INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL AND

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING.

LECTURE NOTES.

1
Course Outline

1. Historical background present status, future challenges both globally and locally
2. Engineering ethics, integrity and professional responsibility

3. Uganda Inst i t ut e of Professional Engineers (UIPE) and the Engineering

Registration Board (ERB).

4. The S c i e n t i f i c Method, concepts of a n a l y s i s , d e s i g n a n d c o m p u t a t i o n a l

approaches
5. Experiments, Interpretation of results and Decisions making

2
 CHAPTER ONE

THEN, NOW AND TOMORROW

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the construction
and design of public and private sector works such as bridges, roads, dams and
buildings. Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering,
and it was defined to distinguish it from military engineering. It is traditionally broken into
several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering,
structural engineering, transportation engineering, water resources engineering, materials
engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, urban planning and construction engineering.

1.2 HISTORY OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Engineering has been an aspect of life since the beginning of human existence. Civil
engineering might be considered properly commencing between 4000 and 2000 BC in
Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia when humans started to abandon a nomadic existence,
thus causing a need for the construction of shelter. During this time, transportation
became increasingly important leading to the development of the wheel and sailing. The
construction of Pyramids in Egypt (circa 2700 – 2500BC) might be considered the first
instances of large structure construction.

In ancient times, engineers were typically referred to as architects or master builders. In

the 18the Century, the term civil engineering was first used to recognize it as a separate
field from military engineering. Civil engineering, like military, emerged in large part from
the employments of Renaissance Architects. Many Renaissance cities and regional princes

3
 engaged an architect-engineer to oversee the construction of all public works, including
defensive structures, bridges and maintenance of roads and waterways. Well into the
eighteenth century, a number of engineers maintained versatile skills in both military
and civil engineering, although men of more specialized backgrounds, such as surveyors,
millwrights, and drainage engineers, always added expertise in the construction of public
works and often fashioned themselves a more broadly as engineers. Mathematicians, too,
consulted on engineering works and helped develop the relationship between engineering
and the emerging sciences of mechanics and hydrology. The rise of absolutism combined
with growing capital interests to fund a broad range of city-planning, communication, and
above all, water-management programs. Civil; engineers were those experts who rose to
the challenges and the perquisites these projects offered.

The first self-proclaimed civil engineer was John Smeaton (1724 – 1792) who constructed
the Eddystone Lighthouse. Although he was trained, as were many engineers as a millwright,
Smeaton performed systematic experimentation on the superior efficiency of overshot
waterwheels, engaged in investigations regarding Leibnizian and Newtonian mechanics and
advocated a more rigorous technical education. The leaders in the establishment of the latter
were the French.

In keeping with the rational systematization of absolutists,

E n l i g h t e n m e n t France, the Corps de Punts et Chaussee was found in 1919 to
organize the network of roads and waterways throughout the country. Members of the corps
tested the bending of various materials and invented machines for compression tests on
stone and mortar; Henry de pilot (1695-1771) invented the Pilot tube, by which the
velocity of a current could be taken.
The corps also founded a school. Cadets would have available to them the textbooks of
Bernard Forest de Baldor (1697-1761), books reprinted so often that the copper plates
cutting-edge in these handbooks, but they offered both traditional guidelines of practice

4
wore out and had to be re-engraved in the early nineteenth century. The was nothing new or
and the possibility of applying static and dynamic theorems to practical problems.
The French engineering organizations were the apotheosis and production line for
engineers who could combine knowledge, machines and the organization of human labor in
order to fulfill corporate demand for huge undertakings.

5
1.3 PRESENT SITUATION

1.3.1 Education and Licensure

Civil engineers typically possess an academic degree with a major in civil engineering. The
length of study for such a degree is usually from four to five years and the completed degree
is usually designated as a Bachelor of Science, though some universities designated the
degree as a Bachelor of Engineering. This degree generally included basic sciences with
units covering physics, mathematics, project management and specific topics in civil
engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the sub-disciplines of civil
engineering, Students then choose to specialize in one or more sub-disciplines towards the
end of the degree.

About one-third of civil engineers also choose to pursue a postgraduate degree such
as a Master of Engineering, Master of Science, or a Doctor of Philosophy in Engineering.
The Master of Engineering is often considered more concerned with the practicalities of
engineering operations whilst the Master of Science is viewed as a pathway to academic
and scientific study. These degrees may consist of either research, coursework or a mixture
of the two. The Doctor of Philosophy consists of a significant research component and is
often viewed as the entry point to academia. In the United Kingdom and various other
European countries, the Master of Engineering is often considered an undergraduate
degree of slightly longer duration than the Bachelor of Engineering.

In most countries, a Bachelor’s degree in engineering represents the first step towards
professional certification and the degree program itself is certified by a professional body.
After completing a certified degree program, the engineer is considered a Graduate
Engineer but must satisfy a range of requirements (including work experience and exam
requirements) before being certified. Once certified, the engineer is designated the title of
Professional Engineer (in the United States, Canada, South Africa and Uganda), Chartered
Engineer (in India, the United Kingdom, Ireland and Zimbabwe), Chartered Professional
Engineer (in Australia and New Zealand), or European Engineer (in much of the European
Union). There are international engineering agreements which are designed to allow

1
 engineers to practice across international border. In general, these agreements require both
educational competencies and professional experiential competencies.

The advantages of certification vary depending upon location. For example, in the United
States and Canada “only a licensed engineer may prepare, sign and seal, and submit
engineering plans and drawings to a public authority for approval, or seal engineering work
for public and private clients.” This requirement is enforced by state and provincial
legislation such as Quebec’s Engineers Act. In other countries, such as Australia, no such
legislation exists. Practically all certifying bodies maintain a code of ethics that they expect
all members to abide by or risk expulsion. In this way, these organizations play an important
role in maintaining ethical standards for the profession. Even in jurisdiction where
certification has little or no legal bearing on work, engineers are subject to contract law.

In cases where an engineer’s work fails, he or she may be subject to the tort of negligence
and in extreme cases, the charge of criminal negligence.
An engineer’s work must also comply with numerous other rules and regulations such as
building codes and legislation pertaining to environmental law.

2
1.3.2 Careers

There is no one typical career path for civil engineers. Most engineering graduates start
with jobs of low responsibility, and as they prove their competence are given more and
more responsible tasks, but within each subfield of civil engineering, and even within
different segments of the market within each branch, the details of a career path can vary.
In some fields and in some firms, entry-level engineers are put to work primarily
monitoring construction in the field, serving as the “eyes and ears” of more senior design
engineers, while in other areas, entry-level engineers end-up performing the more routine
tasks of analysis or design and interpretation. More senior engineers can move into doing
more complex analysis or design work, or management of more complex design projects,
or management of other engineers or into specialized consulting, including forensic
engineering.

1.3.3 Discipline of Civil Engineering

General civil engineering

Is concerned with the overall interface of human created fixed projects with the greater
world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers
to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing
grading, drainage, pavement, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications
supply and land (real property) divisions. General engineers spend much of their time
visiting project sites, developing community/neighborhood consensus and preparing
construction plans. on converting General Civil Engineering is also referred to as Site/Civil
Engineering; a branch of Civil engineering that primarily focuses a tract of land from one
usage t o a n o t h e r .

1
 Site/Civil Engineers t y p i c a l l y apply t h e principles o f Geotechnical
Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Transportation
Engineering and Construction Engineering to residential, commercial, industrial and public
work projects of all sizes and levels of construction.

Structural Engineering

Structural engineering is concerned with the structural design and structural analysis of
buildings, bridges and other structures. This involves calculating the stresses and forces
that act upon or arise within a structure ad designing the structure to successfully resist
those forces and stresses. Resistance to wind and seismic loading, especially performance
near resonant frequencies, which affect the overall stability of structure, are major design
concerns. Other factors such as durability and cost are also considered. In addition to
design of new building, structural engineers may design a seismic retrofit for an existing
structure to mitigate undesirable performance during earthquakes.
Fire Protection Engineering

Fire protection engineering, also called „fire safety engineering‟ is the practice of application
of science and engineering principles and experience to protect people and their
environments from the destructive effects of fire. The underlying branches of science are
fire science, fire dynamics and chemistry. Fire protection engineers, often civil engineers by
training, typically design safeguards that aid in fighting fires, such as alarm, sprinkler
and smoke control system. They are also involved at the design stage where structural
design work is being done, and they prove expert advice on materials choices and in the
protection of structural members. They are also employed as fire investigators, including
such very large-scale cases as the analysis of the mechanism of the collapse of the World
trade Center. NASA uses fire protection engineers on its space program to ensure safety.

1
 Geotechnical Engineering

Geotechnical engineering is primarily concerned with the interaction of structures with

earth materials, and structures constructed from earth materials. Geotechnical engineers
analyze site conditions and design foundations and earthworks. Geotechnical engineers deal
with soil properties, soil mechanics, compression and swelling of soils, seepage, slopes,
embankments, retaining walls, ground and rock anchors, uses of synthetic tensile materials
in soil structures, soil structure interaction and soil dynamics.

Transportation Engineering

Transportation engineering is concerned with moving people and goods efficiently,

safely, and in a manner conducive to a vibrant community. This involves specifying,
designing, constructing, and maintaining transportation infrastructure which includes
streets, canals, highways, rail systems, airports, ports and mass transit. It includes areas
such as transportation design, transportation planning, traffic engineering, urban
engineering, queuing theory, pavement engineering, Intelligent Transportation System
(ITS) and infrastructure management.

Environmental Engineering

Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal
waste, the purification of water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to
prior disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental
engineering are pollutant transport, water purification, sewage treatment and hazardous
waste management. Environmental e n g i n e e r s can be involved with
p o l l u t i o n r e d u c t i o n , g r e e n engineering and industrial ecology. Environmental
engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental
consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the
purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision-making process.

1
Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering, though
sanitary engineering traditionally had not included much of the hazardous waste
management and environmental remediation work covered by the term environmental
engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental
health engineering.

Hydraulic Engineering

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally
water. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water
distribution systems, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees,
storm sewers), and canals. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of
fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics and hydraulics, among others.

Water Resources Engineering

Water resources engineering is concerned with the collection and management of water
(as a natural resources). As a discipline it therefore combines hydrology, environmental
science, meteorology, geology, conservation and resource management. This area of civil
engineering relates to the prediction and management of both the quality and the quantity
of water in both underground (aquifers) and above ground (lakes, rivers, and streams)
resources. Water resource engineers analyze and model very small to very large areas of
the earth to predict the amount and content of water as it flows into, though, or out of a
facility. Although the actual design of the facility may be left to other engineers.

Construction Engineering

Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from

transportations, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical
engineers. As construction firms tend to have higher business risk than other types of civil
engineering firms, many construction engineers tend to take on a role that is more business-

1
like in nature; drafting and reviewing contracts, evaluating logistical operations and
closely-monitoring prices of necessary supplies.

Material Science

Civil engineering also includes elements of materials science. Construction materials with
broad applications in civil engineering include ceramics such as Portland Cement Concrete
(PCC) and hot mix asphalt concrete, metals such as aluminum and steel, and polymers such
as polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) and carbon fibers. Current research in these areas
focus around increased strength, durability, workability and reduced cost.

Surveying

An all-female surveying crew in Idaho, USA, 191

2
Surveying is the process by which a surveyor measures certain dimensions that generally
occur on the surface of the Earth. Modern surveying equipment, such as EDM‟s, total
stations, GPS surveying and laser scanning, allow for remarkably accurate measurement of
angular deviation, horizontal, vertical and slope distances. This information is crucial to
convert the data into a graphical representation of the Earth’s surface, in the form of a map.
This information is then used by civil engineers, Contractors and even realtors to design
from, build on, and trade, respectively. Elements of a building or structure must be correctly
sized and positioned in relation to each other and to site boundaries and adjacent structures.
Civil engineers are trained in the methods of surveying and may seek professional land
surveyor status.

1.4 ENGINEERING AND THE FUTURE

Civil engineers will have to change their “old” way of thinking to include the many
new and emerging areas such as biotechnology, advanced communication and information
technology. They will have to partner with industry and collaborate with disciplines outside
engineering. They will have to develop innovative and entrepreneurial skills.

The Applications of engineering.

I. Healthcare and Social
Services and products to improve the quality-of-life of individuals and groups in society.
This includes medical pharmaceutical systems, supplies and services.
II. Leisure and Entertainment
Services and products for entertainment, cultural, social and sporting pursuits.
III. Education
Services and products for school, college and university-based education together with
distance-learning, vocational and lifelong learning.
IV. Commerce, Trade and Finance
All systems and services for the local and international trade in goods and finance. This
includes the retail trade, distribution, banking, insurance service and electronic commerce.
V. Communications and IT

1
The creation, processing, management and distribution, or information by physical media or by
broadcast and by communications network. Voice, video and information transmission systems
using satellite, radio and cable.

