Module 19

Cryptography

Ansh Bhawnani
Cryptography
concepts

Module 19
Cryptography concepts

▰ Study of techniques for secure communications through insecure

channels
▰ Encryption is the transformation of data into a form in which it cannot
be made sense of without the use of some key.
▰ Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of
mathematics, computer science, electrical engineering, communication
science, and physics.
▰ Teaches how to convert sensible data into random junk!

3
Cryptography concepts

4
Cryptography concepts

▰ There are five primary functions of cryptography:

▻ Privacy/confidentiality: Ensuring that no one can read the
message except the intended receiver.
▻ Integrity: Assuring the receiver that the received message has not
been altered in any way from the original.
▻ Authentication: The process of proving one's identity.
▻ Non-repudiation: A mechanism to prove that the sender really sent
this message.
▻ Key exchange: The method by which crypto keys are shared
between sender and receiver. 5
Cryptography concepts

▰ Cryptographic Terms
Plaintext:
▻ Original message
▻ Anyone can read
▻ E.g, “Alice”
Cipher
▻ Cryptographic algorithm or function
▻ Tells how to transform plaintext into that random junk

6
Cryptography concepts

▰ Cryptographic Terms
Cipher Key
▻ string of characters
▻ Cipherfunction(plaintext + cipher key) = ciphertext
Cipher text
▻ That random junk we got after applying cipher key on
plaintext
▻ Unreadable, useless
▻ E.g., “#r4Tf2%#”
7
Cryptography concepts

▰ Cryptographic Terms
Encryption
▻ Converting plaintext into ciphertext using cipher key.
▻ Cannot be reversed without the use of the key
Decryption
▻ Converting ciphertext into plaintext using cipher key.
▻ Cannot be reversed without the use of the key

8
Cryptography concepts

▰ Cryptographic Terms
Hash
▻ Random fixed length string
▻ Irreversible one way function
▻ Provides integrity
▻ E.g., MD5, SHA-1
Salt
▻ Additional security
▻ Eradicates brute force and cracking
▻ Random string Appended at beginning or end of plaintext
9
Cryptography concepts

10
Cryptography concepts

▰ Types of Cryptography

11
Cryptography concepts

▰ Symmetric or Secret Key Cryptography

12
Cryptography concepts

▰ Symmetric or Secret Key Cryptography

S(ab)
A B

S(ad) S(bc)

S(ac) S(bd)

C D
S(cd)

13
Cryptography concepts

▰ Advantages
▻ Extremely Secure
▻ Relatively Fast
▰ Disadvantages
▻ Key management
▻ Key distribution
▻ Large number of keys needed (O(n^2))

14
Cryptography concepts

▰ Asymmetric or Public Key Cryptography

15
Cryptography concepts

▰ Asymmetric or Public Key Cryptography

Pub(b)
Pub(a) A B
Pri(b)
Pri(a)

Pub(c) Pub(d)
C D
Pri(c) Pri(d)

16
Cryptography concepts

▰ Advantages
▻ Easier Key management
▻ Easier key distribution
▻ Less number of keys needed (O(n))
▰ Disadvantages
▻ Relatively slower and complex
▻ Management of public keys

17
Encryption
Algorithms

Module 19
1. Ciphers

Module 19
1.1. Classical
Cryptosystem

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Classical Cryptosystem
▻ It manipulates traditional characters, i.e., letters and digits directly.
▻ Based on symmetric key encryption scheme.
▻ It is mainly based on ‘security through obscurity’. The techniques
employed for coding were kept secret and only the parties involved in
communication knew about them.
▻ It requires the entire cryptosystem for communicating confidentially.
▻ Consists of two types of Ciphers:
▻ Substitution Cipher
▻ Transposition Cipher 21
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Substitution Cipher
▻ Any character of plain text from the given fixed set of characters is
substituted by some other character from the same set or
different depending on a key.
▻ For example with a shift of 1, A would be replaced by B, B would
become C, and so on.

