘high cost’’ production. The
following are some of the factors that if managed well will help in increasing crop production :
(a) Nutrient management, (b) Irrigation, (c) Cropping patterns
5.1 Nutrient Management
It is controlling the selection, timing and amount of nutrient supply to the crops. Plant nutrients
are inorganic raw materials that the plant absorb from their surroundings and utilize the same in
building up their organic matter.
There are 16 essential elements for growth and development of plants. They are classified into
two groups :
Macronutrients : The essential elements utilized by plants in relatively large quantities are called
major nutrients or macronutrients.
Micronutrients : The essential element utilized by plants in relatively small quantities or traces
are called micronutrients.
Table: Sources of Nutrients

S.No. Sources Nutrients Types

1. Air Carbon, Oxygen. Macro nutrients.

2. Water Hydrogen. Macro nutrients.

3. Soil Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Macro nutrients.

Potassium, Sulphur, Calcium,
Magnesium.
Iron, Manganese, Boron, Micro nutrients.
Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum,
Chlorine.

Manure
These are organic substances, obtained from the decomposition of plant and animal wastes.
Mineral replenishment to the soil is done through the addition of manures and fertilizers.
Advantages of manure
It increases the number of friendly microbes.
It improves the texture of soil by adding organic matter (humus).
It increases soil fertility, water holding capacity and aeration.
It reduces soil erosion.
It is cheap.
 Disadvantage of manure
They have less amount of nutrients as compared to fertilizers.
Manures are bulky and not easy to store and transport.
Types of manures
Compost- It is a type of manure which is produced from the plant and animal wastes by the
action of microbes.
Vermicompost- It is the type of manure which is produced by the degradation of organic wastes
through the consumption by the earthworms. This process is known as vermicomposting.
Green manure- It is also a type of organic manure, some quickly growing legume crops are
grown and then mulched by ploughing.
Eg. Cowpea, Lentil, Sun Hemp, Dhaincha.
Fertilizers : These are commercially manufactured inorganic salts containing one or more
essential plant nutrients like NPK, which are used to increase soil fertility.
Advantages of fertilizers
They are nutrient specific and required in small amounts.
They are water soluble and absorbed by the plant easily.
They are easy to store and transport.
Disadvantages of fertilizers
Fertilizers can change the soil structure by killing the soil microbes.
Fertilizers can change the chemical composition of soil.
Accumulation of fertilizers in water bodies causes eutrophication.
Organic Farming : It is a kind of farming system in which the harmful chemicals (fertilizers and
pesticides) are not used. In place of chemicals, the use of organic manures, biofertilizers and
biopesticides are recommended
Advantages of organic farming :
(i) No pollution (ii) Unpolluted foods
(iii) Maintain soil quality (iv) Controlling pests and weeds

5.2 Irrigation
The process of artificial supplying of water to crop at different intervals is called irrigation. The
time and frequency of irrigation varies from crop to crop, soil to soil and season to season.
Sources of irrigation : Well, tube well, ponds, lakes, river, canal and dams.
Irrigation systems in India
(i) Canal system : Canals receive water from the rivers. The main canals are divided into
branches which are further divided into distributaries to cover maximum areas for irrigation.
(ii) Tanks : Tanks are water storage reservoirs which store the run off water of small catchment
area.

Dug well – Water is lifted up by bullock.

(iii) Wells
Tube well – Water is pumped up by using
diesel or electric pumps.