VI. Defense and Security

Systems, services and products for the provision of national defense and security on a world-wide
scale. Civil security and emergency services. Private and commercial security services and products.
VII. Transport
The mobile, but not the built, element of transport networks together with the supporting fixed
installations. Transport includes personal, commercial and public vehicles for air, sea and land.
VIII. Agriculture and Food
Farms, process plant and services for livestock, crops and other natural or synthetic ingredients that
are processed into food and drink.
IX. Engineered Materials
Process plant and services developing and producing materials such as plastics for direct application
or further processing into products and systems. The field includes advanced materials for
pharmaceutical, human implants, electronic/photonic, aerospace and similar demanding
applications.
X. Energy and Natural Resources
Plant, systems and services for:
a) The generation and distribution of electrical energy, oil gas and other fuels
b) Acquiring, processing and distributing water and liquid wastes
c) Acquiring, processing and distributing minerals and raw materials.

XI. Built Environment

All civil construction, planning and services including private, public and commercial buildings,
factories, road and rail networks, harbors, waterways, airports and public space

2
General and Specific challenges of the Civil Engineering Profession

There are many challenges facing civil engineers in the future; these in general include: -
❖ Growing population

❖ Infrastructure that is deteriorating

❖ Preparing for the possibility of natural disasters

❖ Updating for transportation systems to meet growing needs

❖ Need for intense and diverse partnerships

❖ Reduced material sources.

In Uganda, specific challenges include; brain drain hence insufficient manpower, low level of
professionalism, poor ethics, inadequate technology and advancement and limited resources.

LINKAGE OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TO QUANTITY SURVEYING AND

PROJECT MANAGEMENT

The cost of a construction facility to the client/owner or promoter is usually very high and this
makes it a matter of great concern. These include both the initial capital cost and the subsequent
operation and maintenance costs. Each of these major cost categories consists of a number of cost
components. The owner is interested in achieving the lowest possible overall project cost that is
consistent with its investment objectives especially timely completion, quality work and intended
functional need.

The capital costs for a construction project are the expenses related to the initial establishment of
the facility which include;

I) Land Acquisition
ii) Planning and feasibility studies
iii) Architectural and engineering design
iv) Construction including materials, equipment and labor

3
 v) Field supervision of construction
vi) Construction financing (capital cost)
vii) Insurance and taxes during construction
viii) Owner’s general office overhead
ix) Equipment and furnishings not included in construction
x) Inspection and testing.

Estimation

Estimation is the process of producing an approximate calculation or judgement of the size, value,
amount, costs, duration etc. of something. It is the prediction of what the likely cost of materials,
plant, labor, profits, overhead and risk for erecting a building. The person who does the calculation
is called an estimator/ building economists/ Quantity surveyor.

The process of obtaining the most competitive offer for the work involves calculating approximate
quantities for the building/ construction and inviting willing contractors to give in their prices for
the work is referred to as Estimation and tendering.

Personnel Involved in Estimating and Tendering

The parties involved in estimating and tendering include;

I) The client or promoter’s staff or their professional representatives

ii) The contractors, planners, buyers, plant managers, temporary works designers
and site management staff.

iii) The external organizations such as material suppliers, the public, and plant hire companies
and subcontractors.

4
Functions of a Quantity Surveyor

I) Advice on what a project would cost.

ii) Advice on what size and standard of structure can be erected for any given expenditure.
iii) Co-operate with the designers to ensure that a building can be erected within an approved
expenditure.
iv) Advise on the tendering procedures and contractual arrangements.
Prepare documents for obtaining tenders and arranging a contract.

v) Exercise control during the construction so that the cost is not exceeded without
authority.
vi) Act with the architect or Engineering to ensure that the final provisions of the contract
are properly interpreted and applied so that the client’s financial interest is safeguarded
and the builder is paid a proper price for the work.

vii) Preparation of appropriate estimates of cost in the very early stages of the preparation
of a building project.

viii) ‘Cost Planning’ during the design stage of a project to ensure that the building owner obtains
the best possible value for his money, that the costs are distributed in the best possible
way throughout the various sections or ‘elements’ of the building and that the tender
figure will be very close to the estimated figure.

ix) Examination o f t e n d e r s a n d p r i c e d b i l l s o f q u a n t i t i e s a n d m a k i n g
recommendation for award of contract.

x) Preparation of Schedules of Prices and negotiation of contracts with a single contractor.

xi) Valuation o f work i n p r o g r e s s and m aki ng r e com m e nd at i ons a s t o payments
to be made to the contractor.

5
 xii) Preparation of the final account on completion of the entire contract works.

xiii) Giving cost advice and information at all stages of the contract and the
development of the ‘cost analysis’ work.

The Tender Documents

The tender documents will comprise of;

I) Instruction to tenderers. This includes;

Place, date, time by which tenders must be returned

Methods of dealing with queries
How qualified tenders will be dealt with.
Provisional site visits
Documents to be submitted with the tender
Methods of dealing with errors.
ii) Form of tender
iii) Condition of contract. These do two things;

Sets out the contractual responsibility and liabilities

Establishes the administrative arrangement. iv)
Form of Agreement
v) Drawings
vi) The specification
vii) Bills of Quantity

TENDERING

6
Tendering means the submitting of a quotation or bid.

Quotation:

This is the price a person /firm will charge to offer goods or services. Tender procedures
cover the various methods that may be used by the client and his advisors to obtain offers. The
offers are made by firms approached, who do the actual tendering and have their own procedures.
An estimate prepares a brief to management. This is termed as interim tender. The estimator studies
the documents e.g., drawings, condition of contract, operating conditions like phasing of the work,
extend of design detail, and value of the project and location, he then writes a report to management
for decision making.

METHODS OF TENDERING
1) Open Tendering

The procedure here is to advertise through the press, inviting any firm that wishes to do so to
submit a tender; the advertisement will give outline details of the type of work, its scale, the
programmed and any other key features. Any interested firm applies for the tender documents and
there are usually no formalities other than a deposit of some little fee, which is returned on
submission of a bona fide tender. The deposit covers the costs of the documents and discourages
idle curiosity. This system is in common use by local authority. It is usually stated in the
advertisement and always in the tender documents that the employer does not bind himself to
accept the lowest, or, indeed, any tender. The advertisement does not legally bind the employer in
any way, but is merely an invitation to persons to make an offer. An offer must be unconditionally
accepted before a contract can be made

7
Disadvantages

There are a large number of tenders to evaluate hence much time and money wasted.

There is pressure to accept low tenders.

There is high cost on the contractor’s side as the tenders for a number of
jobs and wins a few jobs yet the cost of tendering must be met.

There is difficulty in selecting the right firm, which may well affect the outcome of
the project one way or the other, the wrong firm is capable or incapable may obtain the
contract.

Advantages

It gives the chance of tendering to any firm that wishes to do and may provide the
longed- for opening for some relatively unknown but capable firms.
Since there is no restriction, there can be no chance of favors in drawing up the list of
renderers; this is a valid point in the case of public accountability.

8
 2) Selective Tendering

This procedure is to select a limited number of firms known to the architect or client and invite
them to tender. Selective firms known to the architect or the employers are invited to tender and
this procedure is mainly used by private firms. Selection should be made sufficiently early for firms
to be asked whether they would be willing to tender at the required time, subject to the start of their
order books.

At the initial approach, sufficient description of the project should be given to allow the firms to
appraise realistically what is involved and therefore give their position on whether they are
interested.

The criteria to be employed in drawing up a list of the renderers will depend to some degree on the
chapter of the project, as well as on its size.

Apart from an investigation of that aspect of a firm, it is usually desirable to look at the following;

Standard of Workmanship

The equipment available, such as plant and workshop, and size of the payroll.

The business record and standard for example whether completion dates are met and
whether there is any regular difficulty over supervision.

The financial stability and length of time in business.

Local history in respect of labor relations whether there appear to be more or fewer than the
average number of stoppages because of local disputes and whether it is relatively easy or
hard to attract labor.

The real willingness to tender.

In the case of public bodies, particularly the list will have been compiled by selection from firms
applying to be included in response to a public advertisement. When a particular project approaches
9
the tender stage, a list is prepared from the standing list, preferably by taking the eligible names
form the list on a Rota basis for successive contracts.

Advantages

It is possible to select the most capable firm.

Since the tenders are few, the cost of evaluating is low.
Disadvantages
Firms are sometimes overloaded as they may be reluctant to decline some invitations to
tender at the time, they have a lot of jobs.

It breeds favoritism and corruption.

There is always reluctance to strike off competent firms from the list.

Newly formed firms that are competent enough cannot tender the jobs.

There is always higher quotation than obtainable by open tendering as there is less
competition. Although one of the reasons for higher quotation is that the standard of the
firms and their performance is usually high.

10
 3) Single Tendering

These may be circumstances in which only one firm is found to satisfy the criteria for selection.
This is likely in the case of a specialist sub-contract but it may also arise in the case of a main
contractor e.g., the installation of lifts and gas pipe works.

Advantage

It is cheap to evaluate the tender.

Firms with tested results are employed.

Disadvantages
Usually, expensive as only a few contractors are tendering.

It is somewhat undesirable and perhaps unhealthy state of affairs and can be embarrassing
if unsatisfactory tender is received.

4) Negotiated Tender

This method of tendering is usually used for construction work of a very difficult nature, where
the magnitude of the contract may be unknown at first or where early completion is most important
or where continuation or repetition of an existing contract is considered desirable. Under contracts
of this time there is usually no time to wait for drawings and bills of quantities to be prepared. One
firm is selected and negotiated with. Negotiation is not tendering in the acceptable sense of one
party making an offer based on its own assessment of the project in isolation from other parties

11
Considerations Affecting Negotiation.

Negotiation doesn’t offer a number of advantages that have led to its being used much more often in
recent years. It may sometimes offer a time saving, even when it replaces the normal tendering
period only, since the two parties may be able to take shortcuts. It should certainly save time when
it overlaps the design or construction phases or both.

5) Serial Tendering

This is a deliberate form of extension and comes essentially into the category of tendering rather
than negotiation. It is applicable where there is a series of closely similar schemes which are to be
carried out over a period of time within the same area and permitting the phased utilization of the
site organization and plant.

It is useful for main contracts and can also secure the benefits of increased size of order and
production run for component contracts and specialist site installation work which become sub-
contracts to a series of main contracts.

For example, is where a contractor is invited to tender for one building e.g., a school, on the
understanding that the successful tender will be asked to build several other schools at agreed rates.
Naturally, this encourages keener prices than would project for a single school, since the contractor
will be able to organize his men and materials on the basis of an expected programmed and carry
out this work more efficiently.

Furthermore, experience gained on the earlier jobs will be useful later on, as long as the contracts
are basically similar.

6) Prequalification
12
This is where a selection of capable firms takes place before submission of the tenders or quotation.

Advantages

The same as for selective tendering.

Disadvantages
The same as for selective tendering except keeps leaving out new firms.

THE TENDERING PROCEDURE

THE PREPARATION OF THE TENDER

I. The tender documents usually consist of a letter of instructions to the tenderers, the
printed form of tender together with an endorsed envelope, two copies of the bills of
quantities, and the necessary drawings, specifications and details showing the layout and
elevations of the proposed construction/structure.

ii. The estimator studies the documents, lists all prime cost and provisional sums, and
marks the quantities which the firm normally sub-lets.

iii. After c a r e f u l l y st udyi ng t h e d r a w i n g s a n d t h e b i l l s o f q u a n t i t i e s , a n

estimator of experience will have an approximate idea of the cost of the project.

iv. He then visits the site, accompanied by other members of the firm’ s management, where
they discuss the project. They consider in particular possible difficulties of access to the
site; the storage of materials, adjoining premises, type of ground, necessity of temporary
roads, hoarding, compounds and enclosures, the arrangement and setting of temporary
services, the availability of water for construction, the availability of labor and local
materials.

v. At this stage a decision must be made whether to proceed with the tender any further, the
decision will be made after the study of several other factors, such as financing of the job,
the proportion of the firm’s own work to sub-let, the time required to complete the contract.