22
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Substitution Cipher
▻ Example
▻ Plain Text: I am studying Data Encryption
▻ Key: 4
▻ Output: M eq wxyhCmrk Hexe IrgvCtxmsr
▻ “ABCD” -> “PQRS”

23
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Substitution Cipher
▻ Types
▻ Caesar Cipher
▻ Monoalphabetic Cipher
▻ Polyalphabetic Cipher
▻ Vigenere Cipher
▻ Vernam Cipher
▻ Playfair Cipher
▻ Hill Cipher
24
▻ One time Pad
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Caesar Cipher
▻ Simplest monoalphabetic form of substitution cipher scheme.
▻ Generally referred to as the Shift Cipher. The concept is to replace each
alphabet by another alphabet which is ‘shifted’ by some fixed number
between 0 and 25.
▻ This is a special case of Shift cipher, with shift equal to 3.

▻ Security: Caesar Cipher is not a secure cryptosystem because there are

only 26 possible keys to try out. An attacker can carry out an exhaustive
key search with available limited computing resources. 25
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Monoalphabetic Ciphers
▻ Monoalphabetic cipher is a substitution cipher in which for a given
key, the cipher alphabet for each plain alphabet is fixed throughout
the encryption process.
▻ For example, if ‘A’ is encrypted as ‘D’, for any number of
occurrence in that plaintext, ‘A’ will always get encrypted to ‘D’.
▻ Let plaintext= “This is the last warning”. With shift of 3, it’s
ciphertext=“Wklv lv wkh odvw zduqlqj”.
▻ Plaintext char to ciphertext char relationship is one to one.
▻ Highly susceptible to cryptanalysis. 26
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Polyalphabetic Ciphers
▻ Polyalphabetic Cipher is a substitution cipher in which the cipher
alphabet for the plain alphabet may be different at different places
during the encryption process.
▻ Playfair and Vigenere Cipher are polyalphabetic ciphers.
▻ For example, plaintext=“Banana”, ciphertext=“Ozipbe”
▻ Plaintext char to ciphertext char relationship is one to many.
▻ Complex and more secure than monoalphabetic.

27
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Playfair Cipher
▻ The Playfair cipher was the first practical digraph substitution
cipher invented in 1854 by Charles Wheatstone but was named
after Lord Playfair who promoted the use of the cipher.
▻ It was used for tactical purposes by British forces in the Second
Boer War and in World War I and for the same purpose by the
Australians during World War II. This was because Playfair is
reasonably fast to use and requires no special equipment.

28
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Playfair Ciphers
▻ Let’s take key=“monarchy”, plaintext=“instruments”.
▻ Algorithm: (2 steps)
▻ Generate the key Square(5×5):

29
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Playfair Ciphers
▻ Algorithm to encrypt the plain text: The plaintext is split into
pairs of two letters (digraphs). If there is an odd number of
letters, a Z is added to the last letter.
▻ PlainText: "instruments"
▻ After Split: 'in' 'st' 'ru' 'me' 'nt' 'sz‘
▻ If two letters in a pair are same, add ‘x’ between them.
▻ PlainText: “steep” => split: ‘st’ ‘ex’ ‘ep’

30
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Playfair Ciphers
▻ Rules for Encryption
▻ If both the letters are in the same column: Take the
letter below each one (going back to the top if at the
bottom).
▻ If both the letters are in the same row: Take the letter to
the right of each one (going back to the leftmost if at
the rightmost position).
▻ If neither of the above rules is true: Form a rectangle
with the two letters and take the letters on the
horizontal opposite corner of the rectangle. 31
Encryption Algorithms

Ciphertext: gatlmzclrqtx
▰ Playfair Cipher

32
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Vigenere Cipher
▻ Simple form of polyalphabetic substitution, developed by Blaise de
Vigenere (16th century mathematician)
▻ Input : Plaintext : GEEKSFORGEEKS
▻ Keyword : AYUSH
▻ The given keyword is repeated in a circular manner until it
matches the length of the plain text.

G E E K S F O R G E E K S

A Y U S H A Y U S H A Y U
33
 Encryption Algorithms

▰ Vigenere Cipher

Ciphertext : GCYCZFMLYLEIM

34
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Vigenere Cipher
▻ There are two special cases of Vigenere cipher −
▻ The keyword length is same as plaintext message. This case
is called Vernam Cipher. It is more secure than typical
Vigenere cipher.
▻ Vigenere cipher becomes a cryptosystem with perfect
secrecy, which is called One-time pad.