Wells and tube wells are successful in those areas where underground water is not saline whereas
in those areas where underground water is saline, canal water is used for irrigation.
 (iv) River valley syst em : Due to heavy rainfall, many river valley are found in Western Ghats
and Karnataka. This results in higher run off and discharge flows in the rivers. To prevent
this coffee, rubber, coconut are cultivated on the slopes of these valleys and single rice crop
is grown at bottom.
(v) River lift system : Water is directly drawn from the river using pumps.
Nowadays the following modern ways of irrigation are used.
(1) Sprinkler system
In this system the perpendicular pipes having rotating nozzles on top, are joined to main
pipe line at regular intervals.
It spreads water uniformly over crop plants and field.
This method is useful for sandy soil and uneven land.
It is an efficient system in the canal irrigated area of Haryana and Rajasthan.
(2) Drip system or trickle irrigation
It involves the use of pipes fitted with small tubes called emitters. The pipes are laid over or
under the soil and emitters release water drop by drop around the roots of the plants.
In this method water is not wasted at all.
This method is a boon in poor water regions.
This is the best irrigation technique for fruit crops, garden and trees.
Advantages of irrigation
Supply of essential elements– Supplies two essential elements to crops i.e. hydrogen and oxygen.
Germination of seeds–Moisture available in soil leads to germination of seeds.
Growth–Growth of roots occur inside the soil by availability of water in soil.
Absorption of nutrients–Water made available to field by the process of irrigation helps in absorption
of nutrients by plants from the soil.
Water augmentation
Water availability for irrigation can be assured by augmenting ground water. It is carried out by
two methods :-
(1) Rain water harvesting - The rain water is collected and used for recharging ground water by
sinking deep drain pipes. It can also be poured into wells or used for filling ponds in low level
area.
(2) Water shed management - Small check dams are built up in water shed areas to increase
percolation of water into ground, reduce flow of rain water and prevent soil erosion.
5.3 Cropping Patterns
Different ways of growing crops can be used to give maximum benefit.
There are models of raising crops which help in obtaining maximum benefit from the same
piece of land, reduce risk of crop failure, disease and infestation. Three common types of cropping
patterns are mixed cropping, intercropping and crop rotation.
(1) Mixed cropping
It is growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land. It is also known
as mixed cropping.
Some successful mixed cropping practices are :-
Soyabean + Pigeon pea, Maize + Urad dal (Black gram), Groundnut + Sunflower, Wheat
+ Mustard, Cotton + Groundnut.
 Advantages of mixed cropping
(i) No risk of complete crop failure.
(ii) Increase in yield : When cereal or non-leguminous crop is grown along with a
leguminous crop, the deficiency of nitrogen in the soil, caused by the growing of
cereal crop, is compensated by the enrichment of the soil with nitrogen compounds
by the growing of leguminous plants. So, it increases the yield.
(iii) Variety of Produce : We can harvest variety of produce like pulses, cereals, vegetables
or fodder.
(iv) Improvement in Soil Fertility : Growth of leguminous crops improve soil fertility
and reduce the requirement of fertilizers.
(v) Reduced Pest Infestation : The chances of pest infestation are reduced because
the pest of one crop rarely finds the same plant nearby.
Disadvantages of mixed cropping
Farmer faces difficulty in applying fertilizer and pesticides to individual crops.
Harvesting and threshing of crops separately is not easy because seeds of the two crops are mixed
and then sown (there is no set pattern of rows of crops).
(2) Inter-cropping
Intercropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously in different strips or rows in a
same field in definite row pattern. Row patterns like 1 : 1, 1 : 2 or 1 : 3 can be followed.
The crops selected for Intercropping have different nutrient requirements, different sowing
and harvesting dates.
e.g., Soyabean + Maize, Millet (bajra) + Cow Pea (lobia).
Advantages of intercropping
Productivity : Intercropping increases productivity per unit area.
Sowing : Seeds of different crops can be sown separately.
No mixing : There is no mixing of crops.
Fertilizers : Specific fertilizers required for each crop can be added.
Pesticides : Pesticide and weedicide required for each crop can be applied.
Harvesting : Each crop can be harvested, threshed and marketed separately.

Table : Differences between mixed cropping and intercropping

Mixed cropping Intercropping
Seeds of different crops are not mixed. They are
Seeds of different crops are mixed before sowing.
sown separately.
There is no pattern of sowing. The different crops are sown in separate rows or
strips.
It minimises the risk of crop failure. It increases crop productivity per unit area.
Only a common type of fertilizer can be added Specific fertilizers can be provided to each crop.
Crop specific pesticides can be sprayed without
Crop specific pesticides cannot be sprayed.
difficulty.
Harvesting of early maturing crop provides a lot There is less difficulty in harvesting individual
of difficulty. crops.
There is some mixing of the products of different
There is no mixing of products of different crops.
crops.
Lesser inputs of irrigation and nutrients are
Requirement of inputs is comparatively more.
required.
 (3) Crop rotation
It is the successive planting of different type of crops on the same land in a sequential manner.
A common crop rotation is growing of leguminous plants like peas, pulses, beans etc alternately
with cereal crops like rice, wheat and maize.
Sequence of crop rotation
In this practice, crops are grown in a planned sequence from season to season within a year
or from year to year. This planned rotation of crops sequence could be :
(i) Two crops in two different season within a year-pearl millet followed by chick pea.
(ii) Rotation of Crop for a two year period - pearl millet and ground nut.
(iii) Rotation of Crop for a three year period - pearl millet, ground nut and sorghum.
Advantages of crop rotation
Prevents the depletion of soil nutrients.
Controls insect, mites and pest.
Reduces reliance on agricultural chemicals.
Prevents diseases and helps control weeds.
Mixed farming - The raising of different types of crops and animals on the same farm. It ensures
good returns to the farmers and provides easy availability of various articles.

Objective Questions
1. A pulse crop is grown in the time interval between two cereal crops to compensate for the :
(A) Loss of phosphate (B) Loss of water (C) Loss of sulphur (D) Loss of nitrogen

2. The technique of growing two or more different crops together in the same field in definite row
pattern is known as :
(A) Mixed cropping (B) Mixed farming (C) Inter cropping (D) Crop rotation

3. Rhizobium is present in :
(A) Soil (B) Root Nodules of legumes
(C) Stem nodules (D) Tumour on leaf

4. Target of mixed cropping is :

(A) To minimize loss of crop (B) To increase productivity per unit area
(C) To increase the production of cereal crops (D) Both (A) and (B)

5. When different types of crops are grown alternatively in the same field it is:
(A) Mixed cropping (B) Inter cropping (C) Crop rotation (D) Jhooming cultivation

Subjective Questions
6. What are alternative methods used by farmers to increase soil fertility?
7. How do plants get nutrients ?
8. Why are earthworms known as farmer's friend ?
9. What are the limitations related to the production of high yielding varieties of crops ?
10. Name one crop which can tolerate water logging in the field.
11. Name three most important mineral elements required for plant growth.
12. What are macro-nutrients and why are they called macro-nutrient ?
13. Compare the use of manure and fertilizers in maintaining soil fertility.
6.0 CROP PROTECTION MANAGEMENT
In fields, crops have to be protected from weeds, insects-pests and disease-causing organisms like
fungi.
All these cause damage to crop plants so much that most of the crop is lost. Thus, crops can be
protected by the following methods :
Use of pesticides.
Use of resistant varieties.
Crop rotation
Summer ploughing.
6.1 Pests
Any destructive organism that causes great economic damage or destroying crop plants are
called pests.
Examples : Weeds, insects, mites, nematodes.

