Oscillators

Oscillators: Theory, Types, and Design Principles

An oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates a continuous, repetitive waveform (e.g., sine,
square, or triangle waves) without an external input signal. It relies on positive feedback to
sustain oscillations.
1. Basic Principle of Oscillators
Barkhausen Criterion
For sustained oscillations, two conditions must be met:
1. Loop Gain Condition:

∣ 𝐴𝛽 ∣≥ 1
o 𝐴 = Amplifier gain
o 𝛽 = Feedback factor
2. Phase Shift Condition:

∠𝐴𝛽 = 0∘ (or 360∘ )

o The total phase shift around the loop must be zero (or a multiple of 360°).
Block Diagram of an Oscillator
Amplifier (A) → Output
↑ ↓
└──Feedback (β)──┘

• The feedback network must be regenerative (positive feedback).

2. Types of Oscillators
Oscillators are classified based on waveform and frequency-determining components:
A. Sinusoidal (Harmonic) Oscillators
Generate sine waves using LC tanks, crystal resonators, or RC networks.

Frequency
Type Range Key Component Applications
LC Oscillator 10 kHz – 100 Inductor (L) & Capacitor RF transmitters, radio
MHz (C)
Crystal 1 kHz – 100 Quartz crystal Clock generators,
Oscillator MHz microcontrollers
RC Phase-Shift 1 Hz – 1 MHz Resistors & Capacitors Audio, low-frequency signals
 Frequency
Type Range Key Component Applications
Wien Bridge 1 Hz – 1 MHz RC network Function generators
Example: Wien Bridge Oscillator
• Uses RC feedback for stable sine waves.
• Frequency formula:
1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
B. Relaxation Oscillators
Generate non-sinusoidal waves (square, triangle, sawtooth).

Type Waveform Key Component Applications

Astable Multivibrator Square wave Transistors/Op-amps Clock signals, PWM
555 Timer IC Square/Pulse 555 Timer Timers, LED flashers
Schmitt Trigger Osc. Square wave Schmitt trigger Digital circuits
Example: 555 Timer Astable Mode
• Frequency formula:
1.44
𝑓=
(𝑅1 + 2𝑅2 )𝐶
3. Key Components in Oscillators
1. Amplifier (Transistor, Op-amp, or Logic gate)
2. Frequency-Determining Network (LC, RC, Crystal)
3. Feedback Network (Positive feedback for oscillation)
4. Automatic Gain Control (AGC) (To stabilize amplitude)
4. Design Considerations

✅ Frequency Stability – Crystals offer the best stability.

✅ Amplitude Control – Limiting circuits prevent distortion.
✅ Start-Up Condition – Initial noise must trigger oscillations.
✅ Load Isolation – Buffers prevent frequency pulling.
5. Practical Applications
• Clock generation (Microcontrollers, CPUs)
• Radio transmitters (Carrier wave generation)
• Audio synthesis (Function generators, music synthesizers)
• Switch-mode power supplies (PWM control)
6. Troubleshooting Oscillators
No Oscillation? → Check:
• Barkhausen criteria (gain ≥1, phase shift = 0°).
• Power supply & biasing.
• Component tolerances (capacitors, inductors).
Unstable Frequency? → Use:
• Crystal oscillators (high stability).
• Temperature compensation.
7. Summary
Parameter Sinusoidal Osc. Relaxation Osc.
Waveform Sine Square/Triangle
Frequency Range 1 Hz – 100 MHz 0.1 Hz – 10 MHz
Stability High (Crystal) Moderate (RC-based)
Applications RF, Clocks Timers, Digital ICs

Conditions for Sustained Oscillations:

For an oscillator to generate a continuous, stable output waveform, it must satisfy two
fundamental conditions known as the Barkhausen Criterion.
1. Barkhausen Criterion
An oscillator must meet two key conditions to sustain oscillations:
A. Magnitude Condition (Loop Gain ≥ 1)
∣ 𝐴𝛽 ∣≥ 1
• A = Amplifier gain (open-loop gain).
• β = Feedback factor (fraction of output returned to input).
• Ensures the signal does not decay over time.
B. Phase Condition (Total Phase Shift = 0° or 360°)
∠𝐴𝛽 = 0∘ (or 360∘ )
• Ensures positive feedback (regenerative).
• The feedback signal reinforces the input rather than canceling it.
Why 360°?
• A single loop introduces 180° phase shift (inverting amplifier).
• The feedback network must add another 180° to make the total 360° (equivalent to 0°).
2. Practical Implications
Start-Up Condition
• Initially, |Aβ| > 1 to build up oscillations from noise.
• At steady state, |Aβ| = 1 (stable amplitude).
Amplitude Stabilization
• Nonlinear elements (e.g., diodes, transistor saturation) automatically adjust gain to
prevent distortion.
• Example: Automatic Gain Control (AGC) in Wien Bridge oscillators.
Frequency Stability
• Depends on LC tanks, crystals, or RC networks.
• Crystal oscillators are the most stable (due to high-Q resonance).
3. Common Oscillator Configurations
Oscillator Type Frequency Formula Key Feature
LC Tank (Hartley/Colpitts) 1 RF applications
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
Crystal Oscillator 𝑓 = Crystal resonant frequency High stability
RC Phase-Shift 1 Audio range
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
Wien Bridge 1 Low-distortion sine wave
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶

4. Troubleshooting Oscillators
If an oscillator fails to start or produces distorted output, check:
1. Loop gain (|Aβ| ≥ 1) – Increase amplifier gain if needed.
2. Phase shift (0° or 360°) – Adjust feedback network.
3. Power supply & biasing – Ensure active devices operate correctly.
4. Component tolerances – Capacitors/inductors must be precise.
5. Summary
|Aβ| ≥ 1 → Ensures signal growth.
∠Aβ = 0° (360°) → Ensures positive feedback.
Amplitude control → Prevents clipping/distortion.
Frequency stability → Depends on resonator (LC/RC/crystal).
RC Phase Shift Oscillator: Working, Design, and Analysis
An RC phase shift oscillator is a type of sinusoidal oscillator that uses an amplifier and an
RC feedback network to produce a stable sine wave. It operates at low to moderate
frequencies (typically 1 Hz to 1 MHz) and is widely used in audio-frequency signal
generation.
1. Basic Principle
• Uses three RC stages to introduce a total phase shift of 180° (each stage contributes
~60°).
• Combined with an inverting amplifier (another 180°), the total phase shift becomes
360°, satisfying the Barkhausen criterion for oscillation.
2. Circuit Diagram & Key Components
A. Transistor-Based RC Phase Shift Oscillator
+Vcc
|
Rc
|
C → Output
|
R
|
C
|
R
|
C
|
Re → Ground

• Amplifier: Common-emitter transistor (provides 180° phase shift).

• Feedback Network: 3-stage RC ladder (each RC pair adds ~60° phase shift).
B. Op-Amp-Based RC Phase Shift Oscillator
Op-Amp (Inverting)
|
Rf (Feedback Resistor)
|
R → C → R → C → R → C → Output
|
Ground

• Amplifier: Op-amp in inverting mode (180° phase shift).

• Feedback Network: 3-stage RC network (additional 180°).
3. Frequency of Oscillation
The oscillation frequency (f) is determined by the RC network:
1
𝑓=
𝑅𝑓
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 √6 + 4 ( 𝑅 )

For identical R and C values, it simplifies to:

1
𝑓=
2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6
4. Design Considerations
A. Gain Requirement
• The amplifier must have sufficient gain to overcome losses in the RC network.
• For 3-stage RC networks, the minimum gain (A) should be 29:
𝐴 ≥ 29 (for sustained oscillations)
B. Component Selection
• R and C determine the frequency.
• Rf (feedback resistor) must be chosen to ensure proper gain.
• High-quality capacitors (low ESR) improve stability.
C. Stability & Distortion Control
• Nonlinear elements (e.g., diodes, JFETs) can stabilize amplitude.
• Negative feedback can reduce distortion.
5. Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple design Limited to low frequencies (<1 MHz)
Low cost Requires high gain (A ≥ 29)
Good sine wave output Sensitive to component tolerances
No inductor needed Frequency stability lower than crystal oscillators