35
Encryption Algorithms

▰ One Time Pad

▻ It is an unbreakable cipher.
▻ The key is exactly same as the length of message which is
encrypted.
▻ The key is made up of random symbols.
▻ As the name suggests, key is used one time only and never used
again for any other message to be encrypted.

36
Encryption Algorithms

▰ One Time Pad

▰ Security: Let us say, we encrypt the name “point” with a one-time pad. It is a 5
letter text. To break the ciphertext by brute force, you need to try all possibilities
of keys and conduct computation for (26 x 26 x 26 x 26 x 26) = 265 = 11881376
times. That’s for a message with 5 alphabets. Thus, for a longer message, the
computation grows exponentially with every additional alphabet. This makes it
computationally impossible to break the ciphertext by brute force.
37
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Transposition Cipher
▻ It is another type of cipher where the order of the alphabets in the
plaintext is rearranged to create the ciphertext. The actual
plaintext alphabets are not replaced.
▻ For example, “banana” is converted to “anbana”
▻ The plaintext is “golden statue is in eleventh cave” and the secret
random key chosen is “five”. We arrange this text horizontally in
table with number of column equal to key value. The resulting text
is shown below.

38
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Transposition Cipher

▻ This will be read column wise as “gnunea oseenv ltilte daseh etivc”
39
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Transposition Cipher
▻ Rail Fence cipher
▻ Scytale
▻ Route cipher
▻ Columnar transposition
▻ Double transposition
▻ Myszkowski transposition
40
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Rail fence Cipher

▻ In the rail fence cipher, the plain-text is written downwards and diagonally
on successive rails of an imaginary fence.
▻ When we reach the bottom rail, we traverse upwards moving diagonally,
after reaching the top rail, the direction is changed again. Thus the
alphabets of the message are written in a zig-zag manner.
▻ After each alphabet has been written, the individual rows are combined to
obtain the cipher-text.

41
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Rail fence Cipher

▻ Message is “GeeksforGeeks” and the number of rails = 3
▻ Ciphertext: “gsgsekfrekeoe”
▻ Number of columns in rail fence cipher remains equal to the length of
plain-text message.
▻ Decryption: Then, we fill the cipher-text row wise. After filling it, we
traverse the matrix in zig-zag manner to obtain the original text.

42
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Columnar Transposition Cipher

▻ Columnar Transposition involves writing the plaintext out in rows, and then
reading the ciphertext off in columns one by one. Algorithm:
▻ The message is written out in rows of a fixed length, and then read out again column by
column, and the columns are chosen in some scrambled order.

▻ Width of the rows and the permutation of the columns are usually defined by a keyword.

▻ For example, the word HACK is of length 4 (so the rows are of length 4), and the
permutation is defined by the alphabetical order of the letters in the keyword. In this case,
the order would be “3 1 2 4”.

▻ Any spare spaces are filled with nulls or left blank or placed by a character (Example: _).

▻ Finally, the message is read off in columns, in the order specified by the keyword.

43
Encryption Algorithms

44
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Double Transposition Cipher

▻ This was one of the most secure hand ciphers used in the Second World
War.
▻ Double Transposition consists of two applications of columnar
transposition to a message. The two applications may use the same key
for each of the two steps, or they may use different keys.
▻ To decrypt a double transposition, construct a block with the right number
of rows under the keyword, blocking off the short columns. Write the
cipher in by columns, and read it out by rows. Lather, rinse, repeat.

45
1.2. Modern
Cryptosystem

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▻ Stream Cipher
▻ Symmetric Key cipher
▻ Encrypt the message as a sequence of bytes
▻ Encrypt the data a bit or byte at a time

47
Encryption Algorithms

▻ Stream Cipher

48
Encryption Algorithms

▻ Block Cipher
▻ Symmetric Key cipher
▻ Divide a message into fixed size blocks (64 or 128-bit)
▻ Encrypt each block individually
▻ Integrate all the outputs to obtain final ciphertext

49
 Encryption Algorithms

Block cipher Stream cipher

Block Cipher Converts the plain text into cipher Stream Cipher Converts the plain text into
text by taking plain text’s block at a time. cipher text by taking 1 byte of plain text at a
time.