Fig. 1 Pest Affecting Crops

6.2 Pesticides / Biocides
It refers to a chemical that is used to kill a pest organism which includes insecticides (for killing
the insects), weedicides (for killing the weeds), fungicides (for killing the fungi), nematicides (for
killing nematodes) and rodenticides (for killing rodents).

Table : Type of pesticides

S.No. Pesticide Affected organism Example
2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, Triazine, Nitrofen, Atrazine,
1 Weedicide Weeds
Butachlor, Isoproturon, MCPA.
2 Insecticide Insect DDT, Aldrin, Malathion .
3 Fungicide Fungal pathogen Bordeaux mixture, Burgandy mixture, HgCl2.
4 Algicide Algal pathogen CuSO4.
5 Rodenticide Rodents (rat, moles) Zinc phosphide, ZnSO 4.
6 Nematicide Nematode Chloropicrin, Methyl bromide.
 Advantages of pesticides
They kill pest quickly, increase food production and are easy to store.
Disadvantages of using pesticides
They cause soil and water pollution.
Residue left on the fruits & seeds is harmful for human consumption.
They destroy even the useful insects.
Preventive measures avoiding use of pesticides
Crop rotation, multiple cropping and field fallow.
Sowing healthy seeds and summer ploughing.
Use of pest and disease resistant hybrid varieties of crop plant.
Field also need to be protected against grazing animals by raising wire fences and boundary wall.
Birds are scared away by raising scarecrows and beating of drums.

6.3 Weeds
They are the small-sized unwanted plants which grow along with a cultivated crop in a field. Weeds
are economically very important as they can severely reduce crop yields by competing for light,
water and nutrients.
Some common weeds : Xanthium (Gokhroo), Parthenium (Gajar grass), Convolvulus, Cyprinus
rotundus (Motha), Amaranthus (Chaulai), Chenopodium (bathua).
Method of weed control
Mechanical method : Uprooting, ploughing, burning.
Biological method : Use of insects or some organisms which consume and destroy the weed
plants.
e.g. Prickly-pear cactus (Opuntia) is controlled by Cochineal insect and aquatic weeds (Hydrilla)
are controlled by Carps fish.
Chemical control : Spraying of chemicals like herbicides or weedicides.
e.g. Isoproturon, 2,4-D, MCPA, Atrazine.

6.4 Crop Diseases

When the pathogens such as bacteria, fungi and viruses get favorable conditions for growth and
propagation, they spread and infect the crop plants causing crop diseases. Their pathogens can be
present in and transmitted through the soil water and air.
Control of diseases
The methods of controlling diseases are
(a) Seed borne diseases can be prevented by sowing healthy seeds and pretreating seeds with
chemicals to kill pathogens.
(b) Soil-borne diseases can be prevented by using soil disinfectants and by crop rotation.
(c) Air-borne diseases can be prevented by spraying specific chemicals, like insecticides, fungicides,
antibiotics etc.
(d) The breeding of disease resistant crops is a very important method to bring about control of
crop diseases.

