APC MODULE 2: METEOROLOGY

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY AND TEMPERATURE

INVERSIONS LAPSE RATE:

In well mixed air which is dry for every 100m MCI case in altitude, the
temperature decreases by about 1o C. This vertical temperature gradient is known as dry
adiabatic lapse rate (DALR). Ambient and adiabatic lapse rates are a measure of
atmospheric stability. Since the stability of the air reflects the susceptibility of rising air
parcel to vertical motion, consideration of atmospheric stability or instability is essential in
establishing the dispersion rate of pollutants.
The atmospheric is said to be unstable as long as a rising parcel of air remains
warmer than the surrounding air.

Conversely, when a rising parcel of air arrives at an altitude in a colder and denser state
than the surrounding air, the resultant downward buoyancy force pushes the parcel of air
downward (Earthward) and away from the direction of displacement. Under such
conditions atmosphere is said Stability is a function of vertical distribution of atmospheric
temperature and plotting the ambient lapse rate can give an indication of the stability of the
atmosphere. Though dry, moist or wet adiabatic lapse rate may be used, in such a
comparison, the DALR issued as the measure against which several possible ambient lapse
rates are plotted. Thus the boundary line between the stability and instability is DALR
When ALR exceeds DALR, the ALR is said to be SUPER – ADIABTIC and the
atmosphere is highly unstable. When the two lapse rate are exactly equal, the atmosphere
is said to be neutral. When the ALR is less than the DALR, the ALR is termed SUB-
ADIABATIC and the atmosphere is stable. If air temperature is constant throughout a
layer of atmospheric, ALR
=O, the atmospheric layer is described as isothermal and the atmosphere is stable.
When temperature of the ambient air increases rather than decrease with attitude,
the lapse rate is negative or inverted from the normal state. Negative lapse rate occurs
under conditions, commonly referred to as an INVERSION, a state in which warmer air
blankets colder air.

INVERSIONS:
When the reverse or negative lapse rate occurs, a dense cold stratum of air at
ground level gets covered by lighter warmer air at higher level, This phenomena is known
as INVERSION. During inversion vertical air movement is stopped and pollution will be

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concentrated beneath the inversion layer i.e. in the denser air at ground level. As a result,
during temperature inversion, the atmospheric is stable and very little turbulence or mixing
takes place under such conditions pollutants in the air do not disperse.
Inversion is a frequent occurrence in the autumn and winter months and the
accumulation of smoke and other contaminants further aggravates pollution by preventing
the sunrays from warming the ground and adjacent air. Fog is commonly associated with
inversions, narrow valleys are favourable to inversions. The horizontal air movement is
restricted. At the time of inversions, visibility is greatly reduced and contaminants are at a
maximum. Inversion occurs when dT/dz is +ve, when n < 1 i.e. when the temperature of
atmosphere increase with elevation instead of decreasing.

TYPES OF INVERSION
1. Radiation inversion
 This type of inversion occurs at night, when the earth loses heat by radiation and cools
the air in contact with it.
 It occurs when the vertical movement of air is stopped until the sun warms the lower
air, next morning.
 Fog forms in this type of inversion if air is moist and temperature is below the dew
point
 It is common in winter due to longer nights
 It frequently occurs in valley areas because of the restriction of horizontal air
movement by surrounding high ground, may frequently have such inversions.

2. Subsidence inversion

 This type of inversion occurs at modest altitudes and remains for several days
 It is caused due to sinking of air in high pressure areas surrounded by low pressure
areas
 As the air sinks, it is compressed and gets heated to form a warm dense layer that
prevents upward movement of contaminants
 Inversion height varies from ground layer to a height of 1600 m.
 At inversion height of 200 m, extreme pollution occurs.
 If radiation and subsidence inversion occur simultaneously, the phenomenon is called
"double inversion".