Uses either 64 bits or more While stream cipher uses 8 bits.

The complexity is simple. More complex.
Uses confusion as well as diffusion. Uses only confusion.

Reverse encrypted text is hard. Reverse encrypted text is easy.

ECB (Electronic Code Book) and CBC (Cipher CFB (Cipher Feedback)
Block Chaining) OFB (Output Feedback)
The main implementation of Block Cipher is Main implementation of Stream Cipher is
Feistel Cipher. Vernam Cipher.

Slower Faster 50
Encryption Algorithms

▻ Asymmetric Key Ciphers

▻ Symmetric-key cryptography is based on sharing secrecy,
asymmetric-key cryptography is based on personal secrecy.
▻ In symmetric-key, symbols are permuted or substituted, in
asymmetric-key, numbers are manipulated.

51
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Shannon’s Theory of confusion and diffusion

▻ Introduced to prevent cryptanalysis, based on statistical analysis
(frequency analysis, etc.) to deduce plaintext from ciphertext, or
generating key.
▻ He suggested two methods to achieve this:
▻ Confusion
▻ Diffusion
▻ Confusion and diffusion area unit the properties for creating a secure
cipher.
52
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Shannon’s Theory of confusion and diffusion

▻ Diffusion: Hide the relationship between plaintext and ciphertext. If a
single bit in plaintext is changed, several or all characters in the ciphertext
must change.
▻ Confusion: Hide the relationship between key and ciphertext. If a single bit
in key is changed, several or all characters in the ciphertext must change.
▻ Confusion is employed for making uninformed cipher text whereas
diffusion is employed for increasing the redundancy of the plain text over
the foremost a part of the cipher text to create it obscure. The diffusion is
solely employed by block cipher, or else, confusion is employed by each
stream and block cipher.
53
2. Fiestel Cipher

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▻ It is a design model from which many different block ciphers are derived. DES
is just one example of a Feistel Cipher.
▻ The encryption process uses the Feistel structure consisting multiple rounds
of processing of the plaintext, each round consisting of a “substitution” step
followed by a permutation step.
▻ The input block to each round is divided into two halves that can be denoted
as L and R for the left half and the right half.
▻ In each round, the right half of the block, R, goes through unchanged. But the
left half, L, goes through an operation that depends on R and the encryption
key, they are swapped at the end of the round.
55
Encryption Algorithms

56
Encryption Algorithms

▻ In real implementation of the Feistel Cipher, such as DES, instead of using the
whole encryption key during each round, a round-dependent key (a subkey) is
derived from the encryption key. This means that each round uses a different
key, although all these subkeys are related to the original key.
▻ The permutation step at the end of each round swaps the modified L and
unmodified R. Therefore, the L for the next round would be R of the current
round. And R for the next round be the output L of the current round.
▻ The number of rounds are specified by the algorithm design.
▻ Once the last round is completed then the two sub blocks, ‘R’ and ‘L’ are
concatenated in this order to form the ciphertext block.
57
3. Data Encryption
Standard (DES)

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric-key block cipher published by

the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
▰ DES is an implementation of a Feistel Cipher. It uses 16 round Feistel structure.
The block size is 64-bit. Though, key length is 64-bit, DES has an effective key
length of 56 bits.
▰ DES is the archetypal block cipher - an algorithm that takes a fixed-length string of
plaintext bits and transforms it into a ciphertext bitstring of the same length.
▰ Due to the inherent weakness of DES with today's technologies, some
organizations repeat the process three times (3DES) for added strength, until they
can afford to update their equipment to AES capabilities.
59
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Since DES is based on the Feistel Cipher, all that is required to specify DES is −
▻ Round function
▻ Key schedule
▻ Any additional processing − Initial and final permutation

60
Encryption Algorithms

61
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Round function

62
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Expansion Permutation function

63
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Substitution box

64
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Key Generation

65
Encryption Algorithms

▰ DES Analysis
▻ The DES satisfies both the desired properties of block cipher. These two
properties make cipher very strong.
▻ Avalanche effect − A small change in plaintext results in the very great
change in the ciphertext.
▻ Completeness − Each bit of ciphertext depends on many bits of
plaintext.
▻ DES has proved to be a very well designed block cipher. There have been no
significant cryptanalytic attacks on DES other than exhaustive key search.
66
4. Attacks on DES