7.0 STORAGE OF GRAINS

About 9.3% of the food grains produced in our country are lost every year due to improper methods
of storage and inadequate storage.
 Factors affecting stored food
(i) Biotic factors : e.g. insects, microorganisms, mites, birds, rodents and other animals.
(ii) Abiotic factors : e.g. moisture, humidity and temperature.
Non perishable food materials are stored on a commercial scale in gunny bags or in grain silos.
Pesticides are applied on the stored food grains either by spraying or by fumigants.
(i) Spraying : Malathion and pyrethrum are commonly used by spraying.
(ii) Fumigants : Volatile pesticides are called fumigants.
Ethylene dibromide (EDB), aluminium phosphide, Celphos, CH3Br, Zinc phosphide.
8.0 ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
The scientific management of livestock which deals with the feeding, caring and breeding of
domesticated animals is called animal husbandry.
The farming of animals also need planning to meet their basic requirement to maintain health and
control the diseases. However, expanding population and scaling demands have resulted in the
limitation in livestock breeding. Therefore there is a need to improve animal husbandry these
techniques which could ensure sustained supply of animals.
Table: Nutritional Values of Animal Products
Percent (%) Nutrients
Animal Products
Fat Protein Sugar Minerals Water Vitamin
Milk (Cow) 3.6 4 4.5 0.7 87.2 B1 B2 B12 D,E
Egg 12 13 Traces 1 74 B2 ,D
Meat 3.6 21.1 Traces 1.1 74.2 B2 B12
Fish 2.5 19 Traces 1.3 77.2 Niacin, D, A
8.1 Cattle Farming
Cattle husbandry or cattle farming is carried out primarily for two reasons:
milk production by milch animals and for agricultural work, such as ploughing, tilling, irrigation
etc, by draught animals. However, they are also domesticated for leather production and meat
yield. Indian cattle mainly include cows (Bos indicus) and buffaloes (Bos bubalis).
Cows are adapted to drier regions of the country, while buffaloes are well adapted to wet areas
and river beds.
Milk is highly nutritious as it contains all major nutrients, i.e., carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals
and vitamins. Most of the milk is obtained from cows and buffaloes. The total milk produced by
buffaloes is much higher and rich in nutrients than that produced by cows. Milk production besides
other factors, also depends upon the duration of lactation period, i.e. the period of milk production
after the birth of calf. Therefore, the milk production can be increased by increasing the lactation
period.
Breeds in cattle
There are many popular breeds of cows and buffaloes in our country. They can be broadly divided
into three categories: Indigenous breeds (desi breeds - they are native to India) : Eg. Red Sindhi
and Sahiwal (show excellent resistance to diseases). Foreign or Exotic Breeds : Eg. Jersey,
Brown Swiss (Have a long lactation period). Cross Breeds: The breeds chosen for cross breeding
have a set of favourable characters that may become a part of the animal that is born as a result
of cross breeding, Eg. Karan fries.
Farm management practices
Farm management practices are aimed for farming of animals that include the health of the animals
as well as production of clean milk. It has four components.
(A) Grooming (B) Shelter (C) Feeding (D) Health care
(A) Grooming of cattle
(i) Cattles must be regularly groomed.
(ii) Removing dirt, loose hair and external parasite.
(iii) Washing of animals is carried out to further clean them, as clean animal provide clean milk.
(B) Shelter for cattle
(i) Providing suitable shelter to cattle is an important part of animal husbandry.
(ii) Cattle shelters are well demarcated, partially or completely covered areas where animals
can live comfortably and are protected from predators as well as natural factors (heat, cold,
rain etc.)
Characteristics of good animal shelter
(i) It should be spacious.
(ii) The shelter should be clean, dry, airy and well ventilated.
(iii) There should be proper arrangement for the hygienic disposal of animal waste.
(iv) It should have arrangement of fresh, clean drinking water.
(C) Feeding of cattle
The "Food" that contains essential components needed for the growth, development and general
maintenance of body of domesticated animal is called feed.
The feed requirement of an animal depends upon age, growth, pregnancy, lactation, nature
of work and state of health.
Feeding management
The cattle require two kinds of food during breeding :
(i) Maintenance requirement : It contains all the nutrients for the maintenance of health of
cattle. It enables the animals to perform all the basic functions of life, provides strength and
makes them resistance to diseases.
(ii) Milk producing requirement : It contain the specific nutrients required during lactation
period. It thus increases the duration of lactation period and increases the milk yield. These
food requirement are fulfilled with a specific diet containing the following components.
Roughage : Fibre – rich food, such as hay, green fodder, silage and legumes, eg., cowpea,
berseem, Lucerne.
Concentrates : nutrients – rich food but low in fibres. It contains carbohydrates, vitamins
and especially high amount of proteins. Eg. Maize, oats, barley, jowar, gram and their by products
such as wheat bran, rice bran, gram husk, oil seed cakes, molasses.
Feed additives : These are micro nutrients, hormones etc, that promote health and milk output
of dairy animals.
Disease management
A healthy animal feeds regularly and has a normal posture. For prevention against viral and
bacterial diseases vaccinations must be given to farm animals.
Parasites of Cattle
External parasites - live on skin and cause skin diseases.
 Internal Parasites - Eg. Worms and flukes. Worms affect stomach and intestine, while flukes
infect and damage the liver.
Infectious Diseases - They can spread to other animals on the farm and, can sometimes
infect humans too. These diseases can be bacterial (Anthrax, Tuberculosis) or viral (cow pox,
foot and mouth disease).

Objective Questions
1. The most common weed is :
(A) Amaranthus (B) Sun Hemp (C) Doob grass (D) Khuri

2. 2, 4–D is used :
(A) For higher yield (B) As weedicide (C) As insecticide (D) None

3. Abiotic factor affecting stored seeds is :

(A) Rodent (B) Bird (C) Temperature (D) None

4. Milk does not provide :

(A) Vitamin A and D (B) Minerals like phosphorus and calcium
(C) Iron (D) Carbohydrates, proteins and fats

Subjective Questions
5. How do insect pests attack the crops ?

6. Which method is commonly used for improving the cattle breeds and why?
8.2 Poultry
Poultry (poult = chicken) is the breeding of fowls for egg production and meat which are supposed
to be the best sources of proteins and fats.
Poultry is the most efficient converter of low fibre food stuff which is unfit for human (consumption)
into highly nutritious animal protein food.
Along with fowl, now a days, other birds such as ducks, geese, pigeons, turkeys etc., are also reared
for increased production of eggs and meat. The birds reared for egg production are called layers
while those for meat purpose are known as broilers.
Breeds of hen
Indigenous breeds (desi breeds - they are native to India) : Eg. Aseel, Bursa (show excellent
resistance to diseases)
Foreign or Exotic breeds : (lay more number of eggs than indigenous breeds and also give
more meat) Eg. White Leghorn, Rhode Island Red.

Light Sussex
White Leghorn

Barred Plymouth
Black Minorcha
Rhode Island Red
Some exotic breeds of fowl.