13
 vi. After the decision to proceed, the estimator extracts the sub-contractor’s work from a copy
of the bills of quantities and when these have been photocopied, they are dispatched to the
subcontractors with a covering letter setting out all the relevant information about the
contract.

vii. The estimator then looks through the bills of quantities, making careful notes of the
materials for which he will require special quotations.

viii. The estimator then begins to work on the analysis of the unit rates, for which no information
is required and gradually, as the quotations for the materials are returned, the unit rates are
analyzed so that, several days before the date for the submission of the tender, the estimator
should have the rate analysis work completed

ix. When this stage of the work is completed the estimator will present his estimate to
the directors.

BILLS OF QUANTITIES
Due to the complexity of building operations, it would be cumbersome for a contractor to price a
large construction project without a Bill of Quantities. For this reason, a Bill of Quantities is the
major tender document for construction works. Hence according to Uganda Government
Procurement Guidelines, a Bill of Quantities is one of the tender documents for works exceeding
25 million shillings.

The main purposes of the Bill of Quantities include;

I. It enables the contractors tendering for a job to price on the same information.

ii. It gives itemized lists of the elements of the building with a full description and quantity
of each item, which assist the building owner and the successful contractor in assessing
materials and labor requirement of the job.

iii. It is used in the valuation of work done at any time during the execution of the works and
completion.

14
iv. It provides a basis for the valuation of the variations, which often occur during progress of
the works.

v. After being priced, it provides a basis for cost planning and analysis.

15
In order to reduce the cost of tendering to the contractor (which would be passed over to the
building owner) if each contractor had to prepare his own bills of quantities in the limited time
allowed for tendering, the building owner appoints a quantity surveyor who prepares a BOQ for use
by all renderers. The preparation of Bo can be broken into two processes:

1. Taking off: This is where dimensions are scaled or read from drawings and entered in
a recognized form on specially ruled paper called “dimension papers”.

2. Working up: This comprises

a) Squaring the dimensions, transferring the resultant lengths, areas and volumes
to the abstract, where they are arranged in a convenient order for billing and
reduced to the recognized units of measurement.

b) The billing operation, where the various items of work making up the complete job
are listed in full, with the quantities involved in a suitable order under sectional
headings.

The term “quantities” refers to the estimated amounts of labor and materials required in the
execution of the various items of work and together these items give the total requirements of the
building contract.

The “Bills of Quantities” thus sets down the various items of work in a logical sequence and
recognized manner, in order that they may be readily priced by the contractors. A contractor will
build-up in detail a price for each item contained in the bill of quantities, allowing for the cost of
the necessary labor, materials and plant, together with the probable wastage on materials and
generally a percentage to cover establishment charges and profit.

16
Where a Bill of Quantities has been used as a tender document, it will also form a contract document
and the successful contractor is fully bound by the contents of all the contract documents. The
other contract documents on a normal building contract are:

(a) Articles of Agreement and Conditions of Contract

(b) Contract Drawings

(c) Form of Tender

Parties involved in Civil Engineering Project Management

Project manager

The role of the project manager is one that has emerged over the past 30 years or so. Latterly, the
term ‘project manager’ has been used to refer to a quantity surveyor working for the client side in
private practice, and the term ‘quantity surveyor’ is used to refer to a quantity surveyor working
for a contracting organization.

Project managers may be drawn from all building professionals with the appropriate training and
expertise. The project manager therefore represents the client’s interests from the initial inception
to the completion and commissioning of a project. For the client, the main advantage of using a
project manager is the establishment of a single point of contact. The client simply communicates
with the project manager instead of having to decide which of the design team may have an answer
to a particular query.

Training and qualifications for project managers are generally at post graduate level, typically
MSc.

17
Architect

Traditionally the architect is regarded as the leader of the design team and the first person to be
appointed by a client at the start of a new project. So much so, that traditional single-stage tendering
is sometimes referred to still as ‘architect- led tendering’.

Until recently, it was usual for the majority of a quantity surveyor’s work to come via the architect.
This has changed to some extent with quantity surveyors and other members of the design team
winning work in their own right. Perhaps the most difficult part of the architect’s role is to interpret
a client’s user requirements and transform them into a building.

Architects can also act as contract administrators, although increasingly this role is being taken
over by others. The work of architects influences every aspect of our built environment, from the
design of energy efficient buildings to the integration of new buildings in sensitive contexts.

Architects work closely with other members of the construction industry including engineers,
builders, surveyors, local authority planners and building control officers.

Building surveyor

Building surveying is a comparatively new profession. Key to building surveying is an in-depth

knowledge of building pathology, and building surveyors can frequently be found working on
historic and conservation projects. For smaller new build contracts, building surveyors can also
take on the design role and contract administration.

Structural engineer

A structural engineer is involved in the design and supervision of the construction of all kinds of
structures such as houses, theatres, sports stadia, hospitals, bridges, oil rigs, space satellites and
office blocks.

The central strength of a building lies in the framework, often hidden, that supports the shape and
design concept produced by the architects and is integral to the completed project’s function. To
the chartered structural engineer, the considerations of strength, shape and function are paramount
in their conception of the framework of a structure.
18
Having chosen appropriate materials such as steel, brick, concrete or timber they then need to
design the structure and make all the necessary checks and calculations to ensure that the
foundations will be sound, that the floors and roof will not fall down, and that the construction as
a whole will remain safe and serviceable for the length of its intended lifetime.

19
The specialist skills of a structural engineer will include: calculating loads and stresses;
investigating the strength of foundations; and analyzing the behavior of beams and columns in steel,
concrete or other materials. This procedure should ensure that the structure has the strength
required to perform its function safely, economically and with a shape and appearance that is
visually satisfying.

Civil engineer

Civil engineers are involved with the design, development and construction in a huge range of
projects in the built and natural environment.

Their role is central to ensuring the safe, timely and well-resourced completion of infrastructure
projects in many areas, including: highways construction, waste management, coastal development
and geotechnical engineering.

Consulting civil engineers liaise with clients to plan, manage, design and supervise the construction
of projects. They work in a number of different settings and, with experience, can run projects as
project managers. Within civil engineering, consulting engineers are the designers; contracting
engineers turn their plans into reality. Consulting civil engineers provide a wide range of services
to clients.

During the early stages of a career, work will involve taking responsibility for minor projects;
although the size of the projects may increase as experience is gained. Typical work activities
include:

Undertaking technical and feasibility studies and site investigations

Developing detailed designs
Assessing the potential risks of specific projects, as well as undertaking risk management
in specialist roles
Supervising tendering procedures and putting together proposals
Managing, supervising and visiting contractors on site and advising on civil engineering
issues
Managing budgets and other project resources

20
Managing change (as the client may change their mind about the design) and identifying,
formalizing and notifying relevant parties of changes in the project
Scheduling material and equipment purchases and delivery
Attending public meetings and displays to discuss projects, especially in a senior role
Adopting all relevant requirements around issues such as building permits, environmental
regulations, sanitary design, good manufacturing practices
and safety on all work assignments
Ensuring that a project runs smoothly and that the structure is completed on time and
within budget
Correcting any project deficiencies that affect production, quality and safety
requirements prior to final evaluation and project reviews.

21
Infrastructure is the thing that supports our daily life; roads and harbors, railways and airports,
hospitals, sports stadiums and schools, access to drinking water and shelter from the weather.
Infrastructure adds to our quality of life, and because it works, we take it for granted.

Only when parts of it fail, or are taken away, do we realize its value. In most countries, a civil
engineer with have graduated from a post-secondary school with a degree in civil engineering,
which requires a strong background in mathematics, economics and the physical sciences; this
degree is typically a four- year degree, though many civil engineers continue on to obtain a
masters, engineer, doctoral and post-doctoral degree. In many countries, civil engineers are subject
to licensure, and often, persons not licensed may not call themselves
‘civil engineers.

Building services engineer

Building services engineers are responsible for ensuring the cost-effective and environmentally
sound and sustainable design and maintenance of energy using elements in buildings. They have an
important role in developing and maintaining buildings and their components, to make the most
effective use of natural resources and protect public safety. This includes all equipment and
materials involved with heating, lighting, ventilation, air conditioning, electrical distribution, water
supply, sanitation, public health, fire protection, safety systems, lifts, escalators, façade
engineering and even acoustics.

While the role increasingly demands a multidisciplinary approach, building services engineers tend
to specialize in one of the following areas:

Electrical engineering
Mechanical engineering, and
Public health.

Activities will vary according to the specialist area of work and whether the building services
engineer is employed by a single organization or a consultancy, but tasks typically involve:

Advising clients and architects on energy use and conservation in a range of buildings and
sites, aiming to minimize the environmental impact and reduce the carbon footprint

22
Managing and forecasting spend, using whole life cycle costing techniques,
ensuring that work is kept to budget
Developing and negotiating project contracts and agreeing these with clients, if working
in consultancy, and putting out tenders
Attending a range of project groups and technical meetings
Working with detailed diagrams, plans and drawings
Using specialist computer-aided design (CAD) software and other resources to design
all the systems required for the project

23
 Designing site-specific equipment as required
Commissioning, organizing and assessing the work of contractors
Overseeing a n d s u p e r v i s i n g t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f b u i l d i n g s y s t e m s
a n d specifying maintenance and operating procedures
Monitoring building systems and processes
Facilities management
Ensuring that the design and maintenance of building systems meets legislative and
health and safety requirements.

The professional institution for building services engineers is the Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers. There are a variety of grades of membership depending on qualifications and
experience.

The clerk of works

The clerk of works is the architect’s representative on site and usually a tradesman with many years
practical experience.

The job title ‘clerk of works’ is believed to derive from the thirteenth century when
‘clerics’ in holy orders were accepted as being more literate than their fellows, and were left to
plan and supervise the ‘works associated with the erection of churches and other religious property.

By the nineteenth century the role had expanded to cover the majority of building works, and the
clerk of works was drawn from experienced tradesmen who had wide knowledge and
understanding of the building process.

The clerk of works, historically as well as now, is a very isolated profession on site. The clerk of
works is the person who must ensure quality of both materials and workmanship and, to this end,
must be absolutely impartial and independent in any decisions and judgements.

They cannot normally, by virtue of the quality role, be employed by the contractor
– only the client, and normally by the architect on behalf of the client. Their role is not to judge, but
simply to report (through exhaustive and detailed diary notes) all occurrences that are relevant to
the role.

24
Experience in the many facets of the building trade is essential and, in general
terms, most practitioners will have ‘come from the tools’ in the first place.

Site manager/agent

The site manager, often referred to as an agent, is the person in charge of a building contract and,
as such, must be aware of and in control of all aspects of site operations, including the planning of
site progress. It is the manager/agent who has responsibility for both the profitability of operations
and adherence to the agreed construction and cost plans.

25
 227
Site managers/agents are employed by building and construction companies, civil engineering
firms and contractors.

Typical work activities include:

Attending r e g u l a r site meetings with professionals, including

q u a n t i t y surveyors, building services engineers, foremen, subcontractors, and the client
who has commissioned the building
Maintaining strict quality control procedures – this necessitates regular testing of
materials, visual inspections of work, and frequent tours of the site
Conducting regular site safety checks
Ensuring the project runs to schedule and to budget, and finding solutions to problems
that may cause delays, i.e., late arrival of materials.

Recent graduates are unlikely to take on a full site manager/agent role until the necessary site
engineering experience is gained. However, the period of apprenticeship or training in the role of
site engineer appears to be shortening, with firms forced to promote graduates earlier.

he Role of the Engineer in Development

The role of the engineer in development can be best understood with respect to the engineering
method and project cycle. The steps of the above methods are; project appraisal, feasibility studies,
project selection; design, tendering and evaluation, construction and operations and maintenance.
The Engineer as a Client, Consultant, Contractor and Researcher is explained.

1. The role of an engineer as a Client

A Client is an individual, organization or group of organizations that makes a formal application

for project implementation against the standard set by the Sector’s Principles and Criteria. To
facilitate the training of engineers Ministries, Departments and Agencies second their staff

1
 227
especially the younger engineers to work with Consultants and exposed to methods of analysis
design and supervision. This works well in building the capacity of its staff.

Stages an engineer is involved in:

I) Project Appraisal
ii) Feasibility Studies
iii) Design
iv) Tendering and Evaluation
v) Construction
vi) Operations and Maintenance

1. T h e r o l e o f a n e n g i n e e r a s a Consultant

This is a person or group of persons who carry out a specific assignment on behalf of the client
project appraisal, feasibility study, design or supervision, tender evaluation or operations and
maintenance. Some of the consultants engaged are university lecturers who assist in carrying out
some of the necessary activities required for the specific consultancies. Foreign consultants usually
include indigenous Ugandans as part of their team, or associate, with indigenous consulting firms,
in order to be considered more favorably, when submitting their proposals. This is Government
policy and it is to facilitate the transfer of technology.

