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COMPUTER SCIENCE
Topic list:
➔Topic 1:Theory
◆ 1-1:Systems Architecture
◆ 1-2:Memory & Storage
◆ 1-3:Networks
◆ 1-4:Network Security
◆ 1-5:Systems Software
◆ 1-6:Impacts
➔Topic 2:Programming
◆ 2-1:Algorithms
◆ 2-2:Programming Fundamentals
◆ 2-3:Producing Robust Programs
◆ 2-4:Boolean Logic
◆ 2-5:Languages & IDEs
1-1: Systems Architecture
Topic Contents:
1 .1a -The CPU
1.1b -Registers & The FDE Cycle
1.2 -CPU Performance
1.3 -Embedded Systems
1.1a - The CPU
he Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the most important component in any computer system. Like many
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components of a computer, it is attached to the motherboard. The purpose of the CPU is to process data and
instructions by constantly repeating the fetch - execute cycle.
CPU Components
The CPU has 4 major components:
- TheControl Unit(CU)
- TheControl Unit(CU) sends control signals to direct the operation of the CPU.Controlsignals
andtiming signalsare sent to theALU and other componentssuch as RAM. It also decodes
instructions as part of theFDE cycle.
- TheArithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)
- ALU stands for'Arithmetic and Logic Unit'. It performssimple calculationsandlogical
operations.
- TheRegisters
- A register is atemporary storage spaceforone instruction or address. Different registers are
used during theFDE cycle.
- TheCache
- Cache memoryis used to temporarily store data that isfrequently accessed. Cache memory is
split intodifferent levels. Cache isslower to access than the registersbutmuch faster than
RAM.
Computer Architecture
he way acomputer is designed and structuredis known as itsarchitecture. The most common type of
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computer architecture is theVon Neumann Architecture.
his architecture is named afterJohn Von Neumannwho developed the concept of a stored program
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computer in the 1940s. Before being able to store programs in memory, instructions had to be manually input
by a human. A computer with Von Neumann architecture stores both program instructions and data in the
same memory (RAM).Other architectureslike Harvard have two separate memories -one for program
instructions and another for data. Data is transferredbetween componentsonpathwayscalledbuses.
Von Neumann Architecture
1.1b - Registers & The FDE Cycle
heFetch Decode Execute(FDE) cycle is performed by the CPUmillions of timesevery second.
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This cycle is how the CPUprocesses data and instructionsfor each program or service that requires its
attention.
Important Registers
register is asmall storage spacefortemporary datain the CPU. Each register has aspecific role. There
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areFour essential registersused in the FDE cycle:
- TheProgram Counter(PC)
- A register that tracks theRAM addressof thenext instructionto befetched.
- TheMemory Address Register(MAR)
- A register thattracks the RAM addressof the instruction that is to befetched.
- TheMemory Data Register(MDR)
- The MDR stores theinstructionthat has beentransferred from RAM to the CPU.
- TheAccumulator(ACC)
- The ACC stores theresult of mathematical or logical calculations.
- The Current Instruction Register (CIR)
- A register that stores the instruction that has been fetched from RAM, and is about to be
decoded or executed
FDE Cycle
he essential idea of the F-E cycle is that instructions are fetched from RAM, to be decoded (understood) and
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executed (processed) by the CPU. The Cycle is as follows:
1. T heProgram Counter(PC) register displays the address in RAM of thenext instructionto be
processed. This value is copied into theMemory Address Register(MAR)
2. The PC register is increasedby 1. This prepares the CPU for the next instruction to befetched
3. The CPUchecks the addressin RAM whichmatchesthe address held in the MAR
4. The instruction inRAMistransferredto the Memory Data Register (MDR)
5. The instruction in theMDRiscopiedinto the Current Instruction Register (CIR)
6. The instruction in theCIRisdecoded(understood) andexecuted(processed). Any result of an execution
is stored in theAccumulator(ACC) register
7. The cyclerepeatsbyreturning to the first stepandcheckingthe program counter for the address of
thenext instruction
1.2 - CPU Performance
The performance of a computer system is affected by three main factors:
Cache Memory
What is cache memory?
- Cache memory is temporary storage for frequently accessed data.
How does cache memory improve performance?
- Cache memory is closer to the CPU than RAM, meaning that it can provide data and instructions to the
CPU at a faster rate. A computer with more cache memory (e.g. 8GB instead of 4GB) should have a
higher performance because repeatedly used instructions can be stored and accessed faster.
What is the limitation of cache memory?
- Cache memory is costly, so most computers only have a small amount.
Clock Speed
What is clock speed?
- Clock speed is the measure of how quickly a CPU can process instructions. Clock speed is measured in
Gigahertz (GHz). A typical desktop computer might have a clock speed of 3.5 GHz. This means it can
perform 3.5 billion cycles a second.
ow does clock speed improve
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performance?
- The faster the clock speed, the
faster the computer can
perform the FDE cycle resulting
in better performance because
more instructions can be
processed each second.
How does overclocking and underclocking affect performance?
- Say a CPU runs at3.5 GHzfrom factory:
- O verclocking(say, to3.9 GHz) is when the computer's clock speed is increased higher than the
recommended rate. This will make the computer perform faster, but it can lead to overheating
and could damage the machine.
- Underclocking(say to3.1 GHz) is when the computer's clock speed is decreased lower than the
recommended rate. This will make the computer perform slower but will increase the lifespan of
the machine
Core Count
What is a core?
- A core is a complete set of CPU components (control unit, ALU and registers). Each core is able to
perform its own FDE cycle. A multi-core CPU has more than one set of components within the same
CPU.
How does the number of cores improve performance?
- In theory, a single-core processor can execute one instruction at a time, a dual-core processor can
execute two instructions, and a quad-core can execute four instructions simultaneously. Therefore, a
computer with more cores will have a higher performance because it can process more instructions at
once.
What are the limitations of having more cores?
- If one core is waiting for another core to finish processing, performance may not increase at all. Some
software is also not written to make use of multiple cores, so it will not run any quicker on a multi-core
computer.
1.3 - Embedded Systems
n embedded system is a computer system built into a larger machine to provide a means of control.
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Embedded systems perform a specific pre-programmed task which is stored in ROM. An embedded system
uses a combination of hardware and software. They perform only specific tasks and often have a small
amount of storage and low processing power.
xample:A washing machine has a
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control chip that manages the
different program cycles.
xample:A traffic light has a
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control chip that determines when
to change to a green or red light.
1-2: Memory & Storage
Topic Contents:
.1- Primary Storage
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2.2- Secondary Storage
2.3- Units
2.4a- Number Storage
2.4b- Character Storage
2.4c- Image Storage
2.4d- Sound Storage
2.5- Compression
2.1 - Primary Storage
Primary vs Secondary storage
Storage in a computer is split into two categories:
- Primary Storage:
- Very quickas it isdirectly accessedby CPU
- Typicallysmallerin storage side
- Sometimes called‘Main Memory’
- IncludesRAMandROM
- Secondary Storage:
- Sloweras it isnot directly accessedby the CPU
- Typicallylargerin storage size
- Used forlong-term storageof files as it isnon-volatile
- IncludesMagnetic,Optical, andSolid Statestorage.
Volatile vs Non-Volatile storage
Storage in a computer is also split into two other categories:
- Volatilestorage is temporary: data islostwhen the power isturned off(For Example,RAM)
- Non-volatilestoragesavesthe data even when not beingpowered. Data can be storedlong-termand
accessed when the computer is turned on (For Example,ROM)
Why do computers need Primary storage?
Primary storage islow-capacity, internal storage that can bedirectly accessedby the CPU.
rogram instructions and data must becopiedfrom the hard drive into RAM to be processed by the CPU
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becauseprimary storageaccess speeds are muchfasterthan secondary storage devices like the hard drive.
Types of Primary storage (Memory)
- Random Access Memory(RAM):
- R AM isvolatile(temporary) storage that stores all programs that arecurrently running. It also
stores parts of theoperating systemto be accessed by the CPU. It is made up of a large number
of storage locations, each can be identified by aunique address.
- Read-Only Memory(ROM):
- ROM isnon-volatilestorage that cannot be changed. ROM stores the boot program /BIOSfor
when the computer is switched on. The BIOS thenloads up the operatingsystemto take over
managing the computer.
Virtual Memory
rograms must bestored in RAMto beprocessedby the CPU. Even if there is insufficient space in RAM for all
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programs the computer can use thehard disk drive(HDD) as anextension of RAM- this is calledvirtual
memory. If new data is needed to be stored in RAM thenunused datain RAM is moved to thehard driveso the
new data can be transferred into RAM. If the original data is required again, it can bemoved backfrom
virtual memory into RAM. Using virtual memory is beneficial because it allowsmore programsto be run at the
same time withless system slow down.