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Weaknesses
▻ Weak key
▻ Key Size: 56 bits (Exhaustive Key Search: 2^56)
▻ Four keys out of 2^56 are weak: all 0s, all 1s, half 0s, half 1s
▻ Semi weak keys: Only two different round keys
▻ Possible weak keys: Only four different round keys
▻ Cipher design
▻ S-box: Two specifically chosen i/p can create same o/p through S-box.
68
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Brute Force
▻ Diffie and Hellman proposed a machine costing an estimated US$20 million
which could find a DES key in a single day
▻ The feasibility of cracking DES quickly was demonstrated in 1998 when a
custom DES-cracker was built by the Electronic Frontier Foundation, at the
cost of approximately US$250,000
▻ The machine brute-forced a key in a little more than 2 days' worth of
searching.

69
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Linear Cryptanalysis
▻ Discovered by Mitsuru Matsui, and needs 243 known plaintexts, based on
finding affine approximations to the action of a cipher.
▻ It was the first experimental cryptanalysis of the cipher reported in the open
community .
▻ Junod (2001) performed several experiments to determine the actual time
complexity of linear cryptanalysis, and reported that it was somewhat faster
than predicted, requiring time equivalent to 239–241 DES evaluations.

70
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Differential Cryptanalysis
▻ Rediscovered in the late 1980s by Eli Biham and Adi Shamir; it was known
earlier to both IBM and the NSA and kept secret. To break the full 16 rounds,
differential cryptanalysis requires 247 chosen plaintexts. DES was designed to
be resistant to DC.
▻ Study of how differences in information input can affect the resultant
difference at the output, with chosen plaintext
▻ Discovering where the cipher exhibits non-random behavior, and exploiting
such properties to recover the secret key (cryptography key).
71
4. Advancements in
DES

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Double DES

73
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Triple DES (3DES)

74
5. Advanced
Encryption Standard
(AES)
Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ The more popular and widely adopted symmetric encryption algorithm. It is found
at least six time faster than triple DES.
▰ The features of AES are as follows −
▻ Symmetric key block cipher
▻ 128-bit block data, 128/192/256-bit keys
▻ Stronger and faster than Triple-DES
▻ Provide full specification and design details
▻ Software implementable in C and Java
76
Encryption Algorithms

▰ It is based on Rjindael cipher structure, or ‘substitution–permutation network’.

▰ AES treats the 128 bits of a plaintext block as 16 bytes, arranged in four columns
and four rows for processing as a matrix, called state (array).
▰ The number of rounds in AES is variable and depends on the length of the key
▻ 10 rounds for 128-bit keys,
▻ 12 rounds for 192-bit keys and
▻ 14 rounds for 256-bit keys
▰ Till date, no practical cryptanalytic attacks against AES has been discovered.
77
Encryption Algorithms

78
Encryption Algorithms

79
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Single Round:
▻ Byte Substitution (SubBytes): The 16 input bytes are substituted by looking up
a fixed table (S-box) given in design. The result is in a matrix of four rows and
four columns.
▻ Shiftrows: Each of the four rows of the matrix is shifted to the left, circular
▻ First row is not shifted.
▻ Second row is shifted one (byte) position to the left.
▻ Third row is shifted two positions to the left.
▻ Fourth row is shifted three positions to the left.
80
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Single Round:
▻ MixColumns: Each column of four bytes is now transformed using a special
mathematical function. This function takes as input the four bytes of one
column and outputs four completely new bytes, which replace the original
column. The result is another new matrix consisting of 16 new bytes. It should
be noted that this step is not performed in the last round.
▻ Addroundkey: The 16 bytes of the matrix are now considered as 128 bits and
are XORed to the 128 bits of the round key. If this is the last round then the
output is the ciphertext. Otherwise, the resulting 128 bits are interpreted as 16
bytes and we begin another similar round.
81
Encryption Algorithms