1. T h e r o l e o f a n e n g i n e e r a s a Contractor

Contractors are not usually required to participate in the stages of project appraisal, feasibility study,
design unless it is a turnkey project whereby, a contractor may even initiate a project and carry out
all the necessary studies, solicit financing and then implement the investment. The traditional role
of the contractor begins in the tendering and evaluation stage.

2
 227

CHAPTER TWO

ENGINEERING ETHICS, INTEGRITY AND PROFESSIONAL

RESPONSIBILITY

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Engineering is an important and learned profession. As members of this profession,

engineers are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity.
Engineering has a direct and vital impact on the quality of life for all people. Accordingly,
the services provided by engineers require honesty, impartiality, fairness, and equity and
must be dedicated to the protection of the public health, safety, and welfare. Engineers must
perform under a standard of professional behavior that requires adherence to the highest
principles of ethical conduct.

2.1 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS

Ethics refers to the rules and ideals for human behavior. They tell us what we ought to do
(Wujec and Johnson, 1992). A profession is a learned occupation requiring systematic
knowledge and training, and commitment to a social good (Wujec and Johnson, 1992).

Engineering ethics is the field of applied ethics which examines and sets standards for
engineers‟ obligation to the public, their clients, employers and the profession. This module
addresses the subject for both professional engineers and other engineers.

Engineering does not have a single uniform system, or standard, of ethical conduct across
the entire profession. Ethical approaches vary somewhat by discipline and jurisdiction,
but are most influenced by whether the engineers are independently providing professional
services to clients, or the public if employed in government service, or if they are employees
of an enterprise creating products for sale.
 227
In the United States the first are usually licensed professional engineers, are governed by
statute and have fairly consistent codes of professional ethics. The latter, working as
engineers in industry, are governed by various laws including whistle blowing, and product
liability laws, and often rely on principles of business ethics rather than engineering ethics.

Most of a Civil Engineer’s education focuses on technical matters, that is, “how to do things
right,” and most of the engineer’s professional; practice is devoted to applying this technical
knowledge in service to the needs of society. Another important element of both education
and practice involves ethics, or “doing the right thing.”

Ethics is a vital part of the engineering profession. The ethical issues that face Civil
Engineering students, young engineers, and licensed professional engineers are not always
easy to answer. Choosing between “good” and “bad” appears easy until unseen variables
are introduced such as time constraints, family, promotion opportunities, job security, peer
pressure, supervisor pressure and professional reputation.

Engineering is not only faced with choices between good and bad, but often a more difficult
ethical dilemma occurs when making choices between competing goods.

Students are encouraged to develop:

1. Understanding – A clear understanding of professional ethics

2. Communication Skills – an ability and willingness to communicate about ethical issues

3. Insights:

a) Ability to recognize ethical issues

b) Appreciation of the frequency at which ethical issues occur

c) Awareness that guidance on ethical dilemmas is available from ASCE and

elsewhere.
 227
4. Comprehension – “Knowing What’s Right”

5. Desire and Willingness = to “Do What’s Right”

6. Ability to Resolve Ethical Issues – by using traditional Civil Engineering methods

of inquiry, namely:
a) Listing the options
b) Testing the options
c) Making a decision, and most importantly
d) Acting!

Professional ethics is as much a part of what members of a profession know – and others
do not – as their „technical‟ knowledge. Engineering ethics is part of thinking like an
engineer. Professional ethics belongs neither to common sense nor to philosophy but to the
profession is question. Knowing engineering ethics is as much a part of knowing how to
engineer as knowing how to calculate stress or design a circuit is.

Indeed, insofar as engineering is a profession, knowing how to calculate stress or design

a circuit is, in part; knowing what the profession allows, forbids, or requires.

2.2 MICRO-ETHICS AND MACRO-ETHICS IN ENGINEERING

Micro-ethics is concerned with ethical decision making by individuals and the internal
relations of the engineering profession. Macro-ethics on the other hand, refers to the
collective social responsibility of the engineering profession and to societal decisions about
technology.
Some micro and macro issues in science and engineering ethics are detailed below:
Scientific research Engineering Practice
Macro-ethics Integrity Health and Safety
Fair Credit Bribes and Gifts
Macro-ethics Human Cloning Sustainable Development
Nano-science Risk Communication
 227

2.2.1 General Principles

Codes of engineering ethics identify a specific precedence with respect to the engineer’s
consideration for the public, clients, employers and the profession. The general aspects of
engineering ethics are;
Respect for human life and welfare, including that of posterity

Truth, honesty, trustworthiness

Fair play

Openness

Competence
2.3 UIPE CODE OF ETHICS FOR ENGINEERS

The Uganda Institute of Professional Engineers code of ethics has the following
guidelines:
1. Only members of the Institution whose names appear on the current Register of Uganda
Engineers‟ registration Board may use the title “Engineer” before their names.
2. Any Member of the Institution, provided he or she is a Registered Engineer, shall
practice only in a branch of engineering in which he or she is competent.
3. An Engineer shall order his or her conduct in such a way as to safe guard at all times
the safety, health and welfare of the pubic in the performance of his or her
professional duties, and uphold and advance the dignity, standing and reputation of the
profession.
4. An Engineer shall discharge his or her duties with complete fidelity. He or she shall not
accept remuneration for services rendered other than with his/her employer’s
permission.
5. An Engineer shall not act so as to injure, or attempt to injure whether directly or
indirectly, the professional reputation, prospects, or business of another Engineer
provided that this rule shall not be taken as prohibiting expression of technical opinion
on behalf of his client before a tribunal or in a commissioned report or of lodging a

1
 227
complaint on the conduct of another Engineer to the Institution of Professional
Engineers and/or to the Engineer registration Board.
6. An Engineer shall not, directly or indirectly, attempt to supplant another Engineer,
nor shall he/she intervene or attempt to intervene in connection with Engineering
work of any kind, which to his/her knowledge is entrusted to another Engineer.
7. An Engineer shall not review the work of another Engineer for the same client,
until he or she has either obtained the consent of such Engineer, or has been notified
by the client in writing that the connection of such Engineer with the work has been
terminated.
8. An Engineer shall not knowingly compete with another Member on the basis of
professional charges. Provided that such competition shall be permissible where
competitive offers are sought in accordance with formal procedures.
9. Engineers may publicize their names or the names of their firms through public
media for the sole purpose of letting the public know where they are located and what
services they offer. Any such publication shall make no reference implicitly or
explicitly, to the cost of service.
10.An Engineer, without disclosing that fact to his or her employer in writing,
shall not be a director or member of, or a shareholder in, or act as an agent for, or be
salaried employed of any commercial, contracting or manufacturing business which is
or may be involved in the class of work to which his or her appointment relates, nor
shall he or she receive directly or indirectly any royalty, gratuity or commission on
any article or for the purpose of the work in respect of which he or she is
employed unless or until such royalty , gratuity, o r com m i ssi on ha s b e e n
a u t h o r i z e d i n w r i t i ng by hi s o r h er employer.

2
 227

11.An Engineering shall not be the medium of payments made on his or her employer’s
behalf unless so requested by his or her clients but shall only issue certificates to
his or her clients for payments; nor shall be or she in connection with work on which
he or she is employed place contracts or orders except with the authority of and
behalf of his or her employer.
12. An Engineer shall not accept financial or other compensation from more than one
interested party for the same service, or for services pertaining to the same work,
without the consent of all interested parties.
13. An Engineer shall not use the advantages of as salaried position to compete unfairly
with other Engineers.

14. An Engineer who is engaged in engineering work in a country abroad will order
his conduct according to the customs of that country adhering as closely as is
practicable to the principals of the code.
15.Engineers s h a l l a s s o c i a t e p r o f e s s i o n a l l y o n l y w i t h r e p u t a b l e p e r s o n s o r
organizations.
16. An Engineer shall act in all professional matters as a faithful advisor to his or her
employer and in administering contracts, shall remain fair to the contractor.
17.Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout them careers,
and shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those Engineers
under their supervision.
2.4 WHISTLE BLOWING

A basic ethical dilemma is that an engineer has the duty to report to the appropriate authority
a possible risk to others from a client or employer failing to follow the engineer’s
directions. According to first principles, this duty overrides the duty to a client and/or
employer. An engineer may be disciplined, or have their license revoked, even if the failure
to report such a danger does not result in the loss of life or health.
 227

1
 227

2.5 ETHICAL ISSUES

There are several other ethical issues that engineers may face. Some have to do with
technical practice, but many others have to do with broader considerations of business
conduct. These include:
Quality

Ensuring legal compliance

Conflict of interest

Bribery and kickbacks

Treatment of confidential or proprietary information

Consideration of the employer’s assets

Relationships with clients, consultants, competitors and contractors

Gifts, meals, services and entertainment

Outside employment/activities (Moonlighting)

Environmental protection

Public safety and welfare

Risk and the principles of informed consent

Health and environment

Truthfulness

Integrity and representation of data

Whistle blowing

Choice of a job

1
 227
Loyalty

Accountability to clients and customers

Plagiarism and giving credit were due

Quality control

Discrimination

2.6 PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITY

Professional responsibility refers to a type of moral responsibility arising from special
knowledge possessed by an individual. For someone to have a moral responsibility for some
matter means that the person must exercise judgment and care to achieve or maintain a
desirable state of affairs.

2.5.1 Code of Professional responsibility

This code states that the engineer shall:

1. Honor the right of all individuals affected by an engineering project to participate

to the appropriate degree in the decisions concerning the project
2. Provide complete, accurate and understandable information to all parties concerning
all engineering decisions that may affect them.
3. Refuse to sanction or participate in and encourage others to do likewise, projects
that, even when approved by the appropriate clients or superiors, will cause
unjustifiably harmful consequences.

2.5.2 Rules of Practice

1. Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public.

a) If engineers‟ judgment is overruled under circumstances that endanger life or

property, they shall notify their employer or client and such other authority as may
be appropriate.

1
 227
b) Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents which are in conformity
with applicable standards.
c) Engineers shall not reveal facts, data or information without the prior consent
of the client or employer except as authorized or required by law or this Code.

d) Engineers shall not permit the use of their name or associate in business ventures
with any person or firm which they believe are engaged in fraudulent or dishonest
enterprise.

e) Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful practice of engineering by a person or
firm.
f) Engineers having knowledge of any alleged violation of this Code shall report
thereon to appropriate professional bodies and, when relevant, also to public
authorities, and cooperate with the proper authorities in furnishing such
information or assistance as may be required.

g) Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence.

2. Engineers shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or

experience in the specific technical field involved
a) Engineers shall not affix their signature to any plans or documents dealing with
subject matter in which they lack competence, nor to any plan or document not
prepared under their direction and control.
b) Engineers may accept a s s i g n m e n t s and assume responsibility for
coordination of an entire project and sign and seal the engineering documents for
the entire project, provided that each technical segment is signed and sealed only
by the qualified engineers who prepared the segment.

c) Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful

manner.

2
 227

3. Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports, statements or

testimony. They hall include all relevant and pertinent information in such reports,
statements or testimony, which should bear the date indicating when it was current.
a) Engineers may express publicly technical opinions that are founded upon
knowledge of the facts and competence in the subject matter.
b) Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms or arguments on technical matters
which are inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless they have prefaced their
comments by explicitly identifying the interested parties on whose behalf they are
speaking, and by revealing the existence of any interest the engineers may have in
the matters.
c) Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustees.
4. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of interest which could
influence or appear to influence their judgment or the quality of their services.
a) Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from more
than one party for services on the same project, or for services pertaining to the same
project, unless the circumstances are full disclosed and agreed to by all interested
parties.

b) Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable

consideration, directly or indirectly, from outside agents in connection with the
work for which they are responsible.
c) Engineers in public service as members, advisors or employees of a governmental or
quasi-governmental body or department shall not participate in decisions with
respect to services solicited or provided by them or their organizations in private or
public engineering practice.

d) Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract from a governmental body on

which a principal or officer of their organization serves as a member. e) Engineers
shall avoid deceptive acts.

1
 227

5. Engineers shall not falsify their qualification or permit misrepresentation of their or

their associates‟ qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or exaggerate their
responsibility in or for the subject matter of prior assignments. Brochures or other
presentations incident to the solicitation of employment shall not misrepresent pertinent
facts concerning employers, employees, associates, joint ventures or past
accomplishments.