2.2 - Secondary Storage
econdary storage isnon-volatilestorage used tosave and storedata that can beaccessed repeatedly.
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Secondary storage isnot directly embeddedon the motherboard (and possibly even external) and therefore
further away from the CPU so it isslower to accessthe primary storage.
Magnetic Storage
magnetic hard disk drive (HDD) is themost common form of secondary storagewithin desktop computers.
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Aread/writehead movesnanometresabove the disk platter and uses the magnetic field of the platter toread
or editdata. Anobsolete(no longer used) type of magnetic storage is a floppy disk but these have been
replacedbysolid state devicessuch as USB sticks which are much faster and have a much higher capacity.
Another type of magnetic storage that is still used ismagnetic tape. Magnetic tape has ahigh storage
capacitybut data has to be accessed inorder(serial access) so it is generally only used bycompaniesto back
up or archivelarge amounts of data.
Magnetic Storage Characteristics (Hard Disk Drive):
- Largecapacityandcheaper cost per gigabytethan solid state.
- Modern external HDDs aresmallandwell protectedso they aredurableandportable, however
because of the moving parts, they shouldnot be movedwhenpowered onbecause it candamagethe
device.
- Sloweraccess speedthan solid state but faster than optical storage.
Optical Storage
ptical storage uses a laser to project beams of light onto a spinning disc, allowing it to read data from a CD,
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DVD or Blu-Ray. This makes optical storage the slowest of the four types of secondary storage. Disc drives are
traditionally internal but external disc drives can be bought for devices like laptops.
Optical Storage Characteristics:
- Low capacity: 700 MB (CD), 4.7 GB (DVD), 25 GB (Blu-ray).
- Notdurablebecause discs are veryfragileand canbreak or scratcheasily.
- Discs areThinandVery Portable. Also verycheapto buy in bulk.
- Optical discs have theslowest access speed.
Solid State Storage
here areno moving partsin solid state storage. SSDs (Solid State Drives) are replacing magnetic HDDs (Hard
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Disk Drives) in modern computers and video game consoles because they are generallyquieter,fasterand use
less power. A USB flash drive (USB stick) is another type of solid state
storage that is used totransport fileseasily because of its small size. Memory cards, like the SD card in a
digital camera or a Micro SD card in a smartphone, are another example of solid state storage.
Solid State Characteristics:
- Moreexpensive cost per gigabytethan magnetic.
- Usuallydurablebut cheap USB sticks can snap or break.
- The small size of USB sticks and memory cards and can fit easily in a bag or pocket mean they arevery
portable
- Solid State Storage has ahigh capacityand thefastest accessspeed because they contain no moving
parts.
2.3 - Units
ll computer systemscommunicate,process, andstoredata using binary. Binary is anumber system
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consisting entirely of0sand1s. Computers use binary as they consist ofbillionsof tinytransistorswhich are
switches that only havetwo values-on(1) oroff(0). Therefore all datamust be representedin this way.
Everything a computer needs to process must be converted into a binary format including text, images, videos,
and audio.
Units of Data Storage
its (b)
B ifferent exam board but:
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x8 =Bytes(B) x1024 = Kibibyte (KiB)
x1000 =Kilobytes(KB) x1024 = Mebibyte (KiB)
x1000 =Megabytes(MB) x1024 = Gibibyte (KiB)
x1000 =Gigabytes(GB) x1024 = Tebibyte (TiB)
x1000 =Terabytes(TB) x1024 = Pebibyte (PiB)
x1000 =Petabytes(PB)
2.4a - Number Storage
Binary & Denary
inary is abase 2number system (Onlytwopossible values per character -0 or 1) that computers use to
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process data and communicate. Denary, on the other hand, is thebase 10number (tenpossible values per
character -0 to 9) system that you have been using your whole life.
Binary to Denary [OCR]
Denary to Binary [OCR]
Hexadecimal
exadecimal is abase 16(sixteenpossible values per character -0 to 16) number system. It is used as a
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shorthandfor binary because it usesfewer charactersto write thesame value. This makes hexadecimal less
prone toerrorswhen reading or writing it, compared to binary.
Hexadecimalonlyusessingle-charactervalues. Double digit numbers are converted into numbers (Ato F
instead of10 to 15).
Binary to Hexadecimal [OCR]
Hexadecimal to Binary [OCR]
To convert fromHexadecimaltoDenary(or inverse) you need to convert either one toBinaryfirst.
2.4b - Character Storage
What is a character set?
character setis a table that matches together a character and a binary value. Each character in a
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character set has aunique binary numbermatched with it. Character sets are necessary as theyallow
computers to exchange data and humans to input characters. Two common character sets are ASCII and
Unicode:
Ascii
SCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) is a common character set which does not take
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up much memory space. It is important to understand that the number of characters that can be stored is
limited by the bits available -ASCII uses 1 byte (8 bits)which only gives 256 possible characters. This is enough
for the English language but it can’t be used for other languages or all punctuation symbols.
Unicode
nicode is a more popular character set because it uses2 bytes (16 bits) that allow for 65,536 possible
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characters.The extra byte allows many different languages to be represented, as well as thousands of
symbols and emojis. HoweverUnicode requires more memoryto store each character than ASCII as it uses an
extra byte.
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Character sets are logically ordered. For example, the binary code forA is 01000001, B is 01000010 and C is
01000011as the code increases by 1 with each character.
The file size of a text file is calculated with the equation: bits percharacter x number of characters
2.4c - Image Storage
Bitmap Images
itmap images are made of pixels -single-colour squares- arranged on a grid. Each pixel is assigned a
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binary value which represents the colour of that pixel. The quality of a bitmap image depends on the total
amount of pixels, this is known as theimage resolution.Because it is made up of pixels, scaling up a bitmap
image will result in a visible loss of quality. Most images on computers are bitmaps, such as photos and
screenshots.
Vector Images
ector images are drawn by the computer following precise mathematical instructions to create lines and
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objects. Vectors are usuallysmaller in file size compared to bitmapsbecause each pixel in a bitmap isstored
as an individual binary value. Vectors can be scaled up without any loss of quality and are typically used for
logos and animations.
How to calculate the file size of a bitmap
bitmap file size = resolution x colour depth
he Resolution of an image is thewidth in pixelsmultiplied by the height in pixels
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The colour depth (also known as bit depth) is the number of bits that are used to represent each pixel's colour. 1
bit represents 2 colours (0 or 1 / black or white). 2 bits will allow for 4 colours, 3 bits for 8 colours etc. A colour
depth of 1 byte (8 bits) allows for 256 different colours. Remember you must multiply the colour depth, not the
number of available colours (eg 8 not 256). The RGB colour model uses 3 bytes (a byte of 256 red shades, a
byte of 256 green shades and a byte of 256 blue shades). That together can represent 16.7 million different
colours.
This also means that, in a typical 1080p (1920x1080 or 2073600 pixel) image, there are 6,220,800 B, or
6.22MB. In a 1440p (2560x1440 or 3686400 pixel) image, 11,059,200 B or 11MB, etc.
Metadata for images
Metadata is additional information about an image. Common metadata includes:
- Resolution
- Geolocation
- Date created
- Last edited
- File type
- Author details
Metadata is important, For example, the dimensions must be known so the image can be displayed correctly
2.4d - Sound Storage
Converting analogue Sound to Binary
nalogue Sound waves must be digitally recorded and stored in binary.
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To record the sound, the amplitude (height) of the analogue sound wave is measured and recorded in binary at
specific intervals.
Sampling an Analogue Sound Wave
igital sampling is discrete (separate) and not continuous like analogue waves. To get the highest quality
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sound, many samples are taken to recreate the analogue wave as closely as possible.
Sample Rate
he sample rate (sampling frequency) is the number of times per second the amplitude of the sound wave is
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measured. It is measured in kilohertz (kHz), for example CD quality is 44.1kHz (44,100 samples per second).
The higher the sampling rate is, the better the quality is, but also the larger the file size is.
Bit depth
he bit depth is the number of bits available to represent each sample. For example, a sample with a bit depth
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of 4 could be 0101 or 0110. A sample with a bit depth of 8 could be 01010111 or 11010100. A common bit depth is
16 bits.
The higher the bit depth, the more bits are available to be used for each sample. Therefore the quality is often
higher as the wave more closely resembles an analog wave.
The file size will also be larger if the bit depth is higher, as each sample stores additional bits.