6. Practical Applications
• Audio tone generation (e.g., in function generators).
• Low-frequency testing circuits.
• Educational experiments (due to simplicity).
7. Troubleshooting Tips
No Oscillation?
• Check if gain ≥ 29 (adjust Rf).
• Verify phase shift = 180° (ensure correct RC stages).
• Test power supply & biasing.
Distorted Output?
• Reduce gain slightly (avoid clipping).
• Use amplitude stabilization (e.g., diodes in feedback).
8. Summary
Uses 3 RC stages for 180° phase shift.
Requires gain ≥ 29 for sustained oscillation.
1
Frequency set by RC network (𝑓 ≈ 2𝜋𝑅𝐶√6).
Best for low-frequency sine waves (1Hz–1MHz).

Wien Bridge Oscillator: Working, Design, and Analysis

The Wien Bridge Oscillator is a popular RC oscillator that generates stable sine waves at low
to moderate frequencies (typically 1 Hz to 1 MHz). It is widely used in audio oscillators,
function generators, and frequency-sensitive circuits due to its low distortion and tunable
frequency capability.
1. Basic Principle
• Uses a Wien bridge network (RC feedback) to set the frequency.
• Relies on balanced positive feedback for oscillation and negative feedback for
amplitude stabilization.
• Satisfies the Barkhausen criterion for sustained oscillations.
2. Circuit Diagram & Key Components
A. Classic Wien Bridge Oscillator (Op-Amp Version)
R1 C1
││
└─┴─┬─ Output
│ │
R2 C2
│ │
└───┴─ Negative Feedback (Automatic Gain Control)
│
Zener Diodes / JFET (for amplitude stabilization)
B. Key Components:
1. Amplifier → Op-amp (non-inverting mode).
2. Wien Bridge Network → R1, C1 (series) and R2, C2 (parallel).
3. Negative Feedback → Stabilizes gain (e.g., using diodes, JFETs, or lamps).
3. Frequency of Oscillation
The oscillation frequency (f) is determined by the RC network:
1
𝑓= (if 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅 and 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶)
2𝜋𝑅𝐶
Design Example:
• If 𝑅 = 10 k𝛺 and 𝐶 = 10 nF:
1
𝑓= ≈ 1.59 kHz
2𝜋 × 10 × 103 × 10 × 10−9
4. Gain Requirement (Barkhausen Criterion)
• The minimum amplifier gain (A) must be 3 for oscillations to start:
𝐴≥3
• Achieved using non-inverting op-amp configuration:
𝑅𝑓
𝐴 =1+
𝑅𝑔
o 𝑅𝑓 = Feedback resistor (must be twice 𝑅𝑔 ).
5. Amplitude Stabilization (Avoiding Distortion)
Since A=3 is critical, any variation can cause clipping. To stabilize amplitude:
Nonlinear Elements (Diodes, JFETs, Lamps)
• Example: Back-to-back Zener diodes in feedback path.
• At low amplitudes, diodes act as open → higher gain (A>3).
• At high amplitudes, diodes conduct → reduce gain (A=3).
Thermal Stabilization (Incandescent Lamp)
• A small lamp in series with 𝑅𝑔 .
• As amplitude increases, lamp heats up → resistance increases → reduces gain.
6. Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
Low distortion sine wave Limited to low/moderate frequencies (<1 MHz)
Tunable frequency (via R or C) Requires amplitude stabilization
Simple and reliable Sensitive to component tolerances
No inductor needed Not suitable for high-frequency RF applications
7. Practical Applications
• Audio signal generators (sine wave testing).
• Frequency-sensitive circuits (filter testing).
• Laboratory function generators.
8. Troubleshooting Tips
No Oscillation?
• Check if gain ≥ 3 (adjust 𝑅𝑓 and 𝑅𝑔 ).
• Verify Wien bridge components (R1, R2, C1, C2).
• Ensure proper power supply to the op-amp.
Distorted Output?
• Adjust amplitude stabilization (diodes, JFET, or lamp).
• Reduce gain slightly (A ≈ 3.1 to avoid clipping).
9. Summary
1
Frequency set by RC network (𝑓 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐶 ).
Minimum gain = 3 (non-inverting op-amp).
Amplitude stabilization required (diodes, lamps, or JFETs).
Best for low-distortion sine waves (audio range).