6. Engineers shall not offer, give, solicit or receive, either directly or indirectly, any
contribution to influence the award of a contract by public authority, or which may be
reasonably construed by the public as having the effect of intent to influence the
awarding of a contract. They shall not offer any gift, or other valuable consideration in
order to secure work. They shall not pay a commission, percentage or brokerage fee in
order to secure, except to a Bonafede emp0loyee or Bonafede established commercial
or marketing agencies retained by them.

1
 227
2.5.3 Professional Obligations

1. Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest standards of honesty
and integrity.
2. Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and shall not distort or alter the facts.
a) Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they believe a project
will not be successful
b) Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment of their regular work
or interest. Before accepting any outside engineering employment, they will notify
their employers
c) Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another employer by false or
misleading pretenses.
d) Engineers shall not promote their own interest at the expense of the dignity
and integrity of the profession.

e) Engineers shall at all times strive to serve the public interest.

3. Engineers shall seek opportunities to participate in civic affairs, careers guidance for
youths and work for the advancement of the safety, health and well-being of their
community.
a) Engineers shall not complete, sign or seal plans and /or specifications that

are not in conformity with applicable engineering standards. If the client or

employer insists on such unprofessional conduct, they shall notify the proper
authorities and withdraw from further service on the project.
b) Engineers shall endeavor to extend public knowledge and appreciation of
engineering and its achievements.

c) Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice which deceives the public.

1
 227

4. Engineers shall avoid the use of statements containing a material misrepresentation

of fact or omitting a material fact.
a) Consistent with the foregoing, Engineers may advertise for recruitment of personnel.
b) Consistent with the foregoing, Engineers may prepare articles for the lay or
technical press, but such articles shall not imply credit to the author for work
performed by others.
c) Engineers shall not disclose, without consent, confidential information concerning
the business affairs or technical processes of any present or former client or
employer, or public body on which they serve.

5. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, promote or arrange
for new employments or practice in connection with a specific project for which the
Engineer has gained particular and specialized knowledge.

6. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties, participate in or
represent an adversary interest in connection with a specific project or proceeding in
which the Engineer has gained particular specialized knowledge on behalf of a former
client or employer. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by
conflicting interests.

7. Engineers shall not accept financial or other considerations, including free

engineering designs, from material or equipment suppliers for specifying their product.
a) Engineers s h a l l n o t a c c e p t c o m m i s s i o n s o r a l l o w a n c e s ,
d i r e c t l y o r indirectly, from contractors or other parties dealing with clients or
employers of the Engineer in connection with work for which the Engineer is
responsible.

1
 227
b) Engineers shall not attempt to obtain employment or advancement of professional
engagements by untruthfully criticizing other engineer, or by other improper or
questionable methods.
8. Engineers shall not request, propose or accept a commission on contingent basis under
circumstances in which their judgment may be compromised.
a) Engineers in salaried position shall accept part-time engineering work only to the
extent consistent with policies of the employer and in accordance with ethical
considerations.
b) Engineers shall not, without consent, use equipment, supplies, laboratory, or office
facilities of an employer to carry on outside private practice.
c) Engineers shall not attempt to injure, maliciously or falsely, directly or indirectly,
the professional reputation, prospects, practice or employment of other engineers.
Engineers who believe others are guilty of unethical or illegal practice shall present
such information to the proper authority for action.
9. Engineers in private practice shall not review the work of another engineer for the
same client, except with the knowledge of such engineer, or unless the connection
of such engineer with the work has been terminated.
a) Engineers in governmental, industrial or educational employ are entitled to

review and evaluate the work of other engineers when so required by their
employment duties.
b) Engineers in sales or industrial employ are entitled to make engineering comparisons
of represented products with products of other suppliers.

10. Engineers shall accept personal responsibility for their professional activities,
provided, however, those Engineers may seek indemnification for services arising out
of their practice for, other than gross negligence, where the Engineer’s interest cannot
otherwise be protected.

1
 227

11. Engineering s h a l l c o n f i r m t o s t a t e r e g i s t r a t i o n l a w s i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f
engineering.
a) Engineers shall not use association with a non-engineer, a corporation, or
partnership as a „clock‟ for unethical acts.

b) Engineers shall give credit for engineering work to those to whom credit is due, and
will recognize the proprietary interests of others.

12. Engineering shall, whenever possible, name the person or persons who may be
individually responsible for designs, inventions, writing or other
accomplishments.
a) Engineers using designs supplied by a client recognize that the designs remain
the property of the client and may not be duplicated by the Engineer for others
without express permission.

b) Engineers, before undertaking work for others in connection with which the
Engineer may make improvement, plans, designs, inventions or other records that
d) Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout them

careers and should keep current in their specialty fields by engaging in professional
practice, participating in continuing education courses, reading in the technical
c) Engineers‟ designs, data, records, and notes referring exclusively to an employer’s
work are the employer’s property. Employer should indemnify the Engineer for
use of the information for any purpose other than the original purpose.

1
 227

CHAPTER THREE
THE ENGINEERING BODIES

The Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers

Background
Formal engineering professional organizations in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya subregion
started in 1945 as the East African Association of Engineers and subsequently the East
African Institution of Engineers (EAIE) which became unworkable in the seventies with the

2
 227

then
political turmoil in the region. In 1972 the Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers (UIPE) was born and has had
the mantle of steering the engineering profession in Uganda ever since.

Objectives and Purposes of UIPE

The objectives and purposes for which the Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers as
constituted are to promote the general advancement of the science and practice of engineering
and its applicants, and to facilitate the exchange of information and ideas on those subjects
amongst the members of the Institution and otherwise and for that purpose: -

I) To hold meetings of the Institution for reading and discussing communications

bearing to or the application thereof or upon subjects relating thereto.
ii) To co-operate with universities, other educational institutions and Public
Educational Authorities for the furtherance of education and training in engineering science
and practice.
iii) To initiate research programmers and to co-operate with Government,
private
research institutions and private individuals in promoting research into Engineering
Science and Technology.
iv) To print publications, sell, lend or distribute the proceedings or reports of the
Institution or any papers, communications, works or treaties on Engineering or its
applications or subjects connected therewith.
v) To do all other things, which the Council of the Institution may think proper,
including advising Government, Public Bodies and other organizations or individuals
on matters concerning Engineering.
vi) To do other things incidental or conductive to the attainment of the above objectives
or any of them.
vii) To ensure that proper health and safety measures are taken into consideration in
the practice of engineering.
viii) To ensure, as a qualifying body for those seeking registration under ERB.

3
 227

BYE-LAWS OF THE UGANDA INSTITUTION OF PROFESSIONAL

ENGINEERS
Definitions

“The Institution” mean The Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers

“Branch” means a Division of the Institution established under the provision by Bye-Law
2.02.
“Branch Committee” means a Committee elected under the provisions of regulation
made under Bye-aw 14.02
“Non-Resident” means outside Uganda.
“The Council” mans the Council of the Institution
“Registered address” means the address of a member for the reception of
communications as given on the proposal for his election or transfer or subsequently varied
by Notice in writing to the Hon. Secretary.
“Year” when occurring in Section 9 of these bye-Laws means the period from any Annual
General Meeting to the next succeeding Annual General meeting

MEMBERSHIP OF THE INSTITUTION

Classes of Membership
1. Honorary Fellows. An Honorary Fellow shall be a person who shall have rendered
conspicuous service to the Institution or the profession of engineering or is eminent
in engineering or in public service who shall be elected by the Council. Every such
election shall be announced at the Annual General Meeting of the Institution. The
number of honorary members shall; not at any time exceed ten, and not more than
two Honorary Members shall be elected in any one year.

4
 227

2. Fellows. Every candidate for election as Fellow or transfer from Member to Fellow
shall satisfy the Council that: -
a) He has attained the age of 33 years on the date of his application for election or transfer,
and either
b) I) He has been a mem3ber of the Institution for a period of at least 3 years provided
that in the case of a candidate who has possessed for 3 years the qualification s for election
to membership the Council may waive the stipulation s to his having been a member and
ii) He held a position of such responsibility for at least five years in the Science
or practice of engineering as in the opinion of the Council justified his election.
c) Or that he:
I) Has such knowledge of the Science or practice of Engineering and has acquired
such eminence in his profession that his admission as a fellow would conduce to the interest
of the Institution and
ii) Is engaged in the Science or practice of Engineering.

3. Members
Every candidate for election or transfer to the class of Member shall satisfy the Council
that he;
a) is at least 25 years of age, and
b) either
I) has passed or been exempted from the Corporate membership examinations of
an engineering Institutions, Institute or Society approved for the purpose by the Council
or.
ii) Has objective a degree or diploma of a University of school of engineering
approved for the purpose by the Council.
c) has had at least two years adequate practical training as an engineer and additionally
has had at least two years suitable experience in a position involving responsibility as an
engineer, provided that the Council may, at their discretion, accept any additional period in
a position of responsibility as an engineer in excess of two years in substitution for two

1
 227

years practical training, and has attended and passed a professional interview as prescribed
by the council.

4. Companions
Every candidate for election or transfer to the class of Companion shall satisfy the Council
that, not being an engineer by profession he: either:
a) Has rendered important services to engineering in the field of science, education,
commerce, finance or law; or
b) Is so connected with the application of engineering since that his admission would
conduce to the interest of the Institution.

5. Graduate Members

Every candidate for admission or transfer to the Class of Graduate Member shall satisfy the
Council that he:
a) Is at least 21 years of age;
b) Holds one of the educational qualifications prescribed in bye-Law 4.03 (b); and c) Intends
in due time to seek Corporate membership and that the work upon
which he is engaged is conductive to this end.

No person shall remain as graduate member after 31 set December in the year in which he
attains 40 years of age, except as provided for in Bye-Law 4.08

6. Technologist Members

Every candidate for election or transfer to the class of Technologist Member shall satisfy the
council that he:
a) Is at least 23 years of age
b) Is a holder of a higher Diploma in engineering
c) Has a t l e a s t 3 y e a r s o f w o r k i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n a p o s i t i o n r e l a t e d t o
engineering. Is not qualified for admission as a Corporate Member.

2
 227

7. Technician Member

Every candidate for admission or transfer to the class of Graduate satisfies the Council
that he:
a) Is at least 21 year of age; and
b) Is a holder of an Ordinary Diploma in Engineering
c) Has a t l e a s t 3 y e a r s o f w o r k i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n a p o s i t i o n r e l a t e d t o
engineering. Is not qualified for admission as a Corporate Member.

8. Students

Every candidate for election to the class of Student shall satisfy the Council that:
a) he is neither 18 years of age or, subject to the provision of Bye-Law 4.08, over 30
years of age; and
b) he is a good education; and
c) he is receiving adequate instruction in the theory of engineering; and
d) has received or is receiving, or intends to receive adequate practical training as an
engineer.

3
 227

ORGANIZATION OF THE INSTITUTION

Headquarters of the Institution

The Headquarters of the Institution shall be located at Kampala until otherwise determined
by the Council.

Council may Establish Branches.

In order to further the aims and objectives of the Institution the Council may at their discretion
set up Branches of the Institution in Uganda for the holding of meetings, for the reading of
papers and for discussion on subjects, or for other activities, falling within the purview of the
Institution, and the Council shall have power to dissolve any such branch at any time, Such
Branches or other units shall function during the pleasure of the Council, and the rules
governing the conduct and management of affairs shall be approved by the Council under the
provisions of Bye-Law 14.03.

Council Secretariat

The Council may establish a Secretariat to carry out such executive functions as are necessary
to allow the Council to discharge its administrative responsibilities, and may appoint a
Secretary who shall hold office during the pleasure of the Council and who shall perform
such duties as the Council may set forth in the terms of their appointment.

Membership of Branches
Every member whose registered address is within the area of a Branch shall be deemed to
be attached to that branch and if he changes his place of residence to the area of another
branch he shall be transferred to that Branch.

1
 227

Council may Establish Specialist Divisions

In order to further the aims and objects of the Institution the Council may at their
discretion establish Specialist Divisions of the Institution, Membership of such Specialist
Divisions shall be open to all members of the Institutions who declare that they are interested
in the activities of the Division., Each such Specialist Division shall be constituted and
its affairs shall be conducted in accordance with regulations made from time to time by
the Council under the provision of Bye-Law 14.02.

Register of Membership

The names and address of every member of the Institution shall be entered in the register
maintained at the Headquarters of the Institution in the appropriate class of membership
together with the name of the Branch (if any) to which he is attached and such other
particulars as the Council may from time to time prescribe.

1
 227

1
 1
Rights of Member not

The rights and privileges of ach member of any Class shall be personal to himself, and
shall not be transferable or transmissible by his own act, or by operation of Law.