Fig. 2 Poultry breeds

Cross breeds
The desirable traits which can be achieved by cross breeding are as :
(i) Increased fertility and fecundity (egg laying capacity) of the fowl.
(ii) Large - sized eggs.
(iii) Increased meat yield.
(iv) Low maintenance requirements.
(v) Less diet requirements.
(vi) Rise in number and quality of chicks.
(vii) Increase in tolerance to high temperature or summer adaptation capacity.
(viii) Reduced size of layers with ability to utilize more fibrous and cheaper diets made by using
agricultural by products.
Production of layers and broilers
The production of layers and broilers requires special care for nutrition, shelter and disease control.
The management and care differs in different phases of their lives.
 Layers
Egg production is the most efficient economic aspect of poultry. Hens (female fowls) raised for egg
production are called layers.
During growing period, they require sufficient space to avoid overcrowding enabling proper
growth. During egg laying period, they need enough space and light which increases the fertility.
Broilers
Broilers are quick growing table birds which are raised for about 7-8 weeks to attain proper weight.
When the chickens are grown as broilers, their housing, nutritional and environmental needs become
different from that of the layers. At this time, they are provided with the conditions which are
favourable for their rapid growth and low mortality. The food provided to them should be protein
- rich with adequate amount of fats and high amount of vitamin A and K.
Poultry care
To produce good quality birds, good management practices are required which are different for
broilers and layers. These include :
(i) Poultry feed
(ii) Hygienic condition in housing.
(iii) Maintenance of temperature
(iv) Prevention and control of disease, as well as pests.
Disease management
Poultry birds suffer from a number of viral, fungal and bacterial diseases. The birds may also be
affected by parasites and nutritional deficiencies. The birds can be protected from various diseases
by adopting the following measures :
(i) Proper cleaning and sanitation of their living area.
(ii) Spraying of disinfectants at regular intervals.
(iii) Shelter should be cleaned properly and regularly. For prevention against viral and bacterial
diseases.
(iv) Every animal should be vaccinated to immunize it against common infectious diseases.
8.3 Pisciculture
Fish are the cheap and excellent sources of animal protein. A large section of the Indian population
uses fish as food particularly the one living in coastal areas. It is highly nutritious and easily digestible.
Fish can be employed for eradicating problem of malnutrition. Fish liver oil is rich in vitamin A
and D.
Fisheries
Fisheries are establishments connected with capture, prevention, exploitation of various types of
fish, prawn, lobsters, oysters etc. Depending upon the mode of obtaining fish, fisheries are of two
types
(a) Capture fishery
The fish is caught from natural waters, both marine and inland. Modern technology is used
in capturing of fishes.
(b) Culture fishery/fish farming/ Pisciculture
It is cultivating, rearing and harvesting of fishes.
Marine fisheries
They are fish catching areas in sea. It is of three types coastal, off shore and deep sea.
India has an extensive coastline and an exclusive sea zone beyond it.
Popular marine fish : Pomphret, Mackerel, Tuna, Sardines and Bombay duck. These fishes are
captured from coastal areas.
Popular fresh water fish : Cat fish, such as wallago, mystus etc. Indian major carps such as Catla,
Rohu, Mrigal (Cirrhina).
Exotic varieties such as Silver carp and Grass carp.
Marine fishes are caught using fishing nets from boats and large trawlers. Yields are further increased
by locating large schools of fish using satellites and eco-sounders. Mechanized fishing boats are
also introduced for fishing.
Mariculture
To fulfill the demands of growing population and to sustain the number of fish in marine water,
mariculture is practiced. Some marine fish of high economic value are also farmed in sea water.
This includes mullets, bhetki, pearl spots, shellfish such as Macrobrachium rosenbergii (fresh water
prawn), Peneaus monodon(marine water prawn), mussels, oysters and even sea-weed. Oysters
not only provide food but pearls too.
Mariculture is growing rapidly as the demand for fish is increasing while the stock is declining due
to excessive exploitation from sea.
Inland fisheries
India has a large number of inland water resources, eg. Rivers, ponds and lakes. The mangrove
wetlands, brackish water areas in lagoons and estuaries also constitute large Inland water reservoir.
Capture fisheries are poor in Inland waters. Therefore, major fish production from Inland water
is carried out through culture called aquaculture.
Fish culture is sometimes carried out in paddy fields. These fish are grown in shallow waters of
the paddy fields and can tolerate high temperature and turbidity.
Culture fishery depends upon :
(i) Location of pond (ii) Water resource and quality (iii) Nutrients.

Fig. 3 Types of fishes in composite culture.