Calculating the file size
The file sizein bitscan be calculated using thefollowing equation:
sound file size = sample rate x bit depth x duration
2.5 - Compression
What is compression
To compress a file is to make the file size smaller. There are many benefits to compression, such as:
- Files are smaller (naturally)
- Files can be transferred easier
- Files can be read from or written to quicker
There are 2 methods of compression; Lossy and Lossless compression.
Lossy Compression
ossy compression uses an algorithm to analyse a file and remove data that cannot be heard or seen by
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humans. For example, a lossy algorithm would analyse the sound waves of an audio file and remove any
frequencies that humans cannot hear. This process reduces the size of the file.
Further lossy compression will remove data that humans can see/hear. Lossy compression removes the data
permanently, so the file can never return to its original form. It is often used with images, audio, and video to
reduce the file size, for example to send over the internet.
Lossless Compression
ossless compression reduces the file size without removing any data. Because of this, the file is returned to its
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original form when decompressed, so no quality is lost. A file that is compressed with a lossless algorithm is
sually larger than a file compressed with a lossy algorithm because no data has been permanently removed.
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Lossless compression is used with files that would not work if data was removed, for example .exe files or word
documents.
1-3: Networks
Topic Contents:
.1a- Network Types & Performance
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3.1b- Network Hardware & Internet
3.2a- Wired & Wireless networks
3.2b- Protocols & Layers
3.1a - Network Types & Performance
Local Area Network
Local Area Network (LAN)has computer systems situatedgeographically close together, usually within the
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samebuildingorsmall site, like aschool or office.The network infrastructure of a LAN (such as servers and
routers) is usually owned and managed by thenetworkowner
Wide Area Network
Wide Area Network (WAN)has computer systems situatedgeographically distantto each other, possibly
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across a country or even the world. WANs often usethird partycommunication channels, such as connections
by internet services providers like BT or Virgin Media.
ther network types do exist, such as aMetropolitanArea Network (MAN)for computer systems connected
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across a town or city, or aPersonal Area Network(PAN)for devices connected and used by anindividual.
Client-Server Network
lients make requests to a server, the server manages that request, and then responds. For example, if the
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user (client) makes a request to access docs.google.com to a web server.
Large services like Amazon and Google will need very powerful servers to handle millions of requests a second.
The client is completely dependent on the server to provide and manage the information. The server controls
network security, backups and can be upgraded to manage higher demand.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
- T he network can becontrolled centrally - L arge amounts of traffic congestion will cause
from the server toeasily backup dataand the network toslow down.
update software. - If a fault occurs with the server then thewhole
- Hardware, software and resources can be network will fail
shared across the network, such as - IT Technicians may be required tomanageand
printers, applications and data files. maintain the network
- The network allows forimproved - Malware, such as viruses, canspread quickly
scalability, meaning more clients can be across the network.
easily addedto the central server.
Data Packets
hen sending data across a network, files are broken down into smaller parts called
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data packets. Whole files are too large to transfer as one unit so data packets allow
data to be transferred across a network quickly. Each packet of data is redirected
by routers across networks until it arrives at its destination. Data packets may split
up and use alternative routes to reach the destination address. When all the packets
have arrived at the destination address the data is reassembled back into the
original file.
Network Topologies
etwork topology refers to layout of computer systems on a local network. Devices
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in a network topology diagram are often called 'nodes'. Two types of typology are
star and mesh.
Star Topology
ach computer system is connected to a central device, usually a hub or switch.
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How it works:
- Each computer system is connected to the central hub or switch and transfers its
data packets there.
- The hub or switch looks at the destination address and transfers the packets
directly to the intended computer.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• A star topology has improved security because • Extra hardware (the hub or switch) is required to be
data packets are sent directly to and from the hub / purchased, installed and maintained.
switch in the centre and not necessarily all devices • If the central system (the hub or switch) fails then
like in a bus or ring topology. the whole network will be unusable until the error is
• New systems can be attached directly to the central fixed.
system so the network doesn't need to be shut down.
System failures of attached computers won't usually
cause complete network failure.
• Transfer speeds are generally fast in a star
topology as there are minimal network collisions.
Mesh Topology
I n afull mesh network, each computer system is connectedto every other computer
system. There is also apartialmesh network whereonlysome nodes(e.g. a printer)
are connected to every other node.
How it works:
- Data packets are transferred to the destination address along the quickest
path, travelling from node to node
- If a pathway is broken, there are many alternative paths that the packets can take
Advantages: Disadvantages:
• If one cable or system fails thendata packetscan • Because of thepossibly largeamount of cables
take analternative routeand still reach the required (esp in afull meshtopology) this network
destination address. layout can beexpensivetoinstall and maintain
• Because of the large possible number of systems •Redundant cablingshould be avoided - which is
and connections, a mesh topology can usually where cables are connected between systems that
withstand large amounts of data traffic won'teverneed to communicate
•New systemscan beaddedto the networkwithout
disrupting the entire topology
Performance
There are several factors that can affect the performance of a network, such as:
1. Bandwidth- Max amount of data that can be sent acrossa network at any point
2. Number of users at the same time- The number of usersaccessing the network
3. Number of data collisions- 2+ data packets tryingto occupy the same channel at the same time
4. Interference- Obstacles that may block signal slightly(eg, thick walls)
5. Transmission Media- The method of data transmissionacross the network
6. Distance to travel- How far the data has to travelto reach its destination
7. Signal strength- How well the signal is transmittedacross a network
8. Amount of data to transfer- How much data is beingtransferred across the network
9. Applications being used- The amount of applicationsasking for data across the network
10.Server CPU performance- The performance capabilityof the CPU in the server router
11. Network Latency- The time that data takes to transferacross the network
o increase performance, you need to increase bandwidth and decrease latency.
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Factors which affect
Bandwidth:
- Transmission media - fibre optic is fastest
- Number of users on the network - sharing the bandwidth slows the network
- Type of traffic - Streaming HD video slows the network as it requires more information to be sent
Latency:
- Connection Speed - Higher connection speed = lower latency
- Transmission Errors - Causes the packet to be resent, increasing latency
3.1b - Network Types & Performance
Network devices
hen sending data across a network, files arebrokendowninto smaller parts calleddata packets.Wholefiles
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are too large to transfer as one unit so data packets allow data to betransferred across a network quickly.
Each packet of data isredirectedby routers acrossnetworks until it arrives at its destination. Data packets
may split up andusealternativeroutesto reach thedestination address.
hen all the packets have arrived at the destination address thedata is reassembledback into the original
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file
ireless access point
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AWireless Access Pointprovides alink between wirelessand wired networks. It creates awireless local
areanetworkthat allowsWiFi-enabled devicesto connectto a wired network. Examples of a wireless access
point in a public space could be aWiFi or Bluetoothhotspot, for example a WiFi hotspot in a coffee shopor
airport to provide access to the internet.
A wireless access point may be aseparate deviceorbuilt into another device.
outer
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Routersare used totransfer data packets betweennetworks.Routersreceive data packetsand use theIP
Address in thepacket headerto determine thebestrouteto transmit the data. Data is transferred from
router to routeracross the internet towards thedestination.A router stores the IP address of each computer
connected to iton the network and uses a list calledarouting tableto calculate the quickest and shortest
route to transfer data.
witch
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Aswitchis used toconnect devices togetheron aLAN.
Itreceives data packetsfrom a connected node,readsthe destination address in the packet headerand
forwards the data directlyto its destination.
A switch willgenerate a list of the MAC addressesof all devices connectedto itwhen it receives data,and
musescan for a matching destination addressbeforesending.
An alternative to a switch is ahubbut ahub is slowerand less secureas itforwards a copy of receiveddata
to all connected nodes.
etwork Interface Card
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ANetwork Interface Controller (NIC)commonly alsoknown as aNetwork Interface Cardis aninternalpiece
of hardwarethat isrequiredfor the computer to connectto a network.
The card includes aMAC addresswhich isused whensending data across a LAN.
Anethernet cableis plugged into the network cardtoallow data to be exchangedbetween the deviceand a
network.
A NIC used to be aseparate expansion cardbut isnow typicallyembedded on the motherboard.
ransmission Media
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Although not technically a device thecommunicationchannelalong which data is transferred willaffect
performance. Three common types of transmission mediainclude:
● Ethernet cables- used typically on aLANtotransferdatabetween nodes and hardware such as
switches
● Fibre Optic cables-very fastbutmore expensiveandfragilecables typically used tosend data
quickly along a WAN. Data is sent aspulses of light.
● Coaxial cables-older, slower, coppercables thatare not used as much in modern times as they can be
affected by electromagnetic interference.
The Internet
hat is it?