Rights of a member limited to those of his class of membership

No Honorary Fellow or Member not being Corporate Member, and no Companion, Associate,
Graduate or Student shall by reason of membership of the Institution, be entitled to any
rights or privileges other than those which, by these Bye-Laws, attach to the specific class
of members of the Institution to which he belongs. Whenever the term “Member” is here
used without qualification it shall (except where otherwise expressly mentioned) be taken to

IE AR 2011
 2
membership shall not be extended beyond a maximum of six months in respect of any visit to
Uganda.

exclude such Honorary Members as are not Corporate Members, Companions, technologists,
Technicians, Graduates and Students.
The Institutions may admit hereafter any person who may be qualified and elected as Honorary
Member, Honorary fellow, Fellow, member, Compassion, technologist, Technician, graduate
Visiting Membership
The Council may admit as a visiting member any person who, being a Corporate Member of an
engineering Institution, Institute or Society recognized by the Council, is a bona fide visitor to
Uganda. He shall take no part in the government of the Institution and the period of his visiting.

Activities of the UIPE

1. Continuous Professional Development Seminars and workshops by the Division.

2. Social evenings usually the first Friday of the month.
3. Advice to Government on Laws like the Building Control Act and the Condominium
Law on Science Education.
4. Arbitration of Cases between Contractors, Consultants, and Clients
5. Assessment of candidates for membership and registration
6. Developing the headquarters
7. Representation at National and International Conferences and workshops
8. Advice on the standards of engineering degree courses through visitation committees.
9. Publication of a regular Journal and Newsletter.
10. Recognition to academic and professional work.
11. Liaising with other professional bodies regional and International.
12. Organizing of public lectures and debates by distinguished persons.
13. Providing members with a Code of Ethics.

IE AR 2011
 1

T H E ENGINEERS REGISTRATION BOARD (ERB)

Functions
The functions of the Board shall be to regulate and control engineers and their activities
within Uganda, and to advise the Government in relation thereto.
a) Regulate and administer the practice of engineers.
b) Keep a register of engineers entitled to practice the engineering profession in Uganda.
c) Design suitable training programmers for students in engineering and set examinations
for qualifying standards.
d) Set ethical standards of practice and disciplinary procedures so as to keep required
standards of engineering

The Board consists of:

I) Chairman
ii) Three Registered Engineers from Government Service
iii) Three Registered Engineers not in service of Government.

The Registrar of the Board is the one who keeps the Register of Engineers.
A Registered Engineer is a person who has had at least 4 years of postgraduate
engineering experience and is a Corporate Member of the Institution.
A Registered Member is required to comply to a Code of Ethics, amental aspects of the
profession and the industry.
 2
CHAPTER FOUR
The Engineering Analytical Methods

4.0. The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process by which scientists, collectively and over time endeavor to
construct an accurate representation of the world.
Through the use of standard procedures criteria, we aim to minimize personal and cultural
beliefs in the perception and interpretation of natural phenomena.
It attempts to minimize the influence or bias or prejudice in the experimenter when testing a
hypothesis or theory.
It has four steps:
1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.
2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics it takes form of a
causal mechanism or a mathematical relation.
3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena or to predict
qualitatively the results of new observations.
4. Performance of experimenters and properly designed experiments.

If experiments bear out the hypothesis, it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of
nature. If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis it must be rejected or modified. The
key in the description of the scientific method is the predictive power of the hypothesis, tested
by experiments. In science, theories can never be proven absolutely, only disproved. There
is always the possibility that a new observation will conflict with a long- standing theory.

4.1. Testing Hypothesis

Experimental tests may lead either to confirmation of the hypothesis or ruling out of the
hypothesis. The scientific method requires that a hypothesis be ruled out or modified if its
predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental tests. No matter how
 3
elegant a theory is, it must agree with experimental results. In physics as in every experimental
science, experiment is supreme.

If the predictions of a long- s t a n d i n g theory are found to be in disagreement with

new results, the theory may be discarded as a description of reality e.g., Newton’s laws are
valid when the velocities of interest are much smaller than the speed of light i.e. (v/c<<1).
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity gives us much more general, more accurate description of
motion for values v/c approaching 1. Relativity equations reduce to classical equations under
conditions where the velocities are very small compared to the velocity of light.

Errors in experiments have several sources. There is error due to instruments of

measurements. This is called a random error. It has equal probability of producing a
measurement higher or lower. There is systematic error due to factors which bias the
results in one direction. We have standard ways of estimating or reducing errors.

4.2 Common mistakes in applying the scientific method

The most fundamental error is to mistake the hypothesis for an explanation of phenomena
without performing experimental results. Another mistake is to ignore or rule out data,
which do not support the hypothesis. Another one is failure to estimate quantitative systematic
errors.
4.3 Hypothesis Models, Theories and Laws
A hypothesis is a limited statement regarding cause and effect in specific situations. It
refers to our state of knowledge, before experimental work has been performed. e.g., A car
broke down.

A model is derived for situations when it is known that the hypothesis has at least limited
validity e.g., Hooke’s
Laws.
 1

A scientific theory or law represents a group of related hypotheses, which have been
confirmed through repeated experimental tests. Theories are formulated in a few concepts and
equation identified as laws of nature suggesting their universal applicability. After repeated
experimental tests the new phenomena can be accommodated so that scientists can seriously
question the theory and modify it.

The scientific method is also useful in everyday problem solving. e.g., a telephone not
working, there could be a problem with the hand set, cabling inside your house or the hook
up outside the phone company.

We determine that the method works best in situations where the phenomena can be isolated.
The question basically answered is; "How do we come to know things?” The scientific
method distinguishes itself from other forms of explanation because of its requirement of
systematic experimentation.

4.5 Science Builds on Previous Knowledge

I) Logic
Logic is when you think with reason and arguments. Scientists use logic because it shows
relationships between the parts of an idea and the whole idea. With logic you can see a
relationship between a few trees and an entire forest.

ii) Logical reasoning

The scientific method is a rational, logical thought process that is used to figure out facts and
truths. All answers must be able to be proven. If someone figures out an answer and other
scientists come up with the same answer by repeating the experiment, they are all happy. If
someone did something wrong, they start all over again. There are no opinions considered as
scientific laws.

The truth is something quantitative. Quantitative statements can be proven through

experiments. When someone has an opinion that cannot be proven directly it is a
qualitative argument.
 1

iii) Deductive Reasoning

With deductive reasoning you start with information which is called a premise. Then you
come up with conclusions based on the premise.

1. If this happens
2. And this happens
3. Then you come to this conclusion

If the premises are true then the conclusion will also be true.

iv) Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning works in the opposite direction. You start by having a number of
observations. I see that. That happens here. I believe this will happen like others because the
circumstance is similar.

It is in two parts. First you start with specific and come up with a new theory (that is
deductive). When you apply that theory in new areas (that is inductive). You organize data
into categories (Saying ‘what do these have in common?)

There is a problem with inductive reasoning. Your conclusions have more information that
the facts you use. You start with dozens of observed examples. Take an inductive leap and
assume millions of possible examples. It is like prediction.

If the conclusion is true then the new premise and assumptions are true.
 2
4.6 Research Methodology

Research is the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of
problems. The research process involves identifying a problem or opportunity; translating
that problem/opportunity into a research problem; and collecting, analyzing and reporting the
information specified in the research problem. The steps involved in conducting research are
as follows:

I) Selection and definition of a problem

A problem is a hypothesis or question of interest to people that can be tested and answered
through collection and analysis of data. Problem definition is the most critical part of the
research process. It involves specifying the types of information that are needed by the
researcher. The steps involved are:
• Problem clarification: the basic goal here is to ensure the decision-maker’s
description of the problem is accurate and reflects the appropriate area of concern for
research. If the wrong problem is translated into a research problem, the chance
of providing useful information is low.
• Situation analysis: this focuses on the variables or factors that have produced the
problem or opportunity. Those factors should be isolated
• Model development: this involves a description of the outcomes that are desired, the
relevant variables, and the relationships of the variables to the outcomes. The
researcher is therefore interested in answers to the following questions:
> What objectives are desired in solving the problem?
> What variables determine whether the objectives will be met?
> How do the variables relate to the objectives?

• Specification of information requirements: this is a clear statement of the

information required to assist in decision making
 1

ii) Execution of Research Procedures

The procedures include:

• Selection of subjects: namely sample or sub group selection. The stratification or
blocking is done according to the variables that are considered to affect the results.
• Selection of data collection methods: namely
> Secondary research method
> Survey research method
> Experimental research method

• Selection or development of measurement methodologies, namely

> Questionnaires
> Observation interviews
> Scales (such as attitude scales, numerical scales, etc.)

iii) Analysis of Data

This involves converting a series of recorded observations into descriptive statements and/ or
inferences about relationships. The types of analyses depend on the nature of the sampling
process, the measurement instrument, and the data collection method.

iv) . Drawing and Stating Conclusions

Here a summary or logical inference is made in consonance with the analyses. There are,
however, certain research fallacies to guard against in making conclusions.

4.7. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of research

Research studies can be classified in a number of ways, two major approaches being by
purpose and by method.
 2
a) Classification by Purpose

This is based primarily on the degree to which findings have direct application and the
degree to which they are generalizable to other situations.
I) Basic Research: this involves development of theory. In its purest form, basic
research is conducted solely for the purpose of theory development and refinement. It is not
concerned with practical applicability, and it most closely resembles the laboratory
conditions and controls usually associated with scientific research.
ii) Applied Research, this is concerned with the application of theory to the solution of
problems. It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its
usefulness in solving business problems. There are several types of applied research, namely
iii) Evaluation R e s e a r c h . Evaluation i s a s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s o f c o l l e c t i n g a n d
analyzing data in order to make decisions. It involves questions such as:
a. Is a new state-of -the-art order processing system better than the old/current one?
b. Is a new ATM machine worth its costs?
Answers to such questions require the collection and analysis of data and interpretation of that
data with respect to one or more set criteria.
iv) Research and Development (R&D). the major purpose of R&D is to develop new
products or processes
v) Action Research. The purpose here is to solve problems through the application of
the scientific method. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in a
local setting. The primary goal is the solution of a given problem, not a contribution
to science.
 1

b) Classification by Method

Research classification by method includes:

I) Historical Research
This involves studying, understanding and explaining past events. The purpose of this research
is to arrive at conclusions concerning causes, effects, or trends of past occurrences that may
help to explain present events and anticipate future events.

Historical researchers do not typically gather data by administering instruments to individuals.

They must seek out data that are already available. Sources of data are referred to as either
primary or secondary.
1. Primary sources constitute firsthand knowledge such as eyewitness reports and original
documents. If you interview someone who witnessed an accident, that person is a primary
source
2-Secondary sources constitute second hand information such as a description of
an event by someone other than the eye witness.

ii) Descriptive Research

This involves collecting data in order to test a hypothesis or answer questions
concerning the current status of the subject of study. A descriptive study determines and
reports the way things are. Market research surveys are a good example.
-Descriptive d a t a are usually collected through questionnaire
s u r v e y , interviews or observations.

iii) Correlational Research. This attempts to determine whether, and to what degree, a
relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. The purpose may be to
establish a relationship or the lack of it, or to use relationships in making predictions.
 1

iv) Causal-comparative Research

This attempts to establish cause-effect relationships. It involves group comparisons.
The alleged cause’ or independent variable is not manipulated: it has already occurred. The
independent variable cannot be manipulated (such as sex), should not be manipulated (such as
physical impairment), or simply are not manipulated but could be (such as method of training).

v) Experimental Research
This is similar to causal-comparative research except that here the independent variable is
manipulated. In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates at least one independent (the
cause) and observes the effect on one or more dependent variables (the effect).

4.8.THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD AND

PROCEDURE

Experiments normally differ in aspect, but they all follow the same basic form; they are
subject to a sequential pattern of planning, implementation and evaluation. It is as important
as analytical work, which allows for the formulation and solution of problems. Each step
in the sequence requires that the experimenter always asks his motive before proceeding to
the next, if successful and economic conclusions are to be reached. In analytical work, it is
possible to proceed to a unique answer through a single path. However, in experimental
work it is seldom possible. As with design, an experimental programmed consists of a series
of experiments, each as part of an iterative process, which combines theoretical and analytical
tools.