 Fish culture is of different types
Monoculture : Single species of fish is grown.
Polyculture : Two or more than two fishes grown together.
Composite Fish Culture : Composite fish culture is an intensive fish farming system, where
fishes of different species differing in feeding habit and habitats are stocked and cultured in the
same pond. It is known as polyculture and mixed fish farming. These cultures leads to the efficient
utilization of food present in the pond and thus, increase the yield. Both local and imported fishes
are used in such cultures.
The combination of six species is used in this culture system. Out of the six species, three are of
Indian origin (Catla, Rohu, Mrigal) and three are exotic (from China). The exotic species are silver
carp, grass carp and common carp. This combination is highly advantageous because :
1. These fishes do not compete for food because they have different types of food habits.
2. The food available in all the zones (parts) of the pond is utilized due to their food habits. For
example, catla is surface feeder, rohu feeds in middle zone of the pond (column feeder) and
mrigal and common carp feed at the bottom. Grass carp feeds on aquatic weeds.
The advantage of composite fish culture over single species culture are as follows
(i) All available microhabitats (living areas) are fully utilized, as each species occupy different
habitat.
(ii) The different species of fishes do not harm each other. Instead, they can have beneficial effects
on each other.
(iii) Different species have different food habits and thus, do not compete for food.
(iv) Composite culture yield variety of fishes and also more in number as compare to the single
species culture.
When all the above species are stocked together in a pond, each one occupies its own niche (living
area) and feeds upon food different from each other. It increases the yield of all species of fishes.
One problem associated with such composite culture is that many of these fishes breed only during
monsoon season. Therefore, good quality seeds (Fish seed is fish eggs) of these fishes may not be
available or get mixed with that of other species, if collected from wild. This problem can be solved
by breeding of these fishes by hormonal stimulation.
This technique supplies pure and good quality fish seeds in desirable quantities for the culture.
8.4 Apiculture
Bee keeping is the rearing and management of honey bees for obtaining honey, wax and other
substance.
Honey is an economically important product obtained from the honeybees. It is widely used hence,
bee-keeping is practiced at a large scale. Bee-keeping requires very low investments making it an
additional income generation activity. Further, this practice is a source of bees-wax which is used
in different medicines and cosmetics. Bee-keeping is one of the oldest agricultural pursuits of man.
Honey is mentioned as a medicine in ancient Indian literature. Now, honeybees have reached the
highest degree of domestication. The modern scientific method for the production of honey and
beeswax is known as apiculture. The honeybees used for apiculture are
Common species of honey bee
1. Apis cerana indica (Indian bee)
2. Apis dorsata (Giant bee or rock bee)
3. Apis florae (little bee)
4. Apis mellifera (European and Italian bee)
5. Apis adamsoni (African bee)
A. mellifera is more preferred bee as it produces 50-200 kg of honey per hive per year while A.
cerana indica produces only 4.5-5.0 kg of honey. They also breed very well, lives in the hive for
a long duration and sting less. Earlier, the honey was collected by killing the resting bees or making
them leave the hive by using flames. The combs were gathered, cut and squeezed to extract honey.
However, this method is crude and does not produce pure honey. This honey contains dirt, parts
of bee's body, waxy material, etc. therefore, it has been replaced by better scientific methods.
Nowadays, honey bees are reared in artificial hives.
This hive is made of wood and has large chamber. This artificial and movable hive is known as
apiary. The chambers are partitioned with wax sheets to attract bees. During extraction of honey,
comb sheets are taken out and kept in honey extractor. It throws out honey by centrifugal force
without damaging the comb yielding large amount of honey. The quality and taste of honey depends
upon the flower visited by them. This in turn depends on Pasturage.
Pasturage- Is the vegetation cover in a particular area. It determines the type and number of flowers
available to the bees for collection of nectar and pollen.

Fig. 4 Apiary
Objective Questions
1. The broiler chicken are given :
(A) More food to lay more eggs (B) More food to gain weight
(C) Less food (D) Less care

2. An advantage of induced breeding in fishes is to :

(A) Have more seeds (B) Have more fish
(C) Earn more money (D) Have all of the above
3. Catla and rohu are examples of :
(A) Marine fish (B) Freshwater fish (C) Brackish water fish (D) None of these

4. Which of the following is the fastest growing carp :

(A) Catla (B) Rohu (C) Singhara (D) None

5. Which of the following is grown in freshwater ?

(A) Tuna (B) Carp (C) Sardine (D) Pomphret

6. Which of the following statement is incorrect about honeybees :

(A) Queenbee is the largest in size (B) Worker bees outnumber the other
(C) Drones keep the hive clean (D) They have sense of direction

Subjective Questions
7. What would happen if layers are larger in size and have no summer adaptation capacity ? In order
to get small sized poultry birds having summer adaptability, what method should be employed ?

8. Discuss the implications of the following statement "It is interesting to note that poultry is India's most
efficient converter of low fibre food stuff (which is unfit for human consumption) into highly nutritious
animal protein food.