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 APC MODULE 2: METEOROLOGY
INVERSIONS LAPSE RATE:
In well mixed air which is dry for every 100m rise in altitude, the temperature
decreases by about 1o C. This vertical temperature gradient is known as dry adiabatic lapse
rate (DALR). Ambient and adiabatic lapse rates are a measure of atmospheric stability.
Since the stability of the air reflects the susceptibility of rising air parcel to vertical motion,
consideration of atmospheric stability or instability is essential in establishing the
dispersion rate of pollutants.
The atmospheric is said to be unstable as long as a rising parcel of air remains
warmer than the surrounding air.

Conversely, when a rising parcel of air arrives at an altitude in a colder and denser state than the
surrounding air, the resultant downward buoyancy force pushes the parcel of air downward
(Earthward) and away from the direction of displacement. Under such conditions atmosphere is said
to be stable.

Stability is a function of vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature and plotting the

ambient lapse rate can give an indication of the stability of the atmosphere. Though dry,
moist or wet adiabatic lapse rate may be used, in such a comparison, the DALR issued as the
measure against which several possible ambient lapse rates are plotted. Thus the boundary
line between the stability and instability is DALR
 When Environmental lapse rate(ELR) exceeds DALR, the ELR is said to be SUPER
– ADIABTIC and the atmosphere is highly unstable.
 When the two lapse rate are exactly equal, the atmosphere is said to be neutral.
When the ELR is less than the DALR, the ELR is termed SUB-ADIABATIC and the
atmosphere is stable.
 If air temperature is constant throughout a layer of atmospheric, ELR=O, the
atmospheric layer is described as isothermal and the atmosphere is stable.
 When temperature of the ambient air increases rather than decrease with attitude, the
lapse rate is negative or inverted from the normal state. Negative lapse rate occurs
under conditions, commonly referred to as an INVERSION, a state in which warmer
air blankets colder air.

Environmental Lapse Rate(ELR):It is The rate at which the air

temperature changes with height in the atmosphere surrounding a cloud or a rising
parcel of air.

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Vertical Temperature Profiles

 Environmental lapse rate (ELR)

 Dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)

If,

 ELR > DALR =sub adiabatic condition, atmosphere is stable.

 ELR >> DALR= Inversion conditions. Very stable atmosphere.

 ELR= DALR= atmosphere is neutral.

 ELR< DALR = super adiabatic condition, atmosphere is unstable.

Shapes of plumes depends upon atmospheric stability conditions.

PLUME BEHAVIOUR:
Plume refers to the path and extent in the atmosphere of the gaseous effluents – released
from a source usually a stack (chimney)

The behavior of a plume emitted from any stack depends on localized air stability. The
Geometric forms of stack plumes are a function of the vertical temperature and wind
profiles, vice versa, by looking at the plume one can state stability condition and dispersive
capacity of atmosphere. The behavior and dispersion of a plume entirely depend on the
environmental lapse rate (ELR).

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Effluents from town stacks are often injected to an effective height of several 100m above
ground because of the cumulative effects of buoyancy and velocity on plume rise other
factors influencing the flume behavior are the diurnal (seasonal) variations in the atmospheric
stability and the long term variations which occur with change in seasons

Seven types of plume behavior are shown in the figure below, the spread of the plume is
directly related to the vertical temperature gradient as shown in the figure.
i) Looping
ii) Coning
iii) Fanning
iv) Lofting
v) Fumigation
vi) Trapping
vii) Neutral

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LOOPING:
It is a type of plume which has a wavy character. It occurs in a highly unstable atmosphere
because of rapid mixing. The high degree of turbulence helps in dispersing the plume
rapidly but high concentrations may occur close to the stack if the plume touches the
ground.

High degree of convective turbulence ,Super adiabatic lapse rate -strong instabilities

• Associated with clear daytime conditions accompanied by strong solar heating & light
winds

• High probability of high concentrations at ground level close to stack.

• Occurs in unstable atmospheric conditions

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CONING:
It is a type of plume which is shaped like a CONE. This takes place in a near neutral
atmosphere, when the wind velocity is greater than 32 km/hr. However the plume reaches
the ground at greater distances than with loping.