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The internet is aglobal networkofinterconnectednetworks, Theworld wide web(W WW) is not the sameas
the internet. It is a way ofaccessing information,using protocols such asHTTPStoview webpages(suchas
the tab ofYoutubeopen in the background).
Serversprovideservices on the internet, such asaweb serverwhichresponds to the web browser(client)
requesttodisplay a web page. The web serverprocessesthe client requestto prepare the web page and
return it so the web browser candisplay it to theuser.
Awebsite must be hosted(stored) on a web serverso that it can be accessed by others using the internet.
Aunique domain name(eg. google.com) must be registeredwith adomain registrar- this is a company that
checks if the name is valid andnot already taken
DNS Servers
DNS(Domain Name System)serverstores alist ofdomain namesand a list ofcorresponding IP addresses
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where the website is stored.
The first thing to understand is that every web page has a domain name that is easy forhumans to remember
and type in(such as docs.google.com) as well as arelated IPaddress(such as 65.14.202.32) which isaunique
addressfor thedevice that the web page is storedon.
Steps taken to display a web page:
1. A domain name is typed into theaddress bar of a browser
2. A query is sent to thelocal DNSserver for thecorrespondingIP address of the domainname
3. The local DNS server will check if it holds an IP address corresponding to that domain name
a. If it does, it passes theIP address to your browser
b. If it does not, the query is passed ontoanother DNSserverat ahigher leveluntil the IP address
is resolved
4. The browser then connect to theIP address of theserverandaccess the website
he Cloud
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Thecloudrefers tonetworks of servers accessed onthe internet. Cloud computing is an example ofremote
service provision. Cloud servers can have differentpurposes such asrunning applications,remote processing
andstoring data.
When you store data in ‘the cloud’, using services such as Google Drive or Dropbox, your data is stored on
large serversowned by thehosting company. The hostingcompany (such as Google) is responsible for
keeping the servers running and making your dataaccessibleon the internet.
Cloud storage isvery convenientas it allows peopleto work on a file at thesame timeand it can beaccessed
fromdifferent devices. However, if the internetconnectionfails, or the servers areattackedthen the data
could be inaccessible.
Cloud storage characteristics:
- Huge CAPACITYand you canupgradeyour subscriptionif you need more storage.
- Cloud storageis typicallyfreefor acertain amountof storage. Users can then buy asubscriptionto
cover their needs.
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loud storage is difficult to rank in terms ofPORTABILITY,DURABILITY, andACCESS SPEEDbecause
it depends on yourinternet connection. Afast connectionwould mean that cloud storage is very
portable, but apoor connectionwould makeaccessdifficult
ebsite Creation
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To create a website, you need to:
- Create the webpage
- Purchase ahosting agreement
- Register adomain name
- Adomain nameis the unique website name that peopletypein the browserURL barto visit your
website. The domain name is associated with theIPaddress of the host computeror webs
server when it is registered
3.1c - Network Models
Client Server
Central Backupserver backs up all file servers,where security is controlled by a central server. All users are
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reliant on the central server. Using servers enables businesses to grow hundreds or thousands of computers
and users
Peer-to-Peer
ach computer needs to be backed up, and security is controlled by each individual machine. There is no
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central server. If one computer goes down then only its services are lost. Peer-to-Peer networks are difficult to
maintain beyond a few computers
Client Server Peer-to-Peer
Advantages: Advantages:
- E asier to manage security files - ery easy to maintain
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- Easier to take backups - Specialist staff are not required
- Easier to install software updates to all - No dependency on a single computer
computers - Cheaper to set up
Disadvantages: - No expensive hardware required
- an be expensive to set up
C Disadvantages:
- Requires IT specialists to maintain - T he network is less secure
- The server is a single point of failure - Users will need to manage their own backups
- Users will lose access if the server fails - Can be difficult to maintain a well ordered file
3.2a - Wired & Wireless Networks
Wired Networks
ired Networks use Physical Cables, such as copper or fibre optic cables, and require a Network Interface
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Card (NIC) to connect to a network.
These wired connections use a wired connection protocol - most commonly Ethernet.
1. Faster Speed
2. More Secure
3. Restricted Movement
4. Requires NIC
Wireless Networks
ireless Networks, such as WiFi or Bluetooth, use no cables but require a Wireless Network Interface Card
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(WNIC).
The most common type of wireless connection used in LANs is WiFi. Devices communicate using a Wireless
Access Point
Wireless connections generally have a slower speed and can be affected by the computer’s distance from the
router as well as obstacles like walls and bad weather
1. Slower Speed
2. Less Secure
3. Free Movement
4. Requires WNIC
3.2b - Protocols & Layers
A protocol is a set of rules that allow devices on a network to communicate with each other.
TCP / IP
(Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
TCP/IPis actuallytwo separate protocolsthat combinetogether:
- T CPis a protocol thatallows packetsto be sent andreceived between computer systems. Itbreaks the
datainto packetsandreorders them back into theoriginal dataat the destination.
- IPis a protocol in charge ofrouting and addressingdata packets. Thisensures data packets are sent
across networks to thecorrect destination. It isalso anaddressing system- every device on a network
is given aunique IP addressso data packets can besent to thecorrect computersystem.
HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
TTP is used to transfer web pages over the Internet so that users can view them in a web browser. All URLs
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start with either HTTP or HTTPS
(e.g.https://docs.google.com)
TTPS is a more secure version of HTTP that works with another protocol called SSL (Secure Sockets Layer) to
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transfer encrypted data. You should see apadlocksymbolin theURL barif your connection to that websiteis
secure.
Transfer Protocols
TP(File Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer filesacross a network. It is commonly used to upload or
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download files to/from a web server.
MTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a protocolused to send emails to a mail server and between mail
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servers.
OP(Post Office Protocol) andIMAP(Internet MessageAccess Protocol) are both protocols for receiving and
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storing emails from a mail server:
- POPwill delete an email from the email server onceit has been downloaded to a device.
- IMAPsyncs the message with an email server so itcan be accessed by different devices.
IP Address & Mac Address
There are two versions of IP addressing currently used -IPv4andIPv6:
- IPv4 is a32-bit address, represented indenary, thatallows for over4 billion unique addresses. It has
four 8-bit segmentsofdenary values(f rom 0 to 255)separated byfull stops.
IPv4 example: 145.13.218.102
- IPv6 is a128-bit address, represented inhexadecimal,that allows for anundecillion uniqueaddresses.
It haseight 16-bit segmentsoffour hexadecimal values(0 000 - FFFF), separated bycolons.
IPv6 example: 736E:1029:A4B3:902D:77B2:72FF:AE62:091
MAC address is aunique hexadecimal numberassignedto eachnetwork interface card/controller insidea
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networked device such as a router or laptop. A MAC address is a48-bit addressmade up of six 8-bitpairs in
hexadecimal,separated by dashes. While an IP addressmay change, theMAC address can’t be changed.
MAC stands forMedia Access Control.
Networking Standards
etworking standardsarerulesthatallow computersystems to communicate across networks. Standards
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have been created toensure devices can exchange dataand work together byinterpreting signals in the
same way, regardless of the manufacturer.
TCP/IP Stack & Layers
hat is TCP/IP?
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TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol) is a set of protocols that operate on different layers.
These two protocols are used together to allow computers to communicate on a network.
hat is a protocol layer?
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A layer is a division of network functionality - each layer provides a specific function to assist the transmission
of the data that is being sent. TCP/IP is split into four layers (named Application, Transport, Internet and Link).
Important Note: You do not need to know any layer names or the purpose of any specific layers in the OCR
GCSE J277 specification, just what layers are and why they’re used.
Why are protocol layers used?
1. Layers are self-contained, so they allow different developers to concentrate on one aspect of the
network at a time. A layer can be taken out and edited without affecting other layers.
2. Protocol layers are used to visualise the different parts of a network, as each of the four layers of
TCP/IP has a specific role and is associated with different protocols.
3. Protocols are broken down into well-defined, specific layers to simplify design, making it easier to
identify errors (known as troubleshooting).
4. Each layer uses specific protocols, so layering ensures these protocols are applied in a specific order.
This process uses abstraction and layers only communicate with adjacent layers for easy compatibility.
1-4: Network Security
Topic Contents:
.1- Network Threats
4
4.2- Preventing vulnerabilities
4.1 - Network Threats
Types of malware
Virus
- A virus can replicate itself and spread from system to system by attaching itself to infected files.
- A virus is only activated when opened by a human.
- Once activated, a virus can change data or corrupt a system so that it stops working.
Worm
- A worm can replicate itself and spread from system to system by finding weaknesses in software.
- A worm does not need an infected file or human interaction to spread.
- A worm can spread very quickly across a network once it has infiltrated it.