The diagram assembles essential characteristics and arranges them in articulated form. This
allows for sensible interaction and repetition once various steps have been taken. Often
there is no existing information and the box with that heading will be filled when the
experimenter has taken some visible steps to establish the effect of a range of variables or the
probable timescale of a fully-fledged programmed in which existing or new apparatus will be
tried. As a result of these preliminary tests, the experimenter has some information about
 2
his problem, together with the initial experience of equipment will help generate and possibly
reformulate his objectives.
This discipline, the appropriate programming of events and self-appraisal by the
experimenter, are vital if objectives are fulfilled economically. The skills required will be
discussed later.
It should be noted that the field of experimentation is one of the more common links between
scientists and engineers being one of the ways of acquiring information unavailable.

Laboratory work for engineering students has at least four objectives.

1. Experiments designed to illustrate points covered in lectures
2. For experimental investigation
3. For the design and synthesis
4. As training in measurement techniques.

1. Illustrative Experiments

Most undergraduate experiments fall in this category. The only creative part of such an
experiment which would also encourage inquiry at every step and understanding of
experimental method is when the experiment is first devised.

The student can always inquire of this sort of experiment. For instance, why do it that way?
What if the loading changed? Skepticism is vital and is the essence of good experimentation.
Why perform an experiment that has a predictable outcome? This type of experiment
however, is instructive in gaining experience with different types of equipment and providing
practice in the art of communicating results.
 1

2. Experimental Investigation

This allows of greater appreciation of all aspects of a problem in the absence of specific
knowledge appropriate to it. There may be very scanty or no existing information. The first
experiment may be performed crudely. Sometimes existing information may be useless in
which case it should be discarded. e.g., the Wright Brothers in their quest to fly. They
eventually had to perform their own experiments after discarding the available information
about the behavior of the atmosphere.
Experimental investigation is often the real way to gain information needed about a problem.
When applied, it is usually the last resort because it can be extremely expensive and time
consuming requiring all the skills of an experienced industrialist. The main objective must
never be lost right of.

3. Design

As far as design is concerned, experiment is invaluable in helping assess the effects of

simplifications made in synthesizing complex parts and behavior to a conceptual level
which is capable of mathematical representation. For instance, the behavior of the aero plane
wing can be taken as a cantilever Analysis on its own is usually only capable of describing
overall behavior and not important details. It is the details that produce the success in most
designs. Experiment plays its part in verifying that not only the details may be practical
possibilities but their presence does not impede the main function of the part in question.
Experimentation plays its part in choice of materials for a part. It is often possible to correlate
the behavior of a complex part with a much simpler laboratory test piece after suitable analysis
has verified. From this analysis, the final choice, in terms of strength, toughness, corrosion
resistance, weight and cost can be determined.
The feasibility and success of a design will depend upon how the various components operate
together. Their efficiency can be determined by experimentation.
 1

4. Measurement Techniques

Soundness in experimental practice is important to an engineer as his grounding in analysis.

An important skill is the use and choice of instruments. Training in experimentation
is vital in order that a critical awareness of the value and means of assessing experimentation
can be developed.

If a standard instrument is not available can another be utilized, or devised? At every

stage instrument should be viewed with skepticism. Regardless of the type of experiment, a
methodical approach is required and highly desirable. At no time must we generate new
concepts based on questionable data.

The detailed steps in the experimental method are summarized below. We however, need to
apply logic and reasoning to each step. There must always be a motive for the experiment,
which results in action. The action will be to perform analysis in light of new data. An
engineer must be able to create, innovate with imagination and subject himself to self-
criticism. The self-questioning and enquiry needed in the process is vital for all activities not
only in the table
5. Procedure
There are no specific rules for proceeding with an experimental programmed. Methods
vary and experimenters build their own expertise and feel for the job in hand and
experience develops with time.

The areas of consideration are:

1. Test sequence
2. Test levels and test point spacing
3. procedural actions
4. Tests of qualitative nature
 1
6. Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is based on the observation that any functional relation that is an
analytical model of a real event is independent of the system of units used in measuring
that event. This analysis has the following consequences on experimental work.

1. It can greatly reduce the amount of investigation by reducing the number of

independent variables.
2. The effect of one variable can be determined by an experimental variation of
another.
3. The applicable range of a variable can be extended beyond the experimental
range.
4. It can show that sometimes a quantity has no effect upon the phenomena and so can
be excluded as an experimental variable.
5. The oversight of an independent variable can be revealed.
6. The cost of an experiment can be reduced or sometimes experimentation can be made
feasible by enabling tests to be made on reduced scale models or it can ease
experimental difficulties by enabling experiments to be performed on larger
scale models of small systems.
 1

7. Instrumentation

The importance of developing the correct attitude to instrumentation cannot be

overemphasized. To the engineer, instrumentation is a means to an end. It is not necessary
or advantageous to have full understanding of the ‘black boxes’ employed, although clear
appreciation of basic principles is desirable. Equipment should be treated with respect.
Manuals are normally available and they should be consulted when necessary.

As a general rule, an initial untrusting attitude towards equipment should be developed

until calibration tests show that this is unwarranted.

There is need for strict honesty in making instrument observations. It is a natural tendency to
want to ignore faulty equipment or apparently inconsistent results when time is limited.
Should an instrument be suspected of malfunctioning it should be acknowledged. Admission
of limitation of equipment adds credence to reported experimental results.

8. Errors in Experimentation

Every measurement involves an error. The nature of errors may vary and so may their
magnitudes but total elimination of errors from experimentation is beyond human power.
An error can be defined as the deviation of a measured value from the corresponding true
value. Errors comprise a number of constituent components.

Some can be eliminated completely while others cannot. (Counting which is often classified
as the simplest form of measurement, can be executed without any error at all). Since errors
cannot be avoided, we must learn to live with them. We must also be able to assess their
magnitude according to justified needs. Errors are frequently random or include a random
component. Statistical methods and probability theory play an important part in the analysis
 2
of errors. To be able to predict the effects of errors upon measurements is absolutely vital.
Engineers are less conscious about errors than physicists, therefore there is cause for concern.

THE ENGINEERING METHOD

Engineering problems are "ill defined", thus without deterministic solutions. Thus, the
Engineering Method is not completely systematic. The method is not a recipe to produce
hot selling products. Nevertheless, the Engineering Method does produce buildings, bridges,
vehicles, software, tools, and devices that function reliably, and we use them.
The Engineering Method is iterative. Iterative nature is built into the method. Steps are
retraced when failure occurs, in search of alternatives, or for optimization reasons.

The main distinction between craftsmanship and engineering is the systematic application of
science. Crafts are developed over time usually by local knowledge. Engineering evolves
more selectively, more rapidly, and by using and expanding science.

NOTE; STUDENTS TO MAKE MORE NOTES ON THE ENGINEERING METHOD

 1

CHAPTER FIVE

EXPERIMENTS, INTERPRETATIONS OF RESULTS AND DECISION

MAKING

5.0 GENERAL

Experimental tests may lead either to the confirmation of the hypothesis, or to the ruling
out of the hypothesis. The scientific method requires that a hypothesis be ruled out or
modified if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental tests.
Further, no matter how elegant a theory is, predictions must agree with experimental results
if we are to believe that it is a valid description of nature. In physics, as in every
experimental science, “experiment is supreme” and experimental verification of
hypothetical productions is absolutely necessary. Experiment may test the theory directly
(for example, the observation of a new particle) or may test for consequences derived from
the theory using mathematics and logic (the rate of a radioactive decay process requiring
the existence of the new particle). Note that the necessity of experiment also implies that
a theory must be testable. Theories which cannot be tested, because, of instance, they have
no observable ramifications (such as, a particle whose characteristics make it
unobservable), do not quality as scientific theories.

If the predictions of a long-standing theory are found to be in disagreement with new

experimental results, the theory may be discarded as a description of reality, but it
may continue to be applicable within a limited range of measurable parameters. For
example, the laws of classical mechanics (Newton’s Laws) are valid only when the
velocities of interest are much smaller than the speed of light (that is, in algebraic form,
when v/c<<1). Since this is the domain of a large portion of human experience, the laws of
classical mechanics are widely, usefully and correctly applied in a large range of
technological and scientific problems. Yet in nature we observe a domain in which v/c

1
 2

is not small. The motions of objects in this domain, as well motion in the “classical”
domain, are accurately described through the equations of Einstein’s theory of relatively.
We believe, due to experimental tests, that relativistic theory provides a more general and
therefore, more accurate, description of the principles governing our universe, than the
earlier “classical” they. Further, we find that the relativistic equations reduce to the classical
equations in the limit v/c<<1. Similarly, classical physics is valid only at distances much
larger than atomic scales (x >> 10-8 m). A description which is valid at all length scales
is given by the equations of quantum mechanics.

We are all familiar with theories which had to be discarded in the face of experimental
evidence. In the field of astronomy, the earth-centered description of the planetary orbits
was overthrown by the Copernican system, in which the sum was placed at the center of a
series of concentric, circular planetary orbits. Later, this theory was modified, as
measurements of the planet’s motions were found to be compatible with elliptical, not
circular, orbits, and still planetary motions was found to be derivable from Newton’s laws.

5.1 KEY ELEMENTS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

Good experimental procedure includes:

A description and size of all experimental and control groups: where will you conduct
your experiment? You may need a lot of room for you experiment or you may not be
able to move your experiment around from place to place. If you are working with
human or animal subjects, you may need a location that is quiet. You will need to think
about these limitations before you start your experiment so you can find a location in
advance that will meet your needs.

2
 1

A step-by-step list of everything you must do to perform your experiment.

Think about all the steps that you will need to go through to complete your
experiment, and record exactly what will need to be done in each step.

The experimental procedure must tell how you will change your one and only
independent variable and how you will measure that change.
The experimental procedure must explain how you will measure the resulting change
in the dependent variable or variables.
If applicable, the experimental procedure should explain how the controlled variables
will be maintained at a constant value.
The experimental procedure should specify how many times you intend to repeat
y o u r e x p e r i m e n t , s o t h a t y o u c a n v e r i f y t h a t y o u r r e s u l t s a r e reproducible.
A good experimental procedure enables someo ne else to duplicate your
experiment exactly!

1
 1

5.2 Experimental Design

Plan an experiment in which you can test your hypothesis. Key aspects to be
addressed during planning are:
Variables: The experiment will contain an element that do not change (called
controlled variables or dependent variables) and elements that will change (called
manipulated variables or independent variables).

Control: The control is a particular sample that is treated the same as all the rest of the
samples except that it is not exposed to manipulated variables.

Observation: When you interact with your experiment, you are using your senses to
observe. Does it have a smell; make a noise have color, etc.?

Collect Data: As you observe your experiment, you will need to record the progress
of your experiment. Data can be whatever you observe about your experiment that may
or may not change during the time of the experimentation. Examples of data are values
in pH, temperature, a measurement of growth, color, distance, etc.

Journal: All scientists keep a record of their observations in some form of a journal.
The journal will begin with the date and time the experimenter collects the data.
Sometimes data will include environmental values such as humidity, temperature, etc.
Entries must be written clearly and with detail of description so that another scientist.
Data: The data are the values written down as the experiment progresses.

1
 1

Examples of data entry on measuring plant growth:

11/15/04 Control Plant 7.4mm 11/22/04 Control Plant 7.8mm

Test Plant 16.2mm Test Plant 15.9mm
Test Plant 24.9mm Test Plant 23.2mm
Test Plant 37.2mm Test Plant 37.2mm

Charts and Graphs: When at all possible, illustration of data is advisable.

They create a professional appearance and convey a great deal of information.
Examples include: Bar graph, Pie Chart, X and Y axis graph, Histogram, etc.
Materials: List all supplies and equipment. For example

o 250ml. glass beaker

o 1 straw
o 150ml. Lime Water
o 10g. baking Soda

Procedure: The procedure is a somewhat detailed, step-by-step description of how

you conducted your experiment. Example: “After 1 minute, 1 stirred in the baking soda
and timed the reaction to be 45 seconds”.

1
 1

Conclusion: The conclusion is a summary of the research and the results of the
experiment. This is where you answer your research question. You make a statement
of whether your data supported your hypothesis or not. You may have data that
supported part of your hypothesis and not another part. You may also have data that did
not support your hypothesis at all. In this case, you may explain why the results were
different.

Application: The application is how the information or knowledge gained in the

experiment can be used. It is not often included in science fair projects.

Resources: One of the most important things for a student to do is recognize the
[people and resources used in developing and conducting the project. Name the people
who offered knowledge or helped, and list the web sites, retain stores, magazines,
books, computer programs, etc., that were used as sources of information or supplies.

5.3 EXPERIMENTAL ERRORS

Errors in experiments have several sources. First, there is error intrinsic to instruments of
measurement. Because this type of error has equal probability of producing a measurement
higher or lower numerically than the “true” value, it is called random error. Second, there
is non-random or systematic error, due to factors which bias the result in one direction.

