MODULE -3

Stack sampling Techniques

Stack sampling or source sampling may be defined as a method of collecting representative

samples of pollutant laden air/gases at the place of origin of pollutants to determine the total amount
of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere from a given source in a given time.
Stack sampling is used for the assessment of the following:
1. To determine the quantity and quality of the pollutant emitted by the source.
2. To measure the efficiency of the control equipment by conducting a survey before and after
installation
3. To determine the effect on the emission due to changes in raw materials and processes.
4. To compare the efficiency of different control equipments for a given condition.
5. To acquire data from an innocuous individual source so as to determine the cumulative effect of
many such sources.
6. To compare with the emission standards in order to assess the need for local control , Source
sampling is carried out in a process ventilation stack to determine the emission rates/or
characteristics of pollutants.
Planning the study:
Familiarity of the process and operations to determine the time of cyclic operations, peak loading
that might cause variations in the characteristics.
 Method of sampling
 Method of analysis of samples
 Sampling time because certain industries undergo cyclic changes
 Amount of sample required
 Sampling frequency

Representative sample: Sample collected must truly represent the conditions prevailing inside the
stack. The important considerations for accurate representative sample collection include:
 Accurate measurement of pressure, moisture, humidity and gas composition
 The selection of suitable locations for sampling
 Determination of the traverse point required for a velocity and temperature profile across the
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cross section of the stack and sampling for particulate matter

 The measurement of the rate of flow of gas or air through the stack
 Selection of suitable sampling train
 Accurate isokinetic sampling rate essential for particulate sampling
 Accurate measurement of weight and volume of samples collected

Selection of Sampling Location The sampling point should be as far as possible from any
disturbing influence, such as elbows. Bends, transition pieces, baffles or other obstructions. The
sampling point, wherever possible should be at a distance 5-10 diameters downstream from any
obstructions and 3-5 diameters up stream from similar disturbances.

Size of sampling point: For collection of samples, an opening has to be made to an extent of
accommodating the probes. The size of sampling point may be made in the range of 7-10 cm, in
diameter. A flange may be riveted so that the opening may be closed during the non-sampling
period. Traverse Point: For the sample to become representative, it should be collected at various
points across the stack. This is essential as there will be changes in velocity and temperature (Hence
the pollutant concentration) across the cross-section of the stack. Traverse points have to be located
to achieve this. These points are to be located at the center of each of a number of equal areas in the
selected cross-section of the stack. The number of traverse point may be selected as per following
guideline:

In circular stacks, traverse points are located at the center of equal annular areas across two
perpendicular diameters.
In case of rectangular stacks, the area may be divided into 12 to 25 equal areas and the center for
each area are fixed. The traverse point should be carried out at least on nine hypothetical squares on

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at least three lines

Sampling System: Stack sampling is carried out by diverting a part of the gas stream through a
sampling “train” of which a general arrangement is shown in fig.
General arrangement of sampling train The train consists of a nozzle placed in the gas stream, a
sampling probe through which the sample is drawn at different traverses, particulate and gas
collection devices, a flow measuring device and a prime mover such as a vacuum pump or an ejector.
Nozzle: It is at the end of the probe is sharp edged, pointing inward from the outside edge and the
traversing probe is made of stainless steel with glass or Teflon lining. For Sampling hot gases whose
temperature are above 4000 C, these probes are provided with a circulating
coolant system to prevent combustion of particulate materials inside the probe and to prevent the
temperature from exceeding the maximum allowable temperature of filtration materials.
Devices: Collection of particulates: Filtration, wet of dry impingement, impaction, electrostatic
and thermal precipitation

Collection of gases: Absorption, adsorption, freeze out Flow measurement: Use rotameter or
orifice meter or dry gas meter if the information on the total volume of the gas sampled is required.
Normally placed after the collection devices and upstream of a vacuum pump so that any leak in the
vacuum pump will not cause errors in the gas volume measurements

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Fig: Sampling Train

STACK SAMPLING: Particulate sampling:

Isokinetic Conditions: The efficiency of the sampling depends on the condition at which sampling
was carried out. The sample collected must be representative like a composite wastewater collection.
This can be achieved by isokinetic sampling. Isokinetic conditions exist when the velocity in the
stack Vs equals the velocity at the top of the probe nozzle Vn at the same point.

Non – isokinetic and isokinetic sampling Isokinetic sampling can be achieved by two ways:
(1) By calculating the point velocity of the free stream with a pitot tube located as near to the
sampling probe as possible without interfering with the free stream and then adjusting the sampling
velocity.