Trojan
- A trojan is a harmful program that looks like legitimate software so users are tricked into installing it.
- A trojan secretly gives the attacker backdoor access to the system.
- Trojans do not self replicate or infect other files.
Spyware
- Spyware secretly records the activities of a user on a computer.
- The main aim of spyware is to record usernames, passwords and credit card information.
- All recorded information is secretly passed back to the attacker to use.
Keylogger
- A keylogger secretly records the key presses of a user on a computer. Data is sent back to the attacker.
- The main aim of a keylogger is to record usernames, passwords and credit card information.
- Keyloggers can be downloaded or plugged into the USB port.
Ransomware
- Ransomware locks files on a computer system using encryption so that a user can no longer access
them.
- The attacker demands money from the victim to decrypt (unlock) the data.
- Attackers usually use digital currencies like bitcoin which makes it hard to trace them.
SQL Injection
QL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language used for manipulating data in databases. A
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SQL injection is when a malicious SQL query (command) is entered into a data input box on a website. If the
website is insecure then the SQL query can trick the website into giving unauthorised access to the website’s
database. An SQL injection can be used to view and edit the contents of a database or even gain
administrator privileges.
DDos Attack
DoS (Denial of Service) attack is when a computer repeatedly sends requests to a server to overload the
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system. A server overload will slow the system and may take websites offline temporarily.
A DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attack is a coordinated attack using a botnet of infected systems to
overload a server with requests. A botnet is a large group of devices controlled and used maliciously by an
attacker.
Brute Force Attack
very possible combination is tested in order from start to finish. This is not a quick method but it should break
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the password eventually and can be sped up if multiple computer systems are used at the same time.
Social Engineering
ocial engineering means to trick others into revealing their personal data by posing as a trusted source. For
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example, impersonating an IT technician of a school via email and asking for a student's username and
password.
Data Interception
his is when data packets on a network are intercepted by a third party (e.g. a hacker) and copied to a
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different location than the intended destination. Software called packet sniffers are used to intercept and
analyse data packets.
4.2 - Preventing Vulnerabilities
Penetration Tests
enetration tests are carried out as part of ethical hacking.
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The purpose of a penetration test is to review the system's security to find any risks or weaknesses and to fix
them, and there are four main types of penetration tests:
- Internal tests are to see how much damage could be done by somebody within the company with a
registered account.
- External tests are for white hat hackers to try and infiltrate a system from outside the company.
- Blind tests are done with no inside information, to simulate what a real attacker would have to do to
infiltrate the system.
- Targeted tests are conducted by the company's IT department and the penetration team cooperating
together to find faults in the system
Anti-Malware Software
nti-malware software is used to locate and delete malware, like viruses, on a computer system. The software
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scans each file on the computer and compares it against a database of known malware. Files with similar
features to malware in the database are identified and deleted.
There are thousands of known malware, but new forms are created each day by attackers, so anti-malware
software must be regularly updated to keep systems secure.
Other roles of anti-malware software:
- Checking all incoming and outgoing emails and their attachments.
- Checking files as they are downloaded.
- Scanning the hard drive for viruses and deleting them.
Firewall
firewall manages incoming and outgoing network traffic.
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Each data packet is processed to check whether it should be given access to the network by examining the
source and destination address.Unexpected data packets will be filtered out and not accepted to the network.
Other roles of a firewall include:
● Blocking access to insecure/ maliciousweb sites.
● Blockingcertainprogramsfromaccessing the internet.
● Blockingunexpected /unauthorised downloads.
● Preventingspecificuserson a networkaccessing certainfiles
Secure Passwords
sernames must be matched with a secure password to minimise the chances of unauthorised users accessing
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a system.Passwords should contain a mix of uppercase and lowercase letters, punctuation and numbers.
Passwords should be of a substantial length (at least 8 characters) and should be regularly changed.
User Access Levels
Access levels are used to only allow certain users to access and edit particular files.
'Read-Only' access is when a user can only view a file and is not allowed to change any data. For example, a
teacher might set homework instructions as read-only for students to view.
'Read and Write' access allows a user to read and edit the data in a file. For example, a teacher might set an
online workbook as read and write access for students to fill in.
I t is important to set access levels so that only authorised users can view and change data. The more users who
have access to a file, the more likely it is to be compromised. Certain users may also have no access to a file -
when they can't view or edit it.
Encryption
ncryption is the process of scrambling data into an unreadable format so that attackers cannot understand it
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if intercepted during transmission.
The original data (known as plaintext) is converted to scrambled ciphertext using an encryption key. Only at
the correct destination will the encryption key be used to convert the ciphertext back into plaintext to be
understood by the receiving computer.
Physical Security
lock can be used to prevent access to server rooms or locations that store confidential data. Only authorised
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personnel with a matching key will have access. Biometric devices require the input of a human characteristic
(such a fingerprint, iris or voice). The biometric data is checked against previously inputted data in a database.
Only a match will allow access to the user. Other forms of physical security include keycards, security staff,
CCTV cameras and alarms.
1-5: Systems software
Topic Contents:
.1- Operating Systems
5
5.2- Utility Software
5.1 - Operating Software
What is an operating system?
noperating system(OS) is software that helps tomanage theresources of a computersystem and provide
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the interface between the user and the computer's hardware.
There arefive main functionsof an operating system:
- Memory Management
- Peripheral Management
- User Management
- F ile Management
- User Interface
Memory Management & multitasking
ll programs must be temporarilystored inRAMforthe CPU to be able to process them. The OS transfers
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programsin and out of memoryfrom thehard drive(orvirtual memory) whenprocessing is required-
programs are removed from RAM when closed to free up space for other tasks. The operating system can only
perform one process at a time, but throughmemorymanagementit can appear that more than one the
process isbeing executed - this is called multitasking.
Peripherals management & drivers
peripheral is an external device connected to a computer system to input or output data. Data is transferred
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between external devices and the processor and this process needs to be managed by the operating system.
A device driver is a program that provides an interface for the OS to interact and communicate with an
external device. Drivers are hardware dependent and OS-specific. The driver translates the OS' instructions
into a format the specific hardware can understand.
Because the CPU and the peripheral will process data at different speeds, a buffer is typically used to
temporarily store data until it can be processed.
User Management
he OS allows users to create, manage and delete individual accounts. User accounts can be granted different
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access rights such as an administrator or guest.
The OS will manage security settings such as allowing passwords to be reset and can also be used to monitor
login activity.
File Management
he operating system creates and maintains a logical management system to organise files and directories
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(folders). File management allows files to be named, renamed, opened, copied, moved, saved, searched for,
sorted and deleted. It also allows users to set access rights for specific files and to view file properties.
User Interface
he final function of an operating system is to provide a user interface, allowing a human to interact with the
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computer system.
The way in which a user can navigate a computer system is known as human-computer interaction (HCl).
Graphical User Interface
The most common type of user interface is a graphical user interface (GUI) which can be presented in the
following ways:
- Icons are displayed to represent shortcuts to applications and files.
- Multiple windows can be opened at the same time and switched between.
- The interface can be customised, such as changing font sizes and the desktop background.
- A folder and file system is displayed and manipulated allowing for copying, searching, sorting and
deleting data.
- System settings can be accessed such as network and hardware
- Menus can be opened from the start button to display files and shortcuts.
- The taskbar allows shortcuts to be pinned for quick access.
ommand-Line Interface
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Other types of user interface do exist, such as acommand-line interface(CLI).
This type of interface isentirely text-basedandrequires users to interact with the system bytyping
commands. This is acomplicatedprocess and mistakescould easily accidentally delete data. There are many
commands to learn so onlyexpertswho have beentrainedto learn this interface will be able to efficiently
make use of it.
ouch-Sensitive Interface
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Another type of user interface is atouch-sensitiveinterface, used withsmartphones and tablets.
A human interacts with the device bypressing on atouchscreen, making it very intuitive and suitablefor most
users without training. Touch-sensitive interfaces may not work with dirty or wet fingers and it will take longer
to write text compared to using a keyboard.
enu-Driven Interface
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A menu-driven interfacedisplays datain a seriesof linked menus. Examples includecash machines(ATMs)
andold iPods.
This type of interface is generallyuser friendlyandeasy to useas commands do not need to be memorised.
However it can beannoying to find specific datathrougha large number of menus without a search feature.
oice-Driven Interface
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A voice-driven interface can becontrolled by speakingcommandsaloud to a listening device. Examples
include Amazon'sAlexadevices, Apple'sSiritechnologyandGoogle Home.
This interface isintuitive, can be usedhands-freeand helps tospeed up processes. However commandsmay
be misheard orlimited in what can be performed.
