‭ 2. How to create an ER diagram of organisation?

‬
Q
‭Creating an ER (Entity-Relationship) diagram for an organization‬
‭involves identifying the entities, attributes, and relationships that‬
‭represent the structure and operations of that organization.‬
‭Steps to Create an ER Diagram for an Organization‬
‭1. Identify Key Entities‬
‭Entities are the main components in your system. For an organization,‬
‭common entities include:‬
‭1.‬‭Employee‬
‭2.‬‭Department‬
‭3.‬‭Project‬
‭4.‬‭Client‬
‭5.‬‭Manager‬
‭6.‬‭Attendance‬
‭7.‬‭Salary‬
‭2. Determine Attributes for Each Entity‬
‭Employee‬
‭1.‬‭EmpID (Primary Key)‬
‭2.‬‭Name‬
‭3.‬‭Address‬
‭4.‬‭Phone‬
‭5.‬‭Email‬
‭6.‬‭DeptID (Foreign Key)‬
‭7.‬‭SalaryID (Foreign Key)‬

‭Department‬
‭1.‬‭DeptID (Primary Key)‬
‭2.‬‭DeptName‬
‭3.‬‭Location‬
‭Project‬
‭1.‬‭Pro‬‭jectID (Primary Key)‬
‭2.‬‭ProjectName‬
‭3.‬‭StartDate‬
‭4.‬‭DeptID (Foreign Key)‬
‭Client‬
‭1.‬‭ClientID (Primary Key)‬
‭2.‬‭Name‬
‭3.‬‭Contact‬
‭Salary‬
‭1.‬‭SalaryID (Primary Key)‬
‭2.‬‭Amount‬
‭3.‬‭Bonus‬
‭3. Define Relationships Between Entities‬
‭1.‬‭An employee belongs to one department, but a department can‬
‭have many employees →‬‭One-to-Many‬
‭2.‬‭An employee can work on multiple projects and a project can‬
‭have multiple employees →‬‭Many-to-Many‬
‭3.‬‭A manager is also an employee (recursive relationship) →‬
‭One-to-One or One-to-Many‬
‭4.‬‭A project is assigned to one department‬
‭5.‬‭A client can request multiple projects‬
‭4. Draw the ER Diagram‬
‭Use the following notation:‬
‭1.‬‭Rectangle = Entity‬
‭2.‬‭Oval = Attribute‬
‭3.‬‭Diamond = Relationship‬
‭4.‬‭Line = Link between them‬
‭5.‬‭PK = Primary Key‬
‭6.‬‭FK = Foreign Key‬

[‭Department]---------------------------<works‬
‭in>-----------------[Employee]‬
‭| DeptID (PK) | EmpID (PK)‬
‭| DeptName | Name‬
‭| Location | DeptID (FK)‬
‭|‬

‭________________________________|__________________‬
 |‭ |‬
‭| |‬
‭ Assigned>
< <Gets‬
‭Paid>‬
|‭ |‬
‭[Project] [Salary]‬
‭| ProjectID (PK) | SalaryID‬
‭(PK)‬
|‭ ProjectName | Amount‬
‭| DeptID (FK) | Bonus‬