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(2) By using a null type sampling probe

Particulate Matter Sampling

Procedure for particulate matter sampling
1. Determine the gas composition and correct to moisture content.
2. Determine the temperature and velocity at each traverse point.
3. Determine the empty weight of the thimble (W1).
4. Mark out the traverse points on the probe. The marks are normally fixed by tying with
asbestos thread.
5. Check all points for leakages.
6. Determine the flow rate to be sampled under isokinetic condition.
7. Insert the probe at the traverse point 1, very close to the stack. Start the pump and adjust the
flow so that the rotameter reads the predetermined value.
8. Switch ff the pump at the end of sampling time.
9. Read the vacuum at the dry gas meter (DGM) and also the temperature
10. Move the probe to subsequent traverse points by repeating the steps five to eight.
11. After completion of collection of samples, remove the probe and allow it to cool.
12. Remove the thimble carefully. Some of the dust would have adhered to the nozzle. This
should be removed by trapping and transferred to the thimble.
13. Weight the thimble with the sample. The difference in weight gives the dust collected.
14. The volume of sample collected in either given by the dry gas meter (m3) or by sampling rate
given by rotameter multiplied by the sampling time.
15. Hence from (13) and (14), the emission rate can be calculated.
This will be at DGM conditions. This is to be corrected for temperature and pressure so as to
obtain values for standard conditions.

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Fig: Standard Impinger

 Guidelines for determination of PM2.5 in ambient air (Gravimetric Method)

1. Purpose
The purpose of this protocol is to provide guidelines for monitoring and analysis of Particulate
Matter PM2.5 in ambient air.
2.0 Definition

PM2.5 refers to fine particles that are 2.5 micrometers (μm) or smaller in diameter. Ambient air
is defined as any unconfined part of the Earth‟s atmosphere, that the surrounding outdoor air in
which humans and other organisms live and breathe.
FRM – Federal Reference Method
FEM – Federal Equivalent Method

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4.0 Principle
An electrically powered air sampler draws ambient air at a constant volumetric flow rate (16.7
lpm) maintained by a mass flow / volumetric flow controller coupled to a microprocessor into
specially designed inertial particle-size separator (i.e. cyclones or impactors) where the
suspended particulate matter in the PM2.5 size ranges is separated for collection on a 47 mm
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) filter over a specified sampling period. Each filter is weighed
before and after sample collection to determine the net gain due to the particulate matter. The
mass concentration in the ambient air is computed as the total mass of collected particles in the
PM2.5 size ranges divided by the actual volume of air sampled, and is expressed in μg/m3. The
microprocessor reads averages and stores five-minute averages of ambient temperature, ambient
pressure, filter temperature and volumetric flow rate. In addition, the microprocessor calculates
the average temperatures and pressure, total volumetric flow for the entire sample run time and
the coefficient of variation of the flow rate.
5.0 Interferences and Artefacts
The potential effect of body moisture or oils contacting the filters is minimized by using non-
serrated forceps to handle the filters at all times. This measure also moderates interference due to
static electricity. Teflon filters accumulate a surface electrical charge, which may affect filter
weight. Static electricity is controlled by treating filters with a “Static Master” static charge
neutralizer prior to weighing. Placement of filters on a “Static Master” unit is required for a
minimum of 30 seconds before any filter can be weighed. Moisture content can affect filter
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weight. Filters must be equilibrated for a minimum of 24 hours in a controlled environment prior
to pre- and postweighing. The balance room‟s relative humidity must be maintained at a mean
value range of 45 ± 5 % and its air temperature must be maintained at a mean value range of 25.0
± ºC. Airborne particulate can adversely affect accurate mass measurement of the filter. Filters
undergoing conditioning should not be placed within an airflow path created by air conditioning
ductwork, computer printers, or frequently opened doorways. Cleaning laboratory bench-tops.

and weighing areas daily, installing “sticky” floor mats at doorway entrances to the balance room
and wearing clean lab coats over regular clothing can further minimize dust contamination.
5.1 Precision and Accuracy
The performance segment of the PM2.5 FRM specifies strict guidelines for controls that must be
observed, as well as the range of precision and accuracy of those controls. The flow rate through
the instrument is specified as 16.67 lpm (1 m3/hr). This flow must be volumetrically controlled to
a precision of 5% and an accuracy of 2%. The flow control must be upgraded at least every 30
seconds and recorded (logged) every five minutes. Barometric pressure, ambient temperature and
filter temperature should be measured on the same schedule. Filter temperature, it must not
exceed the ambient temperature by more than 5° C for more than 30 minutes. A fan blowing
filtered ambient air through the enclosure provides the necessary cooling effect. It is necessary
for the entire apparatus to provide accurate performance over a temperature range of –20 to 50°
C. The supporting run-time (interval) data, which are stored in detailed 5- minute intervals in the
sampler‟s microprocessor, as well as 24-hour integrated performance (filter) data, must be
capable of being extracted at the completion of a 24-hour run. The FRM mandates the provision
of an RS232 port for this purpose. Data may be extracted to a portable computer.
Mass of the filter deposit, flow rate through the filter, and sampling time have typical precision
of ± 0.2 mg, ± 5%, and ± 30 seconds, respectively. These uncertainties combine to yield a
propagated precision of approximately ± 5 % at 10 μg/m3 and approximately ± 2% at 100 μg/m3.