• Stable with small-scale turbulence

• Associated with overcast moderate to strong winds

• Roughly 10° cone

• Pollutants travel fairly long distances before reaching ground level in significant
amounts

• Occurs in neutral atmospheric conditions

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FANNING:
It is a type of plume emitted under extreme inversion conditions. the plume under these
condition will spread horizontally, but little if at all vertically. Therefore the prediction of
ground level concentration (SLC) is difficult here.

• Occurs under large negative lapse rate

• Strong inversion at a considerable distance above the stack

• Extremely stable atmosphere

• Little turbulence

• If plume density is similar to air, travels downwind at approximately same elevation

LOFTING:
Lofting occurs when there is a strong lapse rate above a surface inversion. under this
condition, diffusion is rapid upwards, but downward diffusion does not penetrate the
inversion layer under these conditions, emission will not reach surface.

• Favorable in the sense that fewer impacts at ground level.

• Pollutants go up into environment.

• They are created when atmospheric conditions are unstable above the plume and
stable below.

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FUMIGATION:
It is a phenomenon in which pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere are brought
rapidly to the ground level when the air destabilizes.

• Most dangerous plume: contaminants are all coming down to ground level.

• They are created when atmospheric conditions are stable above the plume and
unstable below.

This happens most often after the daylight sun has warmed the atmosphere, which turns a
night time fanning plume into fumigation for about a half an hour

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TRAPPING:
This refers to conditions where the plume is caught between inversion and can only diffuse
within a limited vertical height.

The lofting plume is most favorable air to minimizing air pollution. The fumigation and
trapping plumes are very critical from the points of ground level pollutant concentrations.
When inversion exists both below and above stack height, trapping results The diffusion of
pollutant is severely restricted to the layer between the two stable regions as shown in the
figure

7. Neutral Plume
It tend to rise vertically until it reaches air density similar to that of plume itself. It is often
converted to coning wind velocity is greater than 10 m/sec and when cloud cover blocks
solar radiation.

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 APC MODULE 2: METEOROLOGY

MEASUREMENT OF METEOROLOGICAL VARIABLES

Synoptic Observations:
Synoptic observations should be representative of an area up to 100 km around the station.
The scale ranges of measurements are as follows:
(a) Microscale (less than 100 m) for agricultural meteorology, for example, evaporation;
(b) Toposcale or local scale (100–3 km), for example, air pollution, tornadoes;
(c) Mesoscale (3–100 km), for example, thunderstorms, sea and mountain breezes;
(d) Large scale (100–3 000 km), for example, fronts, various cyclones, cloud clusters;
Automatic weather stations
 Most of the elements required for synoptic, climatological or aeronautical purposes
can be measured by automatic instrumentation.
 Meteorological observing stations are designed so that the representative
measurements (or observations) can be taken according to the type of the station
involved
Measurement of temperature:
 For meteorological purposes, temperatures are measured for a number of media.
 The most common variable measured is the atmospheric temperature (at various
heights).
 Other variables to be measured are the temperature of the ground, soil, grass
minimum and seawater.
 The thermodynamic temperature (T), with units of Kelvin (K), (also defined as
―Kelvin temperature‖), is the basic temperature variable.
 The temperature (t), in degrees Celsius (or ―Celsius temperature‖) is used for most
meteorological Purposes.
Meteorological requirements for temperature measurements primarily relate to the
following:
(a) The air near the Earth’s surface
(b) The surface of the ground
(c) The soil at various depths
(d) The surface levels of the sea and lakes and
(e) The upper air.
 These measurements are required, either jointly or independently and locally or
globally, for input to numerical weather prediction models, for hydrological and