‭[Client] ---------<Requests>---------- [Project]‬

‭ClientID (PK) ProjectID (PK)‬

‭ 3. Explain all the commands of DML with suitable example‬

Q
‭DML commands are used to manipulate data stored in the database‬
‭(not the structure). These commands are:‬
‭1.‬‭ INSERT:-‬‭Used to add new records into a table.‬
‭Syntax:‬
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, ...)‬
‭
VALUES (value1, value2, ...);‬
‭
‭Example:-‬
INSERT INTO Students (StudentID, Name, Age)‬
‭
VALUES (1, 'Alex', 20);‬
‭
‭2.‬‭ SELECT:-‬‭Used to retrieve data from one or more tables.‬
‭Syntax:‬
SELECT column1, column2 FROM table_name;‬
‭
‭Example:‬
SELECT Name, Age FROM Students;‬
‭
‭You can use conditions:‬
SELECT * FROM Students WHERE Age > 18;‬
‭
UPDATE:-‬‭Used to modify existing records in a table.‬
‭3.‬‭
‭ yntax:‬
S
UPDATE table_name‬
‭
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...‬
‭
WHERE condition;‬
‭
‭Example:-‬
UPDATE Students‬
‭
SET Age = 21‬
‭
WHERE StudentID = 1;‬
‭
‭Always use a‬‭ WHERE‬‭clause to avoid updating all rows.‬
‭4.‬‭ DELETE:-‬‭Used to delete records from a table.‬
‭Syntax:‬
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;‬
‭
‭Example:‬
DELETE FROM Students‬
‭
WHERE StudentID = 1;‬
‭
WHERE‬
‭Without‬‭ ‭, all rows will be deleted:‬
DELETE FROM Students; -- Deletes all rows!‬
‭

‭ 4. what is the role of joins in database define all its types‬

Q
‭Ans:-‬‭Joins in SQL are used to combine rows from two or more tables‬
‭based on a related column between them. They allow you to fetch‬
‭data that is spread across multiple tables using relationships like‬
‭foreign keys.‬
‭Why Use Joins?‬
‭1.‬‭To retrieve related data from multiple tables‬
‭2.‬‭To enforce data normalization‬
‭3.‬‭To avoid data duplication‬
‭4.‬‭To perform complex queries‬
‭Types of Joins in SQL‬
‭1. INNER JOIN:-‬ ‭Returns only the matching rows from both tables‬
‭based on the specified condition.‬
‭ yntax:‬
S
SELECT *‬
‭
FROM table1‬
‭
INNER JOIN table2‬
‭
ON table1.common_column = table2.common_column;‬
‭
‭Example:‬
SELECT Students.Name, Departments.DeptName‬
‭
FROM Students‬
‭
INNER JOIN Departments‬
‭
ON Students.DeptID = Departments.DeptID;‬
‭

‭ . LEFT JOIN (or LEFT OUTER JOIN):-‬‭Returns all records from the‬
2
‭left table and the matched records from the right table. If there's no‬
NULL‬‭is returned for right table columns.‬
🔸
‭match,‬‭
‭ Syntax:‬
SELECT *‬
‭
FROM table1‬
‭
LEFT JOIN table2‬
‭
ON table1.common_column = table2.common_column;‬
‭
‭Example:‬
SELECT Students.Name, Departments.DeptName‬
‭
FROM Students‬
‭
LEFT JOIN Departments‬
‭
ON Students.DeptID = Departments.DeptID;‬
‭

‭ . RIGHT JOIN (or RIGHT OUTER JOIN):-‬ ‭Returns all records from‬
3
‭the right table and the matched records from the left table.‬
‭Syntax:‬
SELECT *‬
‭
FROM table1‬
‭
RIGHT JOIN table2‬
‭
‭N table1.common_column = table2.common_column;‬
O
‭Example:‬
SELECT Students.Name, Departments.DeptName‬
‭
FROM Students‬
‭
RIGHT JOIN Departments‬
‭
ON Students.DeptID = Departments.DeptID;‬
‭

‭4. FULL JOIN (or FULL OUTER JOIN)‬

‭Returns all records when there is a match in either left or right table.‬
‭Rows without matches get‬‭ NULL‬‭in place of missing values.‬
‭Syntax:‬
SELECT * FROM table1‬
‭
FULL OUTER JOIN table2‬
‭
ON table1.common_column = table2.common_column;‬
‭
‭Example:‬
SELECT Students.Name, Departments.DeptName‬
‭
FROM Students‬
‭
FULL OUTER JOIN Departments‬
‭
ON Students.DeptID = Departments.DeptID;‬
‭