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6.0 Sitting Requirements

Samplers should be sited to meet the goals of the specific monitoring project. For routine
sampling to determine compliance with the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS),
sampler sitting is described in CPCB guidelines shall apply
The monitoring should be done at outside the zone of influence of sources located within the
designated zone of representation for the monitoring site. Height of the inlet must be 3 – 10 m
above the ground level. And at a suitable distance from any direct pollution source including
traffic. Large nearby buildings and trees extending above the height of the monitor may present
barriers or deposition surfaces for PM. Distance of the sampler to any air flow obstacle i.e.
buildings, must be more than two times the height of the obstacle above the sampler. There
should be unrestricted airflow in three of four quadrants. Certain trees may also be sources of
PM in the form of detritus, pollen, or insect parts. These can be avoided by locating samplers by
placing them > 20 m from nearby trees. If collected sampling has to be performed the minimum
distance between two Samplers should be 2 m.
7.0 Apparatus and Materials
· Sampling equipment designated as FRM (Federal Reference Method) or FEM (Federal
Equivalent Method)
· Certified Flow Transfer Standard for Flow Calibration Following established EPA methods
and procedures, all calibration transfer standards (i.e. temperature, pressure and flow) must be
certified against traceable standards at least once per year. Calibration of these transfer
standards will be conducted by the transfer standard manufacturer.
· Certified Standards for Pressure and Temperature (Optional)
· Electronic microbalance with a minimum resolution of 0.001 mg and a precision of ± 0.001
mg, supplied with a balance pan. The microbalance must be positioned on a vibration-damping
balance support table.

· Calibration weights, utilized as Mass Reference Standards, should be non-corroding, range

in weight from 100 mg to 200 mg, and be certified as traceable to NIST mass standards. The
weights should be ASTM Class 1 category with a tolerance of 0.025 mg.
· Non-serrated forceps for handling filters.

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 Guidelines for sampling and analysis of Sulphur Dioxide in ambient air (Improved
Westand Gaeke method)
1. Purpose
The purpose of this protocol is to provide guidelines for monitoring and analysis of sulphur
dioxide in ambient air.
2. Standard
The national ambient air quality standards for sulphur dioxide is presented in the table

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* Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year, at a

particular site, taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals.
** 24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be
complied with 98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the
limits but not on two consecutive days of monitoring.

3. Principle of the method

Modified West & Gaeke Method (IS 5182 Part 2 Method of Measurement of Air Pollution:
Sulphur dioxide). Sulphur dioxide from air is absorbed in a solution of potassium
tetrachloromercurate (TCM). A dichlorosulphitomercurate complex, which resists oxidation by
the oxygen in the air, is formed. Once formed, this complex is stable to strong oxidants such as
ozone and oxides of nitrogen and therefore, the absorber solution may be stored for some time
prior to analysis. The complex is made to react with para-rosaniline and formaldehyde to form
the intensely coloured pararosaniline methylsulphonic acid. The absorbance of the solution is
measured by means of a suitable spectrophotometer.