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agricultural purposes, and as indicators of climatic variability
 Local temperature also has direct physiological significance for the day-to-day
activities of the world’s population.
 Measurements of temperature may be required as continuous records or may be
sampled at different time intervals.
For climate studies in particular, the temperature measurements are affected
1. By the state of the surroundings,
2. By vegetation,
3. By the presence of buildings and other objects,
4. By ground cover,
5. By the condition of, and changes in, the design of the radiation shield or screen,
and
6. By other changes in equipment.
It is important that the records should be kept not only of the temperature data, but also of
the circumstances in which the measurements are taken.
Such information is known as metadata (data about data).
The major equipments used are:
1. Thermometers
2. Liquid-in-glass thermometers
3. Ordinary thermometers= mercury-in-glass-type thermometer
4. Meteorological thermometers and
5. Radiometric thermometers.
Measuring grass minimum temperatures:
The grass minimum temperature is the lowest temperature reached overnight by a
thermometer freely exposed to the sky just above short grass. The temperature is measured
with a minimum thermometer.
Electrical resistance thermometers:
Resistance thermometers, also called as resistance temperature detectors (RTDs), are
sensors used to measure temperature.
Thermometer exposure and siting
Radiation from the sun, clouds, the ground and other surrounding objects passes through
the air without appreciably changing its temperature, but a thermometer exposed freely in
the open air can absorb considerable radiation and display the values.

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Measurement of atmospheric pressure
 The atmospheric pressure on a given surface is the force per unit area exerted by
virtue of the weight of the atmosphere above. The pressure is thus equal to the
weight of a vertical column of air above a horizontal projection of the surface,
extending to the outer limit of the atmosphere
 The basic unit for atmospheric pressure measurements is the Pascal (Pa) (or
Newton per square metre).
 Some barometers are graduated in ―millimetres or inches of mercury under
standard conditions‖.
 Analysed pressure fields are a fundamental requirement of the science of
meteorology
 For meteorological purposes, atmospheric pressure is generally measured with
electronic barometers, mercury barometers, aneroid barometers or hypsometers.
Mercury barometers /Electronic barometers
A barometer is the instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. Pressure tendency
can forecast short term changes in the weather.
Aneroid displacement transducers
The aneroid displacement transducer contains a sensor with electrical properties (resistance
or capacitance) that changes as the atmospheric pressure changes.
Digital piezoresistive barometers
 Today’s mostly preferred pressure sensor is the piezoresistive sensor.
 It is cheap, and still delivers a good result.
 But it has drawbacks—significant power requirements, low output signal, large
offset, and temperature dependence.
 Many sensors are therefore internally compensated for temperature effects
Cylindrical resonator barometers
A cylindrical resonator barometer (or vibrating cylinder air-pressure transducer) is
designed to measure absolute air pressure using the vibrating element principle, providing
a frequency output from which pressure is computed.
Aneroid barometers
Aneroid barometers have lower accuracy than mercury barometers.
These are compact and portable equipments.
Aneroid barometers are easier to handle and use, and are suitable for self-recording

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Bourdon-tube barometers
Bourdon Tubes are known for its very high range of differential pressure measurement in
the range of almost 100,000 psi (700 MPa). It is an elastic type pressure transducer.
Bourdon-tube barometers usually consist of a sensor element
Automatic digital barometers
 Automatic digital barometers make use of a combination of sensor and
microprocessor techniques.
 In fact these instruments are composed of sensors, transducers, a micro-processor
and digital electronics.
 Electrical signals generated by the pressure sensor(s) are interpreted by the micro-
processor using a more or less sophisticated algorithm
 The outcome of most of the sensors, however, is temperature dependent.
 So inside most of the devices the temperature of the pressure sensor is determined
by a temperature sensor.
Measurement of humidity:
The measurement of atmospheric humidity, and often its continuous recording, is an
important requirement in most areas of meteorological activity.
The most frequently used quantities in humidity measurements are as follows:
Mixing ratio:
It is the ratio between the mass of water vapour and the mass of dry air.
Specific humidity:
The ratio between the mass of water vapour and the mass of moist air.
Dew point temperature :
The temperature at which moist air saturated with respect to water at a given pressure has a
saturation mixing ratio equal to the given mixing ratio.
Relative humidity:
The ratio in per cent of the observed vapour pressure to the saturation vapour pressure with
respect to water at the same temperature and pressure.
Vapour pressure:
The partial pressure of water vapour in air.
Saturation vapour pressures:
Vapour pressures in air in equilibrium with the surface of water and ice, respectively