5.2 - Utility Software
What is utility software
tility softwarearededicated programsused for themaintenance and organisationof a computer system
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(this is known as ‘housekeeping’).Utilities are requiredto runadditional tasksnot performedby the operating
system.
Anti-Malware(such as an anti-virus or anti-spyware(WINDOWS DEFENDER IS ENOUGH)),firewallandencryptionsoftware
areexamples ofutilitiesand have been explainedinsection 4.2
Data compression is another utility (explained in section 2.5), along withbackup software,disk cleanersand
auto-updaters
Defragmentation
hat is fragmentation and how does it happen?
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Over time files stored on a hard disk drive may become fragmented - this is when the file is split into parts that
are saved in different storage locations. Fragmentation occurs when there is limited contiguous space in which
to store a file. This may happen as data is stored and then later deleted on the hard drive. New files are
c reated which may be bigger than the spaces left by the deleted files. The new files are then split up.
Fragmentation increases access time - files that are fragmented take longer to load and read because of the
distance between the fragments of the file.
ow does defragmentation work?
H
Empty spaces are collected together on the hard disk drive and file fragments are moved to be stored
together. This means that fewer disc accesses are needed (requiring less physical movement) as file fragments
can be read consecutively.
hat are the effects of defragmentation?
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A defragmented file takes less time to read and access because the data is stored contiguously. The read/write
head of the hard drive does not need to move as far to read the next piece of data because it is in the adjacent
memory location , saving time.
It is also quicker to save new files because there is more free space together so it does not need to split the file
and can store the data contiguously.
1-6: Impacts
Topic Contents:
.1a- Impacts of technology
6
6.1b- Legislation
6.1a - Impacts of technology
What are the issues created by technology?
s the use of computers and technological devices continues to rise every year,
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this increase brings with it a range of different types of issues. Categories of
issues described on this page include:
● Cultural issues
● Environmental issues
● Ethical issues
● Legal & Privacy issues
Cultural Issues
6.1b - Legislation
Data Protection Act (2018)
I n 2018 the EU introduced GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) to protect the privacy of data for
people in the EU. The UK matched this by updating the Data Protection Act introduced in 1998 to a newer, 2018
version.
This act protects the data of individuals that is stored on computers and processed by organisations.
Computer Misuse Act (1990)
Copyright, Designs & Patents act (1988)
Software Licenses
Open Source License
Proprietary License
2-1: Algorithms
Topic Contents:
1 .1- Computational Thinking
1.2- Designing Algorithms
1.3- Searching & Sorting Algorithms
1.1 - Computational Thinking
There are three key components to computational thinking (smart problem solving):
Abstraction
bstraction is when you ignore unnecessary information and focus only on the important facts. Abstraction is
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used because it simplifies a problem to make it less complex. This makes it more straightforward to understand
the problem and create a solution.
Decomposition
ecomposition is when you break a problem down into smaller tasks so that it is easier to solve. Each individual
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problem can be separately tested and solved. Decomposition also enables different people to work on the
different parts of a larger problem that can later be recombined to produce a full solution.
Algorithmic Thinking
lgorithmic thinking is the final stage as logical steps are followed to solve the problem. The problem is broken
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down using decomposition into smaller problems. The required data and relevant data structures are
considered using abstraction.
1.2 - Designing Algorithms
What is an algorithm?
n algorithm is a set of instructions, presented in a logical sequence. In an exam you may be asked to read and
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understand an algorithm that has been written. To prove your understanding you may be asked to respond by
actions such as listing the outputs of the algorithm, correcting errors or identifying an error within it.
Programmers create algorithm designs as a method of planning a program before writing any code. This
helps them to consider the potential problems of the program and makes it easier to start creating source
code. There are two main methods of defining algorithms are pseudocode and flowcharts. In exams, OCR will
display algorithms in their own 'OCR Exam Reference Language'.
OCR Exam Reference Language
he OCR exams require specific questions to be written either in OCR Exam Reference Language (shown
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below) or a high-level programming language such as Python.
Basic Commands
Annotation: //Comments are written using two slashes
ssignment:name="Harold", age=49
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Constants and Global Variables: constanttax = 15,globalname = "Admin"
Input / Output:name =input("Enter your name"),print("TransactionComplete")
Casting: str(29),int("102"),float(30),bool("False")
Random Number:number =random(1,100)
NEEDS TO BE CONTINUED
Flowcharts
flowchart can be used to visually represent an algorithm. It is more likely you will need to be able to interpret
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a flowchart rather than draw one. The flowchart symbols are:
Reading Algorithms
I n an exam you may be asked to read an algorithm and prove your understanding,
most commonly by listing the outputs. Start from the first line and follow the
program line by line, recording the value of variables as you go. When you
encounter a for loop, repeat the indented code as many times as stated in the
range.
Understanding Algorithms: Listing Output
Structure Diagrams
tructure diagrams display the organisation (structure) of a problem in a visual format, showing the
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subsections to a problem and how they link to other subsections. The noughts and crosses structure diagram
below has subsections in light yellow. Each
subsection could be coded by a different
person.
tructure diagrams are different to
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flowcharts (those show how data is input,
processed and output within a program or
system).
Trace Tables
tructure Trace tables are used to track the value of variables as a program is run.
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They can be used to manually track the values in order to investigate why the
program isn't working as intended. Each row in the trace table represents another
iteration. Each column stores the value of a variable as it changes. See below how the
trace table is updated for the simple algorithm on the left.
or most algorithms,not
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every variablewill be
updatedineach
iteration.
Valuesmay not be
entered intheorderof
the trace table either. For
example, each iteration
outputs num1 + num2 and
then decreases the value
of num2 by 1.
1.3 - Searching & Sorting Algorithms
Linear Search
linear search is the most simple search algorithm. Each data item is searched in order from the first value to
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the last as if they were all laid out in a line. The list does not have to be in any order before it is searched. This
search is also known as a sequential search because the list is searched in a sequence from start to end. For
large lists, this search is not very efficient.
Linear Search Explained - CSNewbs
ey features of a linear search:
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• A loop is used to check the first value in a list and increment by 1, checking each value for a match to the
target.
• Reaching the last element of the list without finding a match means the value is not included.
Binary Search
binary search is a much more efficient searching algorithm as it generally searches through fewer data and
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is often much quicker - especially for large data sets. In a binary search, the middle point of the data is selected
ith each iteration and compared to the value being searched for. When the midpoint matches the target
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value, it has been found and the search can stop.
!!However there is a prerequisite of using a binarysearch - the list of data must already be sorted. A
prerequisite is a condition that must be satisfied before an algorithm will work correctly.
Binary Search Explained - CSNewbs
Key features of a binary search:
- A midpoint, lowpoint and highpoint are calculated.
- A while loop is used to repeatedly compare the midpoint to a target value.
- The upper half or lower half of the data is ignored if the midpoint does not equal the target.
Merge Sort
erge sort is a sorting algorithm based on the idea of 'divide and conquer'. A merge sort divides a list into half,
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again and again until each data item is separate. Then the items are combined in the same way as they were
divided, but now in the correct order. When the individual lists are all merged together as one list again, then
the data is in order and the algorithm will end.
Merge Sort Explained - CSNewbs
Key features of a merge sort:
- This algorithm calls itself from within the subroutine (this is known as a recursive algorithm).
- It continually splits sublists into a left side and a right side until each sublist has a length of 1.
Bubble Sort
his algorithm is based on the comparison of adjacent data elements. Data elements are swapped if they are
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not in the correct order. The algorithm will only stop when a complete iteration through the data is completed
with no swaps made. A bubble sort is not suitable for large sets of data.
Bubble Sort Explained - CSNewbs
Key features of a bubble sort:
- Uses an outer while loop (condition controlled) to check no swaps have been made.
- Uses an inner for loop (count controlled) to repeat through the length of the data set.
- Uses a flag (a Boolean value) to track if a swap has been made and uses a temporary value to help
correctly swap elements.
Insertion Sort
he list is logically split into sorted values (on the left) and
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unsorted values (on the right). Starting from the left, values
from the unsorted part are checked and inserted at the correct
position in the sorted part. This continues through all elements
of the list until the last item is reached, and sorted. Insertion
sorts are efficient for small data sets but would be slow to sort
large sets, compared to alternatives such as a merge sort.
Key features of a insertion sort:
- Uses an outer for loop (count controlled) to iterate through each value in the list.
- U ses an inner while loop (condition controlled) to find the current value's correct position in the sorted
part of the list.
- An insertion sort moves 'backwards' to find the correct position of each value, by decreasing the index
within the while loop.