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4. Instrument/Equipment
The following items are necessary to perform the monitoring and analysis of nitrogen dioxide in
ambient air:
 Analytical balance:
 Vacuum pump : Capable of maintaining an air pressure differential greater than 0.7
atmosphereat the desired flow rate
 Calibrated flow-measuring device to control the airflow from 0.2 to 1 l/min.
 Absorber: all glass midget impinger
 Spectrophotometer: Capable of measuring absorbance at 560 nm equipped with 1 cm
pathlength cells.
 Glass wares: low actinic glassware must be used for analysis
5. Reagents / Chemicals
All the chemicals should meet specifications of Analytical Reagent grade
 Distilled water
 Mercuric chloride
 Potassium chloride / Sodium chloride
 EDTA di sodium salt
· Absorbing Reagent, 0.04 M Potassium Tetrachloro mercurate (TCM) - Dissolve 10.86 g,
mercuric chloride, 0.066 g EDTA, and 6.0 g potassium chloride or sodium chloride 4.68 gm in
water and bring to the mark in a 1 litre volumetric flask. Caution : highly poisonous if spilled on
skin, flush off with water immediately. The pH of this reagent should be approximately 4.0 but, it
has been shown that there is no appreciable difference in collection efficiency over the range of
pH 5 to pH 3. The absorbing reagent is normally stable for six months. If, a precipitate forms,
discard the reagent after recovering the mercury.
 Sulphamic Acid (0.6%) - Dissolve 0.6 g sulphamic acid in 100 ml distilled water. Prepare
fresh daily.
 Formaldehyde (0.2%) - Dilute 5 ml formaldehyde solution (36-38%) to 1 litre with
distilled water. Prepare fresh daily.
 Purified Pararosaniline Stock Solution (0.2% Nominal) Dissolve 0.500 gm of specially
purifiedpararosaniline (PRA) in 100 ml of distilled water and keep for 2 days (48 hours).

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 Pararosaniline Working Solution - 10 ml of stock PRA is taken in a 250 ml volumetric

flask. Add 15 ml conc. HCL and make up to volume with distilled water.
 Stock Iodine Solution (0.1 N) - Place 12.7 g iodine in a 250 ml beaker, add 40 g potassium
iodide and 25 ml water. Stir until all is dissolved, then dilute to 1 litre with distilled water.
 Iodine Solution (0.01 N) - Prepare approximately 0.01 N iodine solution by diluting 50 ml
of stock solution to 500 ml with distilled water.

 Starch Indicator Solution - Triturate 0.4 gm soluble starch and 0.002 g mercuric iodide
preservative with a little water and add the paste slowly to 200 ml boiling water.
Continueboiling until the solution is clear, cool, and transfer to a glass-stoppered bottle.
 Potassium iodate
 Stock Sodium Thiosulfate Solution (0.1 N) - Prepare a stock solution by placing 25 g
sodium thiosulfate pentahydrate in a beaker, add 0.1 g sodium carbonate and dissolve using
boiled, cooled distilled water making the solution up to a final volume of 1 litre. Allow the
solution to stand one day before standardizing.
To standardize, accurately weigh to the nearest 0.1 mg, 1.5 g primary standard potassium iodate
dried at 180oC, dissolve, and dilute to volume in a 500 ml volumetric flask. Into a 500 ml Iodine
flask, transfer 50 ml of iodate solution by pipette. Add 2 g potassium iodide and 10 ml of N
hydrochloric acid and stopper the flask. After 5 min, titrate with stock thiosulfate solution to a
pale yellow. Add 5 ml starch indicator solution and continue the titration until the blue colour
disappears. Calculate the normality of the stock solution.
 Sodium Thiosulphate Titrant (0.01 N) - Dilute 100 ml of the stock thiosulfate solution to 1
litre with freshly boiled and cooled distilled water.
 Standardized Sulphite Solution for Preparation of Working Sulphite- TCM Solution -
Dissolve
 0.30 g sodium metabisulphite (Na2S2O5) or 0.40g sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) in 500 ml of
recently boiled, cooled, distilled water. Sulphite solution is unstable; it is, therefore,
important to use water of the highest purity to minimize this instability. This solution
contains the equivalent of 320-400 μg/ml of SO2.
 Working Sulphite-TCM Solution - Measure 2 ml of the standard solution into a 100 ml
volumetric flask by pipette and bring to mark with 0.04 M TCM. Calculate the
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concentration of sulphur dioxide in the working solution in micrograms of sulphur dioxide

per millilitre. This solution is stable for 30 days if kept in the refrigerator at 5oC. If not kept
at 5oC, prepare fresh daily.
5. Sampling
Place 30 ml of absorbing solution in an impinger and sample for four hours at the flow rate of 1
L/min. After sampling measure the volume of sample and transfer to a sample storage bottle.
7. Analysis
Replace any water lost by evaporation during sampling by adding distilled water up to the
calibration mark on the absorber. Mix thoroughly, pipette out 10 ml of the collected sample into
a 25 ml volumetric flask. Add 1 ml 0.6% sulphamic acid and allow reacting for 10 minutes to
destroy the nitrite resulting pararosaniline solution and make up to 25 ml with distilled water.
Prepare a blank in the same manner using 10 ml of unexposed absorbing reagent. After a 30 min
colour development interval and before 60 minutes, measure and record the absorbance of
samples and reagent blank at 560 nm. Use distilled water; not the reagent blank, as the optical
reference.