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Humidity measurements
Humidity measurements at the Earth’s surface are required for meteorological analysis and
forecasting, for climate studies, and for many special applications in hydrology,
agriculture, aeronautical services and environmental studies, in general.They are
particularly important because of their relevance to the changes of state of water in the
atmosphere.
Hygrometers
Any instrument used for measuring the atmospheric humidity is known as a hygrometer.
A hygrometer is an instrument used for measuring the moisture content in the atmosphere
Humidity measurement instruments usually rely on measurements of some other quantity
such as temperature, pressure, mass or a mechanical or electrical change in a substance as
moisture is absorbed.
Gravimetric hygrometry
This method uses the absorption of water vapour by a desiccant from a known volume of
air. The gravimetric hygrometer is used for this purpose.
The psychometric method
The measurement of atmospheric humidity is an important requirement in most of the
areas of meteorological studies. Psychometric is defined as the measurement of the
moisture content of air. Nowadays many humidity measuring devices are available.
Sorption methods
Certain materials interact with water vapour and undergo a change in a chemical or
physical property that is sufficiently reversible for use as a sensor of ambient humidity.
Absorption of electromagnetic radiation by water vapour (ultraviolet and infrared
absorption hygrometers) is used for this measurement purpose.
Measurement of surface wind :
Wind velocity is a three-dimensional vector quantity with small-scale random fluctuations
in space and time.
Wind observations or measurements are required
a. for weather monitoring and forecasting,
b. for wind-load climatology, for probability of wind damage and
c. for the estimation of wind energy, and as part of the estimation of surface fluxes.
For nearly all applications, it is necessary to measure the averages of wind speed and
direction.

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 Wind speed should be reported to a resolution of 0.5 meters per second or in knots
(0.515 meter per second) to the nearest unit for every 10 min.
 Averages over a shorter period are necessary for certain aeronautical purposes.
 Wind direction should be reported in degrees to the nearest 10°.
Methods of measurement and observation
Surface wind is usually measured by a wind vane and cup or propeller anemometer.
Simple hand-held anemometers are available for this purpose.
Cup and propeller sensors are commonly used for this measurement. these are called as
wind vanes. For the purpose of obtaining a satisfactory measurement, a wind vane will be
suitable.
Other wind sensors:
A lot of wind sensors are used for this purpose. some of them include:
1. Pitot tube anemometers
2. Sonic anemometers Hot-disc anemometers are recently developed solid-state
instruments
3. Hot-wire anemometers
4. Remote wind-sensing techniques with sound (sodar), light (lidar) or
electromagnetic waves (radar).
Anemometers over land:
a. The standard exposure of wind instruments over a levelled open terrain is 10 m
above the ground.
b. Open terrain is defined as an area where the distance between the anemometer and
any obstruction is at least 10 times the height of the obstruction.
c. Two aspects are very important.
d. First, the sensors should be kept away from local obstructions as much as possible.
Secondly, the local situation should be well documented.
e. There should at least be a map of the station surroundings within a radius of 2 km,
documenting obstacle and vegetation locations and height, terrain elevation
changes, and so forth.
Anemometers at sea:
There is an increasing requirement for instrumental measurements of wind over the sea,
especially by means of automatic unattended systems.

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Measurement of precipitation:
Precipitation is defined as the liquid or solid products of the condensation of water vapour
falling from clouds or deposited from air onto the ground. It includes rain, hail, snow, dew,
sleet, frost and fog precipitation.
Measurement of ice accumulation
Ice on pavements:
Sensors have been developed and are in operation to detect and describe ice on roads and
runways, and to support warning and maintenance programmes.
Measurement of fog precipitation
Fog consists of minute water droplets suspended in the atmosphere to form a cloud at the
Earth’s surface.
Measurement of snowfall and snow cover
Snowfall depth:
Depth measurements of snow cover or snow accumulated on the ground are taken with a
snow ruler or similar graduated rod which is pushed down through the snow to the ground
surface.
Snow gauges measure snowfall water equivalent directly
Snow pillows:
Snow pillows of various dimensions and materials are used to measure the weight of the
snow that accumulates on the pillow.