2-2: Programming Fundamentals
Topic Contents:
.1- Programming fundamentals
2
2.2- Data Types
2.3- Additional Programming Techniques
2.1 - Programming fundamentals
Programming Constructs
There are three constructs (ideas of programming) that are used to control the flow of a program:
● Sequence
○ Structuring code into a logical, sequential order.
● Selection
○ Decision making using if statements.
● Iteration
○ Repeating code using for or while loops
Local & Global Variables
arge programs are often modular - split into subroutines with each subroutine having a dedicated purpose.
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Local variables are declared within a specific subroutine and can only be used within that subroutine. Global
variables can be used at any point within the whole program.
Local variable advantages
● Saves memory - only uses memory when that local variable is needed - global variables use memory
whether they are used or not.
● Easier to debug local variables as they can only be changed within one subroutine.
● You can reuse subroutines with local variables in other programs.
Global variable advantages
● Variables can be used anywhere in the whole program (and in multiple subroutines).
● Makes maintenance easier as they are only declared once.
● Can be used for constants - values that remain the same.
Constants
s specified before, a variable is data that can change in value as a program is being run. Aconstantisdata
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that does not change in valueas the program is run- it isfixedand remains the same. An example ofa
constant in maths programs ispi- it will constantlyremain at3.14159and never change.
Operators
omparison Operators- compares two data values (eg,2>5=FALSE, 5<=(2+4)=TRUE)(ie, >, <, >=, <=, ==,!=)
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Arithmetic Operators- operators used to mathematicallychange values(ie, +, - , * ,/ , %, //, **)
Logical Operators- operators which determine a booleanoutput (eg, 9>2 AND 2>9 = FLASE)(ie, AND, OR,
NOT)
2.2 - Data Types
Data Types
haracter- One character, such as a letter, number,or punctuation symbol
C
String- A sequence of characters (eg, “hello world”)
Integer- A whole number (ie, an integer)
Float- A decimal number (eg, 2.456,pi)
Boolean- An answer that has two possible values (eg,TRUE/FALSE)
Casting
onverting the value of a variable from one variable to another is known as casting.
C
Python automatically assumes an input is a string, so the int() command is used to cast the string to an integer
2.3 - Additional Programming Techniques
Subprograms
hat is a subprogram?
W
Large programs are often broken down into smaller subprograms (also called subroutines). Each subprogram
focuses on a specific function of the code, helping to decompose a complex problem into more manageable
chunks.
Defining subprograms
A subprogram is defined (identified) using the def command in Python. A program may use many
subprograms, which are usually defined at the start of the code.
Calling subprograms
Running a line of code that includes the name of a subprogram will call (activate) it. When called, the program
will run the subprogram code before returning back to the line that called it. Subprograms are only run when
called, so depending on decisions made, a program may end without calling every (or any) subroutine.
Parameters
A parameter is a value that is passed into a subprogram when it is called, allowing the value to be used within
the subprogram. A subprogram may not use a parameter, e.g. multiply(), or one parameter, e.g.multiply(num),
or several e.g. multiply(num1,num2). Any parameters must be identified when the subprogram is defined, e.g.
def multiply(num):
eturn
R
The return command will send a value back to the line the subprogram was called on, allowing it to be used
there. For example, the 'quad' subprogram in the example below returns the value of the 'result' variable back
t o the main program, allowing it to be printed. A subprogram will end either by reaching the last line of code
within it, or when it reaches a return command. Subprograms that return a value are called functions.
ubprogram example
S
This subprogram is defined using the identifier 'quad' with a parameter named number.
The subprogram is called in the main program, multiplies the number passed in as a parameter by 4 and
returns a value back to the main program to be printed.
def quad(number):
result = number * 4
return result
#Main Program
number = int(input("Enter a number: "))
print("The number quadrupled is" , quad(number))
nter a number: 5
E
The number quadrupled is 20
Functions and Procedures
here are two types of subprograms:
T
Function- a subprogram that returns a value, usingthe return command, which allows the value to be used in
the line of code the function was called in.
Procedure- a subprogram that does not return a value.
Advantages of using subprograms
- S ubprogramsbreak a complex program downinto smallerparts, making iteasier to design and test.
- Using subprograms allows code to beeasily reusedin other programs, as it hasalready been written,
making itquicker to developnew programsor buildon existing work.
- Using subprogramsavoids code repetition, as theycan be called as many times as necessary.
- Work caneasily be split up between team membersto work on different subprograms at the same
time.
Array
n array is a static data structure that can hold a fixed number of data elements. Each data element must be
A
of the same data type i.e. real, integer, string.
The elements in an array are identified by a number that indicates their position in the array. This number is
known as the index. The first element in an array always has an index of 0.
You should know how to write pseudocode that manipulates arrays to traverse, add, remove and search for
data. The following steps use Python as an example, although Python does not use arrays and uses a similar
ata structure called a list (that can change in size as the program runs). See the 8a and 8b Python pages for
d
tasks on how to use lists.
raversing an Array
T
To traverse ('move through') an array a for loop can be used to display each data element in order.
Example code for traversing:
Output:
'Inserting' a value
In an array the size is fixed so you cannot insert new values, but you can change the value of elements that
already exist. Overwriting the fourth element (Daphne) with a new value (Laura) will change it from Daphne to
Laura.
Example code for inserting:
Output:
'Deleting' a value
In an array the size is fixed so you cannot delete values, but you can overwrite them as blank. Overwriting the
second element (Shaggy) with a blank space makes it appear deleted.
Example code for deleting:
Output:
Searching an Array
or large arrays a for loop is needed to search through each element for a specific value. This example checks
F
each name to see if it is equal to Velma.
Example code for searching:
Output:
COMPLETE THIS
Two-Dimensional Array (2D array)
ften the data we want to process comes in the form of a table.
O
The data in a two dimensional array must still all be of the same
data type, but can have multiple rows and columns. The
two-dimensional array shows the characters from Scooby Doo
along with their associated colour and their species. Each value in
the array is represented by an index still, but now the index has
two values. For example [3] [0] is 'Daphne'. Unless stated in an exam, measure row first, then column.
earching a two-dimensional array:
S
To print a specific data element you can just use the index number like Daphne above. To search for a specific
value you will need two for loops, one for the row and another for the values of each row. The example to the
right is looking for the value of 'Velma' and when it is found it prints the associated data from the whole row.
Records
nlike arrays, records can store data of different data types. Each record is made up of information about one
U
person or thing. Each piece of information in the record is called a field (each row name). Records should have
a key field - this is unique data that identifies each record. For example Student ID is a good key field for a
record on students as no two students can have the same Student ID. A 2D array may be used to represent
database tables of records and fields.
SQL
QL(structured query language) is a language thatcan
S
be used tosearch for datain adatabase.
he format of an SQL statement is:
T
SELECTfield1, field2, field3…
FROMtable
WHEREcriteria
xample of an SQL statement using the Cars table:
E
SELECTMake, Colour
FROMCars
WHEREMiles > 1000 AND Age > 8
Cars table
QL useswildcardswhich are symbols used to substitutecharacters.
S
The * symbol representsALLfields.
xample:
E
SELECT *
FROM Cars
WHERE Colour = “blue”
2-3: Producing Robust Programs
Topic Contents:
.1- Defensive Design
3
3.2- Testing
3.1 - Defensive Design
Defensive Design Considerations
There are several things to consider when creating a program that issecure and robust, including:
- Anticipating Misuse:Planning aheadtotake stepsagainstpotential misuse(e.g the appXprevents
thesame tweet sent twicein a row as it might bespam)
- Input Sanitisation:Checking andcleaning up datathat has beeninput, (e.g.removing special
characterstoprevent a SQL injection).
- Validation:Checking whether inputdata follows specificcriteriaand should beaccepted(e.g. a
length checkon a password).
- Verification:Checking whetherdata that has beenenterediscorrect(e.g.double entry).
- Authentication:Ensuringonly authorised userscangainaccess to a system(e.g.usernamesand
strong passwords).
- Maintainable code:Allowingother programmerstoeasily readandquickly understand codethat has
been written (e.g. usingcomments,indentationandappropriate variable names).
Input Validation
Validationis a process to check that data isreasonableor sensiblebefore it is accepted.