8. Calibration
The actual concentration of the sulphite solution is determined by adding excess iodine and back
titrating with standard sodium thiosulfate solution. To back-titrate, measure, by pipette, 50 ml of
the 0.01 N iodine solution into each of two 500 ml iodine flasks A and B. To flask A (blank) add
25 ml distilled water and into flask B (sample) measure 25 ml sulphite solution by pipette.
Stopper the flasks and allow to react for 5 minutes. Prepare the working sulphite-TCM solution
at the same time iodine solution is added to the flasks. By means of a burette containing
standardized 0.01 N thiosulfate, titrate each flask in turn to a pale yellow. Then add 5 ml starch
solution and continue the titration until the blue colour disappears.
8.1. Preparation of Standards
Measure 0.5 ml, 1.0 ml, 1.5 ml, 2.0 ml, 2.5 ml, 3.0 ml, 3.5 ml and 4.0 ml of working sulphite
TCM solution in 25 ml volumetric flask. Add sufficient TCM solution to each flask to bring the
volume to approximately 10 ml. Then add the remaining reagents as described in the procedure
for analysis. A reagent blank with 10 ml absorbing solution is also prepared. Read the
absorbance of each standard and reagent blank
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8.2. Standard Curve

Plot a curve absorbance (Y axis) versus concentration (X axis). Draw a line of best fit and
determine the slope. The reciprocal of slope gives the calibration factor (CF).
9. Calculation
Concentration of sulphite solution:

Where,
C = SO2 concentration in mg/ml
V1 = Volume of thiosulfate for blank, ml
V2 = Volume of thiosulfate for sample, ml
N = Normality of thiosulfate
K = 32000 (Milliequivalent weight SO2/μg)
V = Volume of standard sulphite solution, ml
C (SO2 μg/m3 )= (As – Ab) x CF x Vs/ Va x Vt
Where,
C SO2 = Concentration of Nitrogen dioxide, μg/m3
As = Absorbance of sample
Ab = Absorbance of reagent blank
CF = Calibration factor
Va = Volume of air sampled, m3
Vs = Volume of sample, ml
Vt = Volume of aliquot taken for analysis, ml
10. Quality Control
Quality Control (QC) is the techniques that are used to fulfill requirements for quality. The QC
procedures for the air sampling and monitoring sections of this protocol include preventative
maintenance of equipment, calibration of equipment, analysis of field blanks and lab blanks.

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 Guidelines for sampling and analysis of Nitrogen Dioxide in ambient air

(Modified Jacob and Hochheiser Method)
1. Purpose
The purpose of this protocol is to provide guidelines for monitoring of nitrogen dioxide in
ambient.
2. Standard
The national ambient air quality standard for nitrogen dioxide is presented in the table:

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3. Principle of the method

Modified Jacobs & Hochheiser Method (IS 5182 Part 6 Methods for Measurement of Air
Pollution: Oxides of nitrogen). Ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is collected by bubbling air
through a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium arsenite. The concentration of nitrite ion
(NO2) produced during sampling is determined colorimetrically by reacting the nitrite ion with
phosphoric acid, sulfanilamide, and N-(1-naphthyl)- ethylenediamine di-hydrochloride (NEDA)
and measuring the absorbance of the highly coloured azo-dye at 540 n m.
4. Instrument/Equipment
The following items are necessary to perform the monitoring and analysis of nitrogen dioxide in
ambient air:
 Analytical balance:
 Vacuum pump: Capable of maintaining a vacuum of at least 0.6 atmospheres across the flow
control device. Flow control device capable of maintaining a constant flow of 200-1000 ml per
minute through the sampling solution
 Calibrated flow measuring device: To control the airflow from 0.2 to 1
l/min.
 Absorber: a midget impinger
 Spectrophotometer: Capable of measuring absorbance at 540 nm equipped with 1 cm path
length cells.
 Glass wares: low actinic glassware must be used for analysis


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5. Reagents / Chemicals
All the chemicals should meet specifications of ACS Analytical Reagent grade
 Distilled water
 Sodium hydroxide
 Sodium Arsenite
 Absorbing solution (Dissolve 4.0 g of sodium hydroxide in distilled water, add 1.0 g of
sodium Arsenite, and dilute to 1,000 ml with distilled water)
 Sulphanilamide - Melting point 165 to 167oC
 N-(1-Naphthyl)-ethylenediamine Di-hydrochloride (NEDA) - A 1% aqueous solution
should have only one absorption peak at 320 nm over the range of 260-400 nm. NEDA
showing more than one absorption peak over this range is impure and should not be used
 Hydrogen Peroxide - 30%
 Phosphoric Acid - 85%

 Sulphanilamide Solution - Dissolve 20 g of sulphanilamide in 700 ml of distilled water.