WINDROSE DIAGRAM:
It is defined as any one of a class of diagrams designed to show the distribution of wind
direction experienced at a given location over a considerable period. In other words the
wind rose shows the prevailing direction of the wind
The most common form consists of a circle from which eight or sixteen lines
Cinergy, one for each direction. The length of each line is proportional to the frequency
calm conditions is centered in the centre. There are many variations in the construction of
wind roses.
The wind rose diagram is prepared using an appropriate scale to represent
percentage frequencies of wind directions and appropriate index shades, lines etc… to
represent various wind speeds observation corresponding to wind speed below 1 lm/hr are
recorded as CALM.

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There are 2 types of Windrose diagrams

Type-1: It indicates wind speed and direction but not intensity and this method is not so
accurate .Radial lines here indicate wind direction , frequency of the wind is marked on
radial lines to a scale and then are joined by straight line

Figure: Type 1 Windrose

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Type-2: This type of windroses provide wind direction, duration and intensity. The circle
represents the wind velocity, radial line represents the wind direction and the segment
indicates the percentage of frequency . The circle in the center indicates the calm period.

Figure: Windrose Diagram Type 2

USES OF WINDROSE DIAGRAM

 Wind Rose is a clever way of analyzing data that is related to wind direction.
 Not only is Wind Rose perfect to plot the classical Wind Rose, e.g. wind speed
against wind direction, but actually any sensor against wind direction.
 As an example, check where from the precipitation is coming, or air temperature or
air humidity, or where from the ambient pollution is coming from, like Dust, NO,
NOx, SO2, H2O etc.

PLUME RISE

 Initial phase
 Vertical Jet : Effluents are not deflected immediately upon entering the cross
flow if (Vs / U > 4 )
 Bent-Over Jet Section : Entrainment of the cross flow is rapid because by this

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time appreciable growth of vortices has taken place.
 Thermal Section : Self generated turbulence causes mixing and determines the
growth of plume.

 Transition phase

 Plume's internal turbulence levels have dropped enough so that the

atmospheric eddies in the inertial sub range determines the plume's growth.

 Diffusion phase

 The plume's own turbulence has dropped and energy containing eddies of
atmospheric turbulence determine the growth of plume.

EFFECTIVE STACK HEIGHT (H):

The effective stack height is the sum of the actual physical height of the top of the stack, plus
any plume rise due to buoyancy or initial momentum (inertia) of the rising effluent, minus
any downwash such as stack downwash, building downwash, or terrain downwash. The
downwashes are associated with wake turbulence behind objects on the ground.

BUOYANT PLUMES: Influence of buoyancy is greater than the vertical momentum. This
condition can be expected when T>500 C, than the ambient atmospheric temperature.
MAXIMUM MIXING DEPTH (MMD)
Once air pollutants are reloaded into the atmosphere, their subsequent fate i.e
dispersion is entirely dependent on the weather conditions. The Vertical extent to which the
mixing takes place varies from season to season, and is also affected by topographical
features. The rate of the vertical extent, the larger the volume of the atmosphere available to
dilute the pollutant concentration, thermal buoyancy effects determine the depth, the
corrective mixing layer which is called MAXM MIXING DEPTH (MMD). The MMD
values available as an average for a period of one month are known as MEAN MAXM
MIXING DEPTH (MMMD)

The values of the MMD are usually low at night and increase during the day light hours,
under a severe inversion at night, the value may be essentially zero, while values up to 2000
and 5000m are common in the day time. On a seasonal basis the MMMD is at a minimum in
the winter (December and January) and at a maximum during the summer (May and June). It

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has been noted that extensive urban air pollution episodes frequently occur, when the MMD
value is less than 1500m. before locating an industry. It should be seen that MMD values are
not less than 2000m

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