Range Check Type Check Format Check
hecks that Data iswithin a
C hecks that Data is acertain data C
C hecks that Data isentered a
certain range type certain way
Age: Height: Date(DD/MM/YYYY)
34 -Allowed 182 -Allowed 23/06/2026 -Allowed
203 -Disallowed Two metres -Disallowed 23rd June 2026 -Disallowed
Presence check Lookup Table Length Check
hecks that data hasactually
C Table ofAcceptable entries,
A hecks thelengthof the input is a
C
been enteredand hasnot been also known as a list certain amount
left blank
“username123” -Allowed +44 7767 898672 -Allowed
“” -Disallowed +44 7215 -Disallowed
Maintainability
rograms should be written in a way that makesmaintainingandunderstanding themas straightforward as
P
possible. Examples of making a programmaintainableinclude:
- Usingsubprogramstoreuse codeand make themeasierto test. This is calledmodularisation.
- Appropriate variable names, using anaming convention,ensure thepurposeof a variable is
immediately understood.
- Usingindentationtoimprove readabilityand clearlyshow each ‘block’ of code.
- Commentsenable a programmer tounderstand the purposeof each line of code. Crucial when
working in a team.
- Usingconstantsis another method of improving maintainability.This keeps the program code
consistent, which makes iteasier to read and debuga program
3.2 - Testing
he mainpurpose of testingis to ensure that aprogramworks correctlyno matter whatinput has been
T
enteredby the user.
Other reasons to test a program include ensuring theuser requirements have been met,errorshave been
removedand theprogram doesn't crashwhile running.
Types of testing
I terative Testing
Iterative testing takes placeduring program development.
The programmerdevelops a module,tests itandrepeatsthis processuntil themoduleworks as expected.
inal Testing
F
Final testing, also known asterminal testing, takesplaceafter developmentandbefore the program is
releasedto the end user.
This testing takes place onceall modules have beenindividually testedto ensure thewhole programworksas
originally expected.
Programming Errors
Syntax Error
syntax error is a mistake in the grammatical rules of the programming language, such as an incorrect
A
spelling of a command word.A syntax error will prevent the program from being compiled and executed.
Examples:
Incorrect Spelling: pront("hello")
Incorrect punctuation: print ("hello"(
Logical Error
logic error is a mistake made by the programmer - the program runs without crashing but will display the
A
wrong output.
Examples:
I ncorrect calculation:
total = num1-num2
print (total)
Incorrect variable printed:
age = 16
name = "Steve"
print ("Nice to meet you" ,age)
Test Data
est data is used to test whether a program is functioning correctly. It should cover a range of possible and
T
incorrect inputs, each designed to prove a program works or to highlight any flaws.
Four types of test data are:
1. Normaldata- Sensible data that the program shouldaccept and be able to process
2. Boundarydata- Data at the extreme boundary of anydata range
3. Invaliddata- Data of the correct data type thatdoes not meet the validation rules
4. Erroneousdata- Data of the wrong data type thatthe program cannot process and should not accept
2-4: Boolean Logic
Topic Contents:
4.1- Boolean Logic
4.1 - Boolean Logic
What is a logical operator?
I nside of each computer system are millions of transistors. These are tiny switches that can either be turned on
(represented in binary by the number 1) or turned off (represented by 0). Logical operators are symbols used to
represent circuits of transistors within a computer. The three most common operators are:
- NOT
- AND
- OR
Order of precedence
The order of precedence is as follows:
- BRACKETS
- NOT
- A ND
- OR
What is a truth table?
ruth tables are used to show all possible inputs and the associated output for each input. The input and output
T
values in a truth table must be a Boolean value - usually 0 or 1 but occasionally True or False.
NOT AND OR
ANOTlogical operator will produce nANDlogical operator will
A AnORlogical operator will output
an output which is theoppositeof output 1 only ifboth inputsare 1 ifeither inputis 1.
the input. also 1. ORis also known asDisjunction.
NOTis also known asNegation. ANDis also known asConjunction. The symbol forORis∨
The symbol forNOTis¬ The symbol forANDis∧
NOT Logic Gate Symbol AND Logic Gate Symbol OR Logic Gate Symbol
A ¬A A B A ∧ B A B A ∨ B
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2-5: Languages & IDEs
Topic Contents:
.1- Languages & Translators
5
5.2- Integrated Development Environment
5.1 - Languages & Translators
There are two types of programming languages used within computer systems:
High-Level Languages
hy do programmers use high-level languages?
W
High-level programming languages use code written in a way that is similar to a natural
human language, such as English, making it easier to understand and use the language.
Using high-level languages leads to fewer errors and allows for more powerful and
complex commands compared to low-level languages. However, a high-level language
must be translated into machine code (binary) before it can be run, as high-level
languages cannot be executed directly by the CPU.
Low-Level Languages
ow-level languages do not closely resemble a natural human language, making it harder for humans to
L
understand and write in. Low-level languages are used when a program must be executed quickly or when
programmers need to write code that interacts directly with the hardware, such as device drivers.
There are two types of low-level language:
- Machine Code:This is the pure binary code that computerscan directly process and execute. It is
extremely tedious and difficult for humans to understand and write machine code. However, machine
code can be used when a programmer needs to perform a very specific command that can't be done in
a high-level language. Machine code will be executed faster than high-level programs because it is
already in a format the CPU can execute and does not need to be translated.
- Assembly Language:Assembly language uses specialisedcommand mnemonics to perform actions.
See the Assembly Language section in the programming tab for a list of mnemonics such as INP, OUT
and HLT. Assembly language is preferred by many programmers over machine code because it is easier
to understand and spot errors. It is faster to execute than high-level languages and, like machine code,
can be used to directly control the CPU.
Translators
translator changes (translates) a program written in one language into another language (usually machine
A
code). There are two main types of translator:
I nterpreter: ompiler:A compiler converts high-level language
C
An interpreter converts high-level language one line into machine code for execution at a later time. The
at a time into machine code and executes it. entire program is converted at once.
Interpreters vs Compilers
Interpreter: Compiler:
- E xecution Method:An interpreter translates - E xecution Method:A compiler translates all
source code (high level code) into machine the source code (high level code) into machine
code one line at a time. code in one go. A compiler produces an
executable file that will run on other machines
- Execution Speed:An interpreter is slower
without the compiler needing to be installed.
than a compiler because the code must be
- Execution Speed:Compilers can produce
reinterpreted each time the program is run. much more efficient code than interpreters
- Complexity:Interpreters are smaller, simpler making the compiled programs run faster.
programs. - Complexity:Compilers tend to be large
- Error Reporting:In error reporting, the complex programs.
interpreter would encounter the errors and - Error Reporting:The compiler would analyse
the entire program, taking note of where
report it to the user immediately and stops the
errors have occurred and record them in an
program from running. error file.
- Repetition:Interpreted programs can be - Repetition:Compilation requires analysis and
edited and run without translating the whole the generation of the code only once, whereas
program. Interpreters must reinterpret the interpreters must re-interpret each time.
program every time it is run. However, compiled programs have to be
recompiled after any changes have been
made.
5.2 - Integrated Development Environment
n IDE (Integrated Development Environment) provides programmers with the following facilities (tools) to
A
help create programs:
Editors
he editor is software that allows a programmer toenter and edit source code.
T
Editor features may include:
- Automatic formatting(e.g. automatic indentation).
- Automatic line numbering(this helps to identify exactlywhere an error has occurred).
- Automatic colour coding(e.g. Python IDLE turns loopcommands orange and print commands purple).
- Statement completion(e.g. offering to auto-completea command as the user is typing.)
Compilers & Interpreters
oth tools convert thesource codewritten by a programmerintomachine codeto be executed by the CPU. A
B
compilerconverts theentire source codeinto executablemachine codeat once. After compilation, the
program can berun again without having to recompileeach time. Aninterpreter converts source code into
machine code line by line. An interpreter mustreinterpretthe code each time the program is required to
run. See 5.1 for both types of translators.
Break Point
he programmerselects a specificline and the programdisplays the variable values at that point. The code
T
can then be executedone line at a timeto find exactlywhere the error occurs. This process is called
single-stepping.
Variable Watch/Watch Window
isplays thecurrent value of a selected variable.A variable can bewatched line-by-lineto see howthe
D
value changes.
Trace
Logsthevalues of variablesandoutputs of the programas the code is executedline by line.
Error Diagnostics & Debugger
oth tools are used todisplay information about anerror when it occurs, such as theline it occurredon and
B
theerror type(e.g. syntax). These tools may alsosuggest solutions to help the programmer to find and fix the
error.
Run Time Environment
runtime environmentallows aprogram to runon acomputer system. Itchecks for runtime errorsand
A
allows users totest the program. Aruntime erroroccurs as the program isbeing executed, such asdividinga
number by zero. A commonly used example is theJavaRuntime Environment. This allows programmers to
design a program onone platform(using the programminglanguageJava) which allows thefinished
programto then berun on many other systems.A runtimeenvironment enables thetoolsabove such as a
traceandbreakpointto be used.
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