Add, with mixing, 50 ml of 85% phosphoric acid and dilute to 1,000 ml. This solution is
stable for onemonth, if refrigerated
 NEDA Solution - Dissolve 0.5 g of NEDA in 500 ml of distilled water. This solution is
stable for one month, if refrigerated and protected from light
 Hydrogen Peroxide Solution - Dilute 0.2 ml of 30% hydrogen peroxide to 250 ml with
distilled water. This solution may be used for one month, if, refrigerated and protected from
light
 Sodium nitrite - Assay of 97% NaNO2 or greater
 Sodium Nitrite stock solution (1000 μg NO2/ml)
 Sodium Nitrite solution (10 μg NO2/ml.)
 Sodium Nitrite working solution (1 μg NO2/ml) (Dilute with absorbing reagent, prepare
fresh daily)
6. Sampling
Place 30 ml of absorbing solution in an impinger and sample for four hour at the flow rate of 0.2
to 1 L/min. After sampling measure the volume of sample and transfer to a sample storage bottle.

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7. Analysis
Replace any water lost by evaporation during sampling by adding distilled water up to the
calibration mark on the absorber, mix thoroughly. Pipette out 10 ml of the collected sample into
a 50 ml volumetric flask. Pipette in 1 ml of hydrogen peroxide solution, 10 ml of sulphanilamide
solution, and 1.4 ml of NEDA solution, with thorough mixing after the addition of each reagent
and make up to 50 ml with distilled water. Prepare a blank in the same manner using 10 ml of
unexposed absorbing reagent. After a 10 min colour development interval, measure and record
the absorbance of samples and reagent blank at 540 nm. Use distilled water; not the reagent
blank, as the optical reference Samples with an absorbance greater than 1.0 must be re-analyzed
after diluting an aliquot of the collected samples with an equal quantity of unexposed absorbing
reagent. A randomly selected 5-10% of the samples should be re-analyzed as apart of an internal
quality assurance program.
8. Calibration
8.1. Preparation of Standards
Pipette 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15 and 20 ml of working standard solution in to 50 ml
volumetric flask. Fill to 20 ml mark with absorbing solution. A reagent blank with 10 ml
absorbing solution is also prepared. Add reagents to each volumetric flask as in the procedure for
analysis. Read the absorbance of each standard and reagent blank against distilled water
reference.
8.2. Standard Curve:
Plot a curve absorbance (Y axis) versus concentration (X axis). Draw a line of best fit and
determine the slope. The reciprocal of slope gives the calibration factor (CF).
9. Calculation

Where,
C NO2 = Concentration of Nitrogen dioxide, μg/m3
As = Absorbance of sample
Ab = Absorbance of reagent blank
CF = Calibration factor
Va = Volume of air sampled, m3

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Vs = Volume of sample, ml

Vt = Volume of aliquot taken for analysis, ml

0.82 = Sampling efficiency

10. Quality Control

Quality Control (QC) is the techniques that are used to fulfil requirements for quality. The QC
procedures for the air sampling and monitoring sections of this protocol include preventative
maintenance of equipment, calibration of equipment, analysis of field blanks and lab blanks.

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 Guidelines for sampling and analysis of Particulate Matter (PM10) in ambient

air(Gravimetric Method)
1. Purpose
The purpose of this protocol is to provide guidelines for monitoring and analysis of Particulate
Matter PM10 in ambient air.
2. Standard
The national ambient air quality standards for Particulate Matter PM10 is presented in the table:

3. Principle of the method

Air is drawn through a size-selective inlet and through a 20.3 X 25.4 cm (8 X 10 in) filter at a
flow rate, which is typically 1132 L/min. Particles with aerodynamic diameter less than the cut-
point of the inlet are collected, by the filter. The mass of these particles is determined by the
difference in filter weights prior to and after sampling. The concentration of PM10 in the
designated size range is calculated by dividing the weight gain of the filter by the volume of air
sampled.
4. Instrument/Equipment
The following items are necessary to perform the monitoring and analysis of Particulate Matter
PM10 in ambient air:
 Analytical balance:
 Sampler : High Volume Sampler with size selective inlet for PM10 and automatic volumetric
flow control
 Calibrated flow-measuring device to control the airflow at 1132 l/min.
 Top loading orifice kit
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5. Reagents / Chemicals
Filter Media – A Glass fibre filter of 20.3 X 25.4 cm (8 X 10 in) size
6. Sampling
Field Sampling - Tilt back the inlet and secure it according to manufacturer's instructions.
Loosen the faceplate wing nuts and remove the faceplate.
Remove the filter from its jacket and centre it on the support screen with the rough side of the
filter facing upwards. Replace the faceplate and tighten the wing nuts to secure the rubber gasket
against the filter edge. Gently lower the inlet. For automatically flow-controlled units, record the
designated flow rate on the data sheet. Record the reading of the elapsed time meter. The specified
length of sampling is commonly 8 hours or 24 hours. During this period, several reading (hourly)
of flow rate should be taken. After the required time of sampling, record the flow meter reading,
take out the filter media from the sampler, and put in a container orenvelope.