No measurement and therefore no experiment can be perfectly precise. At the same time,
in science we have standard ways of estimating and in some case reducing errors. Thus, it
is important to determine the accuracy of a particular measurement and when stating
quantitative results, to quote the measurement error. A measurement without a quoted error
is meaningless. The comparison between experiment and theory is made within the
context of experimental errors. Scientists ask; how many standard deviations are the
results from the theoretical prediction? Have all sources of systematic and random errors
been properly estimated?

1
 1

5.4 DATA ANALYSIS

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurement and analyze them to see
if your hypothesis is true or false.
Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases, they will construct
a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if
they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want to test it again in a new way.

By the time you get to the analysis of your data, most of the really difficult work has been
done. It’s much more difficult to: define the research problem; develop and implement a
sampling plan; conceptualize, operationalize and test your measures; and develop a design
structure. If you have done this work well, the analysis of the data is usually a fairly
straightforward affair.
In most social research the data analysis involves three major steps, done in roughly this
order:
Cleaning and organizing the data for analysis (data Preparation)
Describing the data (Descriptive Statistics)
Testing Hypothesis and Models (Inferential Statistics)

Data Preparation

Data preparation involves checking or logging the data in; checking the data for accurate
entering the data into the computer; transforming the data; and developing and
documenting a database structure that integrates the various measures.

1
 1

5.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Statistical methods are tools used to make sense of the data and to summarize the results.
Univariate techniques such as t-tests, analysis of variance and nonparametric t-tests are
used to examine whether there are statistical differences between groups. Correlation and
regression techniques examine the associations between variables. Other specialist
methodology is used within specific disciplines, for example method comparison in
laboratory studies. Statistical models such as logistic regression, generalized models, risk
trees and Bayesian models allow further analysis.

5.5.1 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They
provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple
graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data. With
descriptive statistics you are simply describing what is, what the data shows.

Descriptive Statistics are used to present quantitative description in a manageable form.

In a research study we may have lots of measures. Or we may measure a large number
of people on any measure. Descriptive statistics help us to simply large amounts of data
in a sensible way. Each descriptive statistic reduces lots of data into a simpler summary.
For instance, consider a simple number used to summarize how well a batter is
performing in baseball, the batting average. This single number is simply the number of
hits divided by the number of times at bat (reported to three significant digits). A batter
who is hitting .333 is getting a hit one time in every three at bats. One batting .250 is hitting
one time in four. The single number describes a large number of discrete events. Or,
consider the scourge of many students, the Grade Point Average (GPA). This single number
describes the general performance of a student across a potentially wide range of course
experiences.

1
 1

Every time you try to describe a large set of observations with a single indicator you run
the risk of distorting the original data or losing important detail. The batting average
doesn’t tell you whether the batter is hitting home runs or singles. It doesn’t tell
whether she’s been in a slump or on a streak. The GPA doesn’t tell you whether the student
was in difficult courses or easy ones, or whether they were courses in their major field or
in other disciplines. Even given these limitations, descriptive statistics provide a powerful
summary that may enable comparisons across people or other units.

Univariate Analysis

Univariate analysis involves the examination across cases of one variable at a time. There
are three major characteristics of a single variable that we tend to look at:
The distribution
The central tendency
The dispersion
In most situations, we would describe all three of these characteristics for each of the
variables in our study.

The Distribution

The distribution is a summary of the frequency of individual values or ranges of values for
a variable. The simplest distribution would list every value of variable and the number of
persons who had each value. For instance, a typical way to describe the distribution of
college students is by year in college, listing the number or percent of students at each of
the four years. Or, we describe gender by listing the number or percent of males and
females. In these cases, the variable has few enough values that we can list each one and
summarize how many sample cases had the value. But what do we do for a variable like
income or GPA? With these variables there can be a large number of possible values,

1
 1

with relatively few people having each one. In this case, we group the raw scores
into categories according to ranges of values. For instance, we might look at GPA
according to the letter grade ranges. Or, we might group income into four or five ranges
of income values.

Pone of the most common ways to describe a single variable is with a frequency
distribution. Depending on the particular variable, all of the data values may be represented,
or you may group the values into categories first (e.g., with age, price, or temperature
variables, it would usually not be sensible to determine the frequencies for each value.
Rather, the values are grouped into ranges and the frequencies determined). Frequency
distributions can be depicted in two ways, as a table or as a graph. Table 1 shows an age
frequency distribution with five categories of age ranges defined. The same frequency
distribution can be depicted in a graph as shown in Figure 1. This type of graph is often
referred to as a histogram or bar chart.

Distribution may also be displayed using percentages. For example, you could use
percentages to describe the:
• Percentage of people in different income levels
• Percentage of people in different age ranges
• Percentages of people in different ranges of standardized test scores.
• Central tendency. The central tendency of a distribution is an estimate of the “center”
of a distribution of values. There are three major types of estimates of central;
tendency;
o Mean
o Median
o Mode.

1
 1

The Mean or average is probably the most commonly used method or describing central
tendency. To compute the mean all you do is add up all the values and divide by the number
of values. For example, the mean or average quiz score is determined by summing all the
scores and dividing by the number of students taking the exam. For example, consider the
test score values:
15, 20, 21, 20, 36, 15, 25, 15

The sum of these 8 values is 167, so the mean is 167/8 = 20.875

The Median is the score found at the exactly middle of the set of values. One way to
compete the median is to list all scores in numerical order, and then locate the score
in the center of the sample. For example, if there are 500 scores in the list, score #250 would
be the median. If we order the 8 scores shown above, we would get:
15, 15, 15, 20, 20, 21, 25, 36.

There are 8 scores and score #4 and #5 represent the halfway point. Since both the scores
are 20, the median is 20. If the two middle scores had different values, you would
have to interpolate to determine the median.

The Mode is the most frequently occurring value in the set of scores. To determine the
mode, you might again order the scores as shown above, and then count each one. The
most frequently occurring value is the mode. In our example, the value 15 occurs three
times and is the model. In some distributions there is more than one modal value. For
instance, in a bimodal distribution, there are two values that occur most frequently.

Notice that for the same set of 8 scores we got three different values; 20.875,

20, and 15, for the mean, median and mode respectively. If the distribution is truly normal
(ire., bell-shaped), the mean, median and mode are all equal to each other.

1
 1

Dispersion

Dispersion refers to the spread of the values around the central tendency. There are two
common measures of dispersion, the rage and the standard deviation.

The Range is simply the highest value minus the lowest value. In our example
distribution, the high value is 36 and the low is 15, so the range is 36 – 15 = 21.

The Standard Deviation is a more accurate and detailed estimate of dispersion because an
outlier can greatly exaggerate the range (as was true in this example where the single outlier
value of 36 stands apart from the rest of the values. The standard deviation shows the
relation that set of scores has to the mean of the sample. Again, lest take the set of scores:
15, 20, 21, 20,
To compute the standard deviation, we first find the distance between each value and
the mean. We know from above that the mean is 20.875. So, the differences from the mean
are:
15 – 20.875 = -5.875
20 - 20.875 = -0.875
21 - 20.875 = +0.125
20 - 20.875 = -0.875

Notice that values that are below the mean have negative discrepancies and values above it
has positive ones. Next, we square each discrepancy:
-5.875 x -5.875 = 34.515625
-0.875 x -0.875 = 0.765625

1
 1

+0.125 x +0.125 = 0.015625

-0.875 x -0.875 = 0.765625

Now, we take those “squares” and sum them to get the Sum of Squares (SS) value.
Here, the sum is 350.875. Next, we divide this sum by the number of scores minus 1.
Here, the result is 350.875/7 = 50.125. This value is known as the variance.

5.5.2 Inferential Statistics

Inferential Statistics investigate questions, models and hypotheses. In many cases, the
conclusions from inferential statistics extend beyond the immediate data alone. For
instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population
thinks. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability that an
observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might have happened
by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make inferences from our data
to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics simply to describe what’s going on
in our data.
With inferential statistics, you are trying to reach conclusions that extend beyond the
immediate data alone. For instance, we use inferential statistics to try to infer from the
sample data what the population might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make
judgments of the probability that an observed difference between groups is a dependable
one or one that might have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential
statistics to make inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use
descriptive statistics simply to describe what’s going on in our data.

1
 1

5.6 ALCULATIONS AND SUMMARIZING DATA

Often, you will need to perform calculations on your raw data in order to get the results
from which you will generate a conclusion. A spreadsheet program such as Microsoft
Excel may be a good way to perform such calculations, and then later the
spreadsheet can be used to display the results. Be sure to label the rows and columns
– don’t forget to include the units of measurement (grams, centimeters, liters, etc.).

You should have performed multiple trials of your experiment. Think about the best
way to summarize your data., Do you want to calculate the average for each group
of trials, or summarize the results in some other way such as ratios, percentages, or
error and significance for really advanced students? Or, is it better to display your
data as individual data points?

1
 1

5.7 DISPLAY OF RESULTS

Data display can be accomplished using several sample yet effective ways such as graphs,
tables, diagrams, etc.

5.7.1 Graphs

Graphs are often an excellent way to display your results. For any type of graph:
Generally, you should place your independent variable ion the x-axis of your graph
and the dependent variable on the y-axis.
Be sure to label the axes of your graph – don’t forget to include the units of
measurement (grams, centimeters, liters, etc.).
If you have more than one set of data, show each series in a different color or symbol
and include a legend with clear labels.
Different types of graphs are appropriate for different experiments. These are just a few
of the possible types of graphs.

A bar graph might be appropriate for comparing different trials or different experimental
groups. It also may be a good choice if your independent variable is not numerical. (In
Microsoft Excel, generate bar graphs by choosing chart types “Column” or “Bar”).

A time-series plot can be used if your dependent variable is numerical and your
independent variable is time. (In Microsoft Excel, the “line graph” chart type generates a
time series. By default, Excel simply puts a count on the x-axis. To generate a time series
plot with your choice of x-axis units, make a separate data column that contains those
units next to your dependent variable. Then choose the “XY (Scatter)” chart type, with a
sub-type that draws a line.

1
 1

An my-line graph shows the relationship between your dependent and independent
variables when both are numerical and the dependent variable is a function of the
independent variable. (In Microsoft Excel, choose the “XY (Scatter)” chart type, and then
choose a sub-type that does draw a line).

A scatter plot might be the proper graph if you’re trying to show how two variables
may be related to one another. (In Microsoft Excel, choose the “XY (Scatter)” chart type,
and then choose a sub-type that does not draw a line).

5.8 INTERPRETATION AND CONCLUSIONS

This includes the discussion of the implications of the observations of the scientific
research and what those results mean for the problem under study.

5.8.1 Interpretation/Discussion of results

The discussion or interpretation of results is the most important section of a given

research endeavor. This is where it all comes together; where you interpret and explain
your results. Was your hypothesis valid? Why or why not? You are trying to convince the
reader of your position. You are arguing a specific point (your hypothesis) and you MUST
have evidence (your results) to back up your point. Even the most carefully planned
experiments designed by the most gifted scientists rarely go as intended. The unexpected
is part of the excitement of science.

If/when you get results other than expected, you must explain why. Explain any possible
errors. Do not lay blame. Do not say that your results are wrong because someone
else made a mistake or because you made a mistake. If something went wrong in the
measurement, tell HOW you did the measurement and how that would affect the result.
For example, suppose you do a filtration and then collect and weigh the solid but your
results are way off. When you think about how you did the experiment you remember

1
 2

that you weighed the filter paper after 5 minutes instead of waiting 2 hours. You have
identified a possible source of error. This is good, but do not stop here. Explain how
that error could affect your results as in, “The drying time was insufficient and therefore,
the filter paper contained additional water making the measured mass too high”.
Important points for the discussion:

Interpretation of results. What do your results mean? Explain how they are related
to the initial question and the hypothesis.
Validity of hypothesis? Is your hypothesis correct? Why or why not?
Source of error. Do not just state the error, explain it and rationalize it.
Describe how the error related to the hypothesis.

5.8.2 Conclusion (Decision making)

Wrap it all up. You will see some papers that do not include conclusions. However,
for scientific research, it is important to ALWAYS have a conclusion section. In addition
to restating the main outcomes of your experiment, you should talk about the broader
implications of your work. How do your results.

contribute more to the greater body of scientific knowledge? By answering a particular

question, does your work raise more questions? (This is usually the case) Do your results
suggest any future experiments? By clearly stating the conclusions of the research, one is
able to therefore recommend appropriate course of action or decisions that are viable.

2
 1

1
 1

1
 227

AR ICE 2007 1