9. What is the difference between broilers and layers and in their management ?

10. What management practices are common in dairy and poultry farming ?

11. What are the advantages of composite fish culture ?

12. How are fishes obtained ?

13. What are the desirable characters of bee varieties suitable for bee keeping?

14. What is pasturage and how it is related to honey production?

1. The science of improving crop varieties is called
(A) hybridization (B) selection (C) plant breeding (D) introduction
2. By which of the following methods, new and better varieties of plants can be formed?
(A) Selection (B) Grafting
(C) Hybridization (D) Hybridization followed by selection
3. Science of altering the genetic pattern of plants in order to increase their value and utility for human
welfare is called–
(A) Plant breeding (B) Agriculture (C) Genetics (D) All of these
4. High-yielding varieties of wheat were initially developed by an Indian scientist by cross-breeding
the traditional varieties with–
(A) American varieties (B) Mexican varieties (C) European varieties (D) African varieties
5. Emasculation is related to–
(A) Pureline (B) Mass selection (C) Clonal selection (D) Hybridisation
6. The quickest method of plant breeding is–
(A) Introduction (B) Selection (C) Hybridisation (D) Mutation breeding
7. 2, 4-D is used :
(A) As weedicide (B) For higher yield (C) As insecticide (D) None
8. When differnt types of crops are grown alternatively in the same field it is :
(A) Mixed cropping (B) Inter cropping
(C) Jhooming cultivation (D) Crop rotation
9. Sonalika and Kalyan Sona are the varieties of–
(A) Wheat (B) Rice (C) Millet (D) Tobacco
10. Father of green revolution in India is
(A) M.S. Swaminathan (B) N. Borlaug
(C) R. Mishra (D) P. Maheswari
11. Mule is produced by–
(A) Inbreeding (B) Artificial insemination
(C) Interspecific hybridisation (D) Intraspecific hybridisation
12. Plant breeding aims to produce
(A) disease-free varieties (B) high-yielding varieties
(C) early-maturing varieties (D) all the above
13. The process of preparing manure with the help of earthworms and kitchen wastes is called
(A) green manuring (B) manuring
(C) vermicomposting (D) farming
14. The minerals required by a plant in very small quantities are called
(A) macronutrients (B) micronutrients (C) manures (D) fertilizers
15. The increase in foodgrain production after the introduction of improved varieties of crops is often
referred as
(A) White Revolution (B) Green Revolution
(C) Yellow Revolution (D) Blue Revolution
16. Materials of biological origin which are commonly used to maintain and improve soil fertility are
(A) Green manures (B) Biofertilizers
(C) Bioinsecticides (D) Both (A) and (B)
17. The pesticides need to be replaced because these
(A) Are very costly (B) Cannot be stored for a long time
(C) Are mostly toxic and non-biodegradable (D) Cause abnormalities in the target population
18. DDT is
(A) A non-biodegradable pollutant (B) A biodegradable pollutant
(C) An antibiotic (D) Not a pollutant
19. Cattle feed should contain
(A) Concentrate (B) Roughage (C) Both (A) & (B) (D) None of these
20. Which one of the following yields maximum milk / year :
(A) Holstein-friesian (B) Frieswal (C) Sahiwal (D) Red Sindhi
21. Dry and cold storage are methods to :
(A) Prevents spoilage of food (B) Prevents wastage of food
(C) Grow bacteria-resistant food (D) None of these
22. Which of the following is not an exotic breed of cow :
(A) Jersey (B) Holstein-friesian (C) Sahiwal (D) Brown Swiss
23. Broilers are maintained for getting
(A) Milk (B) Egg (C) Meat (D) Leather
24. Which one of the following is the indigenous breed of chickens
(A) Plymouth rock (B) White leghorn (C) Aseel (D) Rhode island red
25. Rearing and breeding of fish in pond, tanks and artificial reservoirs is called
(A) Aquaculture (B) Fishing (C) Pisciculture (D) Apiculture
26. Catla and Rohu are the examples of
(A) Exotic fresh water fishes (B) Indigenous fresh water fishes
(C) Indigenous marine water fishes (D) Exotic marine water fishes
27. Plants providing nectar and pollens to the honey bee collectively called
(A) Swarm (B) Bee fauna (C) Apiary (D) Pasturage
28. Exotic breed of honey bee is
(A) Apis dorsata (B) Apis indica (C) Apis florae (D) Apis mellifera
29. Males of honey bee colony are called
(A) Drone (B) Workers (C) Soldiers (D) All of the above
30. Match the following columns–
Column I Column II
a. Apiculture (i) Honey bee
b. Pisciculture (ii) Fish
c. Green revolution (iii) Agriculture
d. White revolution (iv) Milk
A B C D
(A) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(B) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i)
(C) (iii) (iv) (i) (ii)
(D) (i) (iv) (ii) (iii)
1. The practice of mulching specially grown sun hemp or guar by ploughing them into the soil helps in
(A) increasing water holding capacity
(B) increasing the quantity of earthworms
(C) enriching the soil in nitrogen and phosphorus
(D) None of these

2. Opuntia weed can be eradicated by :

(A) Gambusia (B) Cochineal insect (C) Grass carp (D) Both (A) & (B)

3. Heat production in damp grain storage occurs due to

(A) Infestation by insects (B) Decrease in atmospheric pressure
(C) Decrease in humidity (D) High moisture content and growth of moulds

4. Fumigants are used for

(A) Preserving food materials (B) Killing insects harming food grains
(C) Increasing nutrients of plants (D) Preserving dairy products

5. Malathion is used as
(A) Fungicide (B) Insecticide (C) Weedicide (D) Biocide

6. Tick the viral disease of cattle

(A) Foot and mouth disease (B) Anthrax
(C) Aspergillosis (D) T.B.

7. The food provided to broilers should be rich in

(A) Vitamin A (B) Vitamin K (C) Protein (D) All of the above

8. The viral disease – Ranikhet is associated with

(A) Cattle (B) Poultry (C) Fishes (D) Bees

9. Which one of the following is a true fish

(A) Fin fish (B) Jelly fish (C) Star fish (D) Shell fish

10. “Drones” in the honeybee colony are born out from :

(A) Unfertilized eggs (B) Fertilized eggs and well nourished larvae
(C) Same as worker bee (D) Fertilized eggs by giving heat treatment

11. Which of the following is known as Rock bee :

(A) Apis indica (B) Apis dorsata (C) Apis florae (D) None

12. Which of the following is known as Italian bee ?

(A) Apis dorsata (B) Apis indica (C) Apis florae (D) Apis mellifera

13. Which caste is maximum in number in bee hive ?

(A) Queen (B) Worker (C) Drone (D) None

14. Why are honeybees so important ?

(A) They are excellent pollinators (B) They show a high degree of social life
(C) They have a stinger (D) They produce beeswax

15. Main sugar present in the honey is

(A) Maltose (B) Fructose (C) Dextrose (D) Ribose
Very short answer type questions
1. From where do the plants get carbon, oxygen and hydrogen ?