7. Analysis
Filter inspection: Inspect the filter for pin holes using a light table. Loose particles should be
removed with a soft brush. Apply the filter identification number or a code to the filter if it is not
a numbered. Condition the filter in conditioning room maintained within 20-30° C and 40-50%
relative humidity or in an airtight desiccator for 24 hours. Take initial weight of the filter paper
(Wi) before sampling. Condition the filter after sampling in conditioning room maintained within
20-30° C and 40-50% relative humidity or in an airtight desiccator for 24 hours. Take final
weight of the filter paper (Wf)

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8. Calibration
Periodical calibration of the sampler is being done by Orifice Transfer Standard
- The PM10 sampler calibration orifice consists of a 3.175 cm (1.25 in) diameter hole in the end
cap of 7.62 cm (3 in) diameter by 20.3 cm (8 in) long hollow metal cylinder. This orifice is
mounted tightly to the filter support in place of the inlet during calibration. A small tap on the
side of the cylinder is provided to measure the pressure drop across the orifice. A flow rate of
1132 L/min through the orifice typically results in a pressure difference of several inches of
water. The relationship between pressure difference and flow rate is established via a calibration
curve derived from measurements against a primary standard such as a Roots meter at standard
temperature and pressure. Flow resistances that simulate filter resistances are introduced at the
end of the calibrator opposite the orifice by a set of perforated circular disks.

9. Calculation

Where,
C PM10 = Concentration of Nitrogen dioxide, μg/m3
Wf = Initial weight of filter in g
Wi = Initial weight of filter in g
106 = Conversion of g to μg
V = Volume of air sampled, m3

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10. Quality Control
Quality Control (QC) is the techniques that are used to fulfill requirements for quality. The QC
procedures for the air sampling and monitoring sections of this protocol include preventative
maintenance of equipment, calibration of equipment, analysis of field blanks and lab blanks.

 AIR POLLUTION MODELS AND STACK EFFLUENT DISPERSION

THEORIES
AIR POLLUTION MODEL: Models give answers to many questions conserving pollution and are
an important tool for making decisions concerning air pollution. The fundamental of all pollution
modeling is to calculate air concentrations of one (or) more pollutants in space and time as related to
the independent variables such as emissions into the atmosphere, the meteorological variables and
parameters which describe removal and transformation process. This is achieved by a system which
quantitatively relates the concentrations of pollutions to other parameters by mathematical or
physical methods such as procedure is called the MODEL.
The selection of appropriate model depends upon their use and purpose. An ideal model should be
physically realistic and accurate suitable for various Meteorological and topographical conditions,
suitable for various emission sources and suitable for various air pollution species. But unfortunately
an ideal model does not exist. Also a universal model will not be easy to use efficiently, that is why
each model is a comprises between accuracy and practicality, simplicity and sophistication.
VARIOUS TYPES OF MODELS:
Models are developed to address various atmospheric problems. The variety of existing models may
be classified according to the different attributes of a model. The models are
 Eularian grid Model
 Lagrangian Trajectory Model
 Guassian Plume Model

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GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL

There are several models available for predicting the concentrations downwind of a single
source, but most of them are Numerical methods. However under a set of simplifying
assumptions the analytical solutions can be obtained. The first formulation for the steady state
concentration downwind from a continuous point source was presented by SUTTON and further
developed by PASQUILL AND GIFFORD. This solution is commonly known a GAUSSIAN
PLUME MODEL. The concentration distribution perpendicular to the plume axis is assumed to
be Gaussian
Consider a continuous point source located at x-y=o and at a height Z-H. A description of the
pollutant concentration (ga) could be facilitated by assuming that all the pollutants are reflected
an image source of equal strength at x=y=o and Z= -H. in this method, known as the method of
images, the solutions of both the Real and image sources are added together. The resultant
equation for pollutant concentration at a selected location (x,y,z) in the three dimensional filed
downwind of the elevated point source is given by

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Figure: Schematic figure of a Gaussian plume.

Three common forms obtained from the basic equation are frequently used to
analyze specificsituations.