Hartley, Colpitts, and Crystal Oscillators:

These three oscillator types are widely used in RF and digital circuits, each with unique
advantages. Below is a detailed comparison:
1. Hartley Oscillator
Working Principle
• Uses an inductive voltage divider (tapped inductor) for feedback.
• The tank circuit consists of two inductors (L₁, L₂) and a capacitor (C).
Circuit Diagram
+Vcc
|
L1 (Tapped Coil)
|
C → Output
|
L2
|
Ground

• Transistor/Op-Amp provides amplification.

 • Feedback is taken from the inductor tap.
Frequency Formula
1
𝑓=
2𝜋√(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀)𝐶
(where M = mutual inductance between L₁ and L₂)
Advantages & Disadvantages
Pros Cons
Simple design Requires tapped inductor (harder to tune)
Good for RF applications Sensitive to component tolerances
Low cost Frequency stability lower than crystal

Applications
• Radio transmitters (old designs).
• Local oscillators in receivers.
2. Colpitts Oscillator
Working Principle
• Uses a capacitive voltage divider (C₁, C₂) for feedback.
• The tank circuit consists of one inductor (L) and two capacitors (C₁, C₂).
Circuit Diagram
+Vcc
|
L
|
C1 → Output
|
C2
|
Ground

• Transistor/Op-Amp provides amplification.

• Feedback is taken from the capacitor junction.
Frequency Formula
1
𝑓=
𝐶𝐶
2𝜋√𝐿 (𝐶 1+ 2𝐶 )
1 2
Advantages & Disadvantages
Pros Cons
Easy to tune (variable capacitors) Slightly more complex than Hartley
Better frequency stability Requires two capacitors
Widely used in RF circuits Moderate phase noise

Applications
• VCOs (Voltage-Controlled Oscillators).
• FM radio transmitters.
3. Crystal Oscillator
Working Principle
• Uses a quartz crystal (high-Q resonator) for precise frequency control.
• The crystal behaves like an LC circuit with extremely stable resonance.
Circuit Diagram
+5V
|
Crystal (Xtal)
|
C1 → Output
|
C2
|
Ground

• Pierce oscillator (common CMOS variant).

• Feedback is through the crystal’s piezoelectric effect.
Frequency Formula
𝑓 = Crystal’s resonant frequency (fixed)
Advantages & Disadvantages
Pros Cons
Ultra-stable frequency Fixed frequency (not tunable)
Low phase noise Higher cost than LC oscillators
Used in digital clocks Sensitive to load capacitance

Applications
• Microcontroller clocks (e.g., 16 MHz in Arduino).
• GPS and communication systems.
4. Comparison Table
Parameter Hartley Colpitts Crystal
Feedback Inductive (tapped L) Capacitive (C₁, C₂) Piezoelectric (crystal)
Frequency Stability Moderate Good Excellent
Tunability Yes (adjust L or C) Yes (adjust C₁, C₂) No (fixed)
Cost Low Low High
Phase Noise High Moderate Very Low
Typical Use RF circuits VCOs, FM radios Digital clocks, CPUs

5. Which One to Choose?

• Need tunability? → Colpitts (better than Hartley).
• Ultra-stable frequency? → Crystal Oscillator.
• Low-cost RF application? → Hartley.