‭ . CROSS JOIN:-‬ ‭Returns the Cartesian product of both tables (every‬

5
‭row of table1 combined with every row of table2). Used rarely and‬

🔸
‭carefully.‬
‭ Syntax:‬
SELECT *‬
‭
FROM table1‬
‭
CROSS JOIN table2;‬
‭
‭Example:‬
SELECT Students.Name, Courses.CourseName‬
‭
FROM Students‬
‭
CROSS JOIN Courses;‬
‭
‭6. SELF JOIN:-‬‭A self join is when a table is joined with itself.‬
‭Syntax:‬
SELECT A.Name, B.Name‬
‭
FROM Employees A, Employees B‬
‭
WHERE A.ManagerID = B.EmployeeID;‬
‭
‭Use Case:‬‭Finding employees who report to the same manager.‬

‭Q5. Write a short note on:-‬

‭1. Spurious Tuple‬
‭Ans:-‬‭A spurious tuple is an unwanted or incorrect row that appears in‬
‭the result of a JOIN operation due to improper join conditions.‬
‭It usually occurs when the database is not properly normalized.‬
‭Example:‬
‭If two tables are joined on non-key attributes, it may produce‬
‭duplicate or meaningless records, leading to incorrect query results.‬

‭ . Candidate Key‬
2
‭Ans:-‬‭A candidate key is a minimal set of attributes that can uniquely‬
‭identify a tuple (row) in a relation.‬
‭There can be multiple candidate keys in a table, but only one is‬
‭chosen as the primary key.‬
‭Example:‬
Students‬‭table, both‬‭
‭In a‬‭ RollNumber‬‭and‬‭Email‬‭could be‬
‭candidate keys.‬

‭ . Referential Integrity‬
3
‭Ans:-‬‭Referential Integrity ensures that a foreign key in one table must‬
‭match a primary key in another table (or be NULL).‬
‭It helps maintain consistency and prevents orphan records.‬
‭Example:‬
Employee.DeptID‬‭references‬‭
‭If‬‭ Department.DeptID‬ ‭, we can't‬
‭add an employee with a‬‭ DeptID‬‭that doesn't exist in the Department‬
‭table.‬
‭ . Relational Algebra – Set Operations‬
4
‭Ans:-‬‭Relational Algebra provides theoretical operations for querying‬
‭databases. Important set operations include:‬
‭1.‬‭UNION‬‭→ Combines rows from two relations, removing‬
‭duplicates‬
‭2.‬‭INTERSECTION‬‭→ Returns common rows from both relations‬
‭3.‬‭DIFFERENCE (MINUS)‬‭→ Returns rows present in the first‬
‭relation but not in the second‬
‭4.‬‭CARTESIAN PRODUCT (×)‬‭→ Pairs each row from the first‬
‭table with every row from the second table‬
‭Note:‬‭All set operations require the same number of columns with‬
‭compatible data types.‬

‭5.Difference between SELECT vs PROJECTION‬

‭SELECT‬ ‭PROJECTION‬
‭ QL command to‬
S ‭ elational algebra operation to‬
R
‭retrieve data from a‬ ‭select specific columns from a‬
‭ efinition‬ ‭database.‬
D ‭relation.‬
‭ sed in SQL (Structured‬ U
U ‭ sed in relational algebra‬
‭Context‬ ‭Query Language).‬ ‭(theoretical framework).‬
‭ ELECT column1,‬
S
‭column2 FROM‬
‭Syntax‬ ‭table_name;‬ ‭π(column1, column2)(relation)‬
‭ an include filtering,‬
C ‭ ocuses solely on selecting‬
F
‭Complexi‬ ‭sorting, grouping, and‬ ‭columns; does not include‬
‭ty‬ ‭joining.‬ ‭filtering or sorting.‬
‭ etrieves data based on‬
R
‭Function‬ ‭specified criteria and can‬ ‭Simply extracts specified‬
‭ lity‬
a ‭manipulate the result set.‬ ‭columns from a dataset.‬
‭ ELECT name, age‬
S
‭FROM users WHERE‬
‭ xample‬ ‭age > 18;‬
E ‭π(name, age)(users)‬
 ‭ an return a result set‬
C
‭with various operations‬ ‭ eturns a new relation with only‬
R
‭Output‬ ‭applied.‬ ‭the specified columns.‬