EQUATION: Consists of three terms representing

1) The center line concentration as a function of downwind distance

2) The lateral spread relative to the centre line value
3) The vertical spread relative to the centre line value

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A. GROUND LEVEL CONCENTRATION: (GLC)

In this case Z = O and cgn.1 reduces to in the above equation, the factor „Z‟ does not
appear in the denominator, it gets cancelled when the two vertical exponential terms are
combined.

B. GROUND LEVEL CENTER-LINE CONCENTRATION (GLCC)

In this case Z=0 and Y = 0

Equation 3 is used to estimate the ground level concentrations expected at any distance
downwind of an elevated source.

In case the emission source is also at the G.L. i.e H=0, eqn 3 Further simplifies to,

Equation (4) represents the maximum GLC – expected at any distance downwind from
an emission source which is at the S.L

Consider a point source somewhere in the air where a pollutant is released at a constant
rate Q (kg/s). The wind is blowing continuously in a direction x (measured in metres
from the source) with a speed U (m/s). The plume spreads as it moves in the x direction
such that the local concentrations C(x,y,z) (kg/m3 ) at any point in space form
distributions which have shapes that are “Gaussian” or “normal” in planes normal to the
x direction.

The Gaussian dispersion equation can be written as:

……1

For a receptor at the ground surface, or a source located at the ground (z=0), the previous equation

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reduces

to:

……2
In analyzing the Gaussian plume model, the following assumptions are usually made:

1) Continuous emission and negligible diffusion in the direction of travel.

2) The material diffused is a stable gas or aerosol, with a negligible deposition rate
3) Mass is conserved through reflection at surfaces.
4) Background pollution is negligible.
5) Steady-state conditions.
6) Constant wind speed and direction with time and elevation.
7) Negligible wind shear effect on horizontal diffusion.
8) The dispersion parameters are assumed to be functions of x (and hence u alone).
9) The terrain is relatively flat, open country.

The ground-level concentrations directly downwind are of interest, since pollution

concentration will be highest along that axis. With y = 0, equation (2) will be simplified
to the following downwind ground level form:

………… (3)
Using equation (3), the effect of variations in the key parameters (atmospheric stability,
wind speed, ambient temperature, stack height, gas exit velocity, and gas exit
temperature) on the ground concentrations are calculated and shown as a composite
plot.

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INFINITE LINE SOURCE:

An infinite line source can often be represented by a series of industries located

along a river or by a road along which pollution is continuously emitted by heavy
traffic. It is thus spatially extended and the direction of the wind with respect to the
geometry of the source will

influence the downward concentration of the pollutants. When the wind direction is
normal to the line of emission, the ELC downwind (x) of a source emitting at a
height „H‟ is given by

Where,
„Q1‟ = source strength/unit distance
If the source is also at the G.L then eqn-6 can be further simplified

 The plume has a Gaussian distribution in both horizontal and vertical places, with „Jy‟ and
„J2‟ as the standard deviation of the concentrations of the plume in horizontal cross wind
and vertical directions irrespectively
 The mean speed affecting the plume is „u‟ which is the wind speed at the source level

i.e. at the point where dispersion starts.

 Uniform and continuous emission of „Q‟ of pollutant takes place.

 Diffusion of pollutant in „x‟ direction is negligible compared to diffusion in cross wind

direction. This B +ve if emission is continuous and if wind speed is more than1m/sec
 Parameters governing the diffusion of the pollutant do not change in space and time is
steady state conditions prevail.
 The terrain underlying the plume is flat

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ASSUMPTIONS OF GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL

 Mass transfer due to bulk motion in x-direction far out shadows the contribution due to
mass diffusion. That is the second term on the right side of Equation is far smaller than
the first term and may be dropped from the equation
 We are primarily interested in the steady-state solution to the dispersion of the pollutants
in the atmosphere. Hence the quantity is zero
 Even though the wind speed does vary in the three coordinate directions, the variation is
relatively small. Therefore it is appropriate to assume that the wind speed U is constant
 The major transport direction due to the wind is chosen to lie along the x-axis Dx, Dy and
Dz are constant.

LIMITATIONS OF GAUSSIAN PLUME MODEL

 It does not consider the existence of various stability layers at different heights in the
atmosphere.

 It does not consider the change in stability characteristics with time.

 It does not consider the terrain characteristics such as terrain roughness, existence of
mountains and valleys, distribution of land and water masses, etc

 It does not consider the existence of free concentration regions and strong wind
shears like change of wind directions and change of wind speed with height

 It can be applied only for shorter distances (up to 10 km) and of shorter travel time
(order of 2 hrs). The model is most accurate for downwind distances between
approximately 100 and 2000m

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