2. Which crop is generally grown between two cereal crops to restore the fertility of soil ?

3. Name any two exotic breeds of poultry.

4. What are milch animals?

5. In what respect does the roughage differ from concentrates with reference to cattle feed?

6. Name the products obtained from honeybees.

Short answer type questions

7. What are macro-nutrients and why are they so called?

8. Why should preventive measures and biological control methods be preferred for protecting crops?

9. What factors may be responsible for loss of grains during storage?

10. Write two advantages of using chemical fertilisers over manure.

11. Why do we irrigate our crops?

12. How do moisture and temperature affect the life of food materials ?

13. What are the basic objectives of mixed cropping?

14. What are the characteristics of good animal shelter?

15. Name three Indian major carps commonly used in composite fish culture.

16. What are important points to remember in poultry farming ?

Long answer type questions

17. Explain any one method of crop production which ensures high yields.

18. What are the advantages of intercropping and crop rotation?

19. What is genetic manipulation? How is it useful in agricultural practices?

20. What are the various ways of controlling weeds?

21. Explain how excessive use of nitrate fertilisers in agricultural fields affect human life.

22. Write down differences between : –

(a) Layers and broilers. (b) Milch animals and draught animals.
(c) Capture fishing and culture fishing. (d) Roughage and concentrate.

23. What are the benefits of cattle farming?

24. For increasing production, what is common in poultry, fisheries and bee-keeping?

25. How will you differentiate between capture fishing, mariculture and aquaculture?
 COMPETITIVE ASSESSMENT

1. Examine the following statements: (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2007)

1. The silk moth produces silk when it is in the larval stage.
2. Fish liver oil is a rich source of Vitamin A.
3. Earthworms aerate the soil and enrich it
4. Pashmina shawls are prepared from the hair of a particular variety of Indian goat.
Which one of the following alternatives is correct?
(A) (1), (2) and (3) are true but (4) is false
(B) Only (1) and (2) are true but (3) and (4) are false
(C) Only (1) and (4) are true but (2) and (3) are false
(D) (1), (2) (3) and (4) are true

2. Which of the following statements is wrong? (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2007)

(A) Quinine, a malarial drug is obtained from the plant cinchona
(B) Pulses are rich sources of starch and minerals
(C) Sunflower is a good source of vegetable oil
(D) Green vegetables are good sources of vitamins and minerals

3. Wool yielding animals bear thick coat of hair because : (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2008)

(A) The animals carry a lot of hair follicles on body only
(B) It protects them from the predators
(C) Hairs trap a lot of air which is a poor conductor of heat
(D) The animals can sleep happily on the rough surfaces

4. Ecological importance of earthworm is that (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2008)

(a) It damges root of plant
(b) It takes organic matter from soil surface deeper into soil for absorption by plants.
(c) It's castings are rich in organic matter
(d) It serves as food for protozoa
Which of the following combinations are correct:
(A) (a) and (c) (B) (b) and (c) (C) (a) and (b) (D) (a), (b) and (d)

5. Which of the following does not yield wool (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2012)

(A) Dog (B) Yalk (C) Camel (D) Goat

6. White revolution is related to the increase in production of: (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2012)

(A) Egg (B) Milk (C) Meat (D) Wool

7. Which of the following is not a foreign breed of cow? [NTSE -1/Chan./2013]

(A) Sahiwal (B) Holstein (C) Brown swiss (D) Jersey

8. Three crops that contribute maximum to global foodgrain production are (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2014)
(A) Wheat, Rice and Maize (B) Wheat, Rice and Barley
(C) Wheat, Maize and Sorghum (D) Rice, Maize and Sorghum

9. Which of the following organisms is used as a biopesticide ? [NTSE Stage-2/2017]

(A) Azolla (B) Anabaena (C) Rhizobium (D) Trichoderma

10. To meet the increasing demand for food, there have been several 'revolutions'. Which of the following
revolutions is likely to have contributed most to global warming? (NSEJS /2017)
(A) Green (B) White (C) Blue (D) Silver
11. Honeybee culture is known as (NTSE/Stage-I/Raj./2018)
(A) Silviculture (B) Apiculture (C) Sericulture (D) Pisciculture.

12. The genetically modified (GM) brinjal in India has been developed for: (NSEJS /2018)
(A) Enhancing shelf life (B) Insect-resistance
(C) Drought-resistance (D) Enhancing mineral content

ANSWERS
CHECK POST-1
1. (C) 2. (D) 3. (A) 4. (B)

CHECK POST-2
1. (D) 2. (C) 3. (B) 4. (D) 5. (C)

CHECK POST-3
1. (A) 2. (B) 3. (C) 4. (C)

CHECK POST-4
1. (B) 2. (D) 3. (B) 4. (A) 5. (B) 6. (C)

EXERCISE-1 (ELEMENTARY)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Ans. C D A B D C A D A A C D C B B D C A C A
Que. 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
Ans. A C C C C B D D A A

EXERCISE-2 (SEASONED)
Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Ans. C B D B B A D B A A B D B A B

EXERCISE-4 (COMPETITIVE ASSESSMENT)

Que. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ans. D B C B A B A A D B B B