▰ AES State

82
Encryption Algorithms

▰ SubBytes

83
Encryption Algorithms

▰ ShiftRows

84
Encryption Algorithms

▰ MixColumns

85
Encryption Algorithms

▰ AddRoundKey

86
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Strength of AES:
▻ In present day cryptography, AES is widely adopted and supported in
both hardware and software.
▻ Till date, no practical cryptanalytic attacks against AES has been
discovered.
▻ Additionally, AES has built-in flexibility of key length, which allows
some ‘future-proofing’ against progress in exhaustive key searches.
▻ However, just as for DES, the AES security is assured only if it is
correctly implemented and good key management is employed.
87
 Encryption Algorithms

AES DES
Key length can be of 128-bits, 192-bits and Key length is 56 bits in DES.
256-bits.
Number of rounds depends on key length 16 rounds of identical operations

The structure is based on substitution- The structure is based in feistal network.

permutation network.
AES is more secure than the DES cipher and DES can be broken easily as it has known
is the de facto world standard. vulnerabilities. 3DES is more secure
AES can encrypt 128 bits of plaintext. DES can encrypt 64 bits of plaintext

AES was designed by Vincent Rijmen and DES was designed by IBM.
Joan Daemen.
No known crypt-analytical attacks against Known attacks against DES include : Brute-
AES but side channel attacks against AES force, Linear crypt-analysis and Differential
implementations possible. crypt-analysis. 88
6. Block Cipher
Modes of Operation

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Electronic Code Book (ECB)

90
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Advantages
▻ Parallel encryption of blocks of bits is possible
▻ Simple
▰ Disadvantages
▻ Prone to cryptanalysis since there is a direct relationship between plaintext
and ciphertext.
▻ Two same blocks give same ciphertext

91
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Cipher Block Chaining (CBC)

92
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Advantages
▻ CBC works well for input greater than b bits.
▻ CBC is a good authentication mechanism.
▻ Better resistive nature towards cryptanalsis than ECB.
▰ Disadvantages
▻ Parallel encryption is not possible since every encryption requires previous
cipher.

93
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Cipher Feedback Mode (CFB)

94
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Advantages
▻ Since, there is some data loss due to use of shift register, thus it is
difficult for applying cryptanalysis.
▻ Randomness of IV not needed
▰ Disadvantages
▻ Somewhat slower

95
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Output Feedback Mode(OFB)

96
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Counter Mode (CTR)

97
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Advantages
▻ Simple and fast
▻ Does not propagate error of transmission
▰ Disadvantages
▻ Requires a synchronous counter at sender and receiver.

98
6. Stream Ciphers

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ RC4 -- a variable key-size stream cipher with byte-oriented operations. The

algorithm is based on the use of a random permutation.
▰ RC5 -- a parameterized algorithm with a variable block size, a variable key size, and
a variable number of rounds. Allowable choices for the block size are 32 bits, 64
bits and 128 bits. The number of rounds can range from 0 to 255, while the key can
range from 0 bits to 2040 bits in size. RC5 has three routines: key expansion,
encryption, and decryption.
▰ RC6 -- a block cipher based on RC5. RC6 is a parameterized algorithm where the
block size, the key size, and the number of rounds are variable. The upper limit on
the key size is 2040 bits. RC6 adds two features to RC5: the inclusion of integer
multiplication and the use of four 4-bit working registers instead of RC5’s two 2-bit
registers. 100
Encryption Algorithms

101
6. Public Key
Cryptography

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Rivest Shamir Adleman (RSA) Algorithm

▻ Based on the fact that finding the factors of a large composite number is
difficult: when the factors are prime numbers
▻ RSA involves a public key and private key. The public key can be known to
everyone; it is used to encrypt messages. Messages encrypted using the
public key can only be decrypted with the private key.
▻ Many protocols like Secure Shell, OpenPGP, S/MIME, and SSL/TLS rely on RSA
for encryption and digital signature functions.
103
Encryption Algorithms

104
Encryption Algorithms

105
Encryption Algorithms

106
7. Message Digest
(One-way Hash)
Functions
Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ A hash function is a mathematical function that converts a numerical input value

into another compressed numerical value. The input to the hash function is of
arbitrary length but output is always of fixed length.
▰ Values returned by a hash function are called message digest or simply hash
values.
▰ Generally for any hash function h with input x, computation of h(x) is a fast
operation.
▰ Computationally hash functions are much faster than a symmetric encryption.

108
Encryption Algorithms

109
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Features
▻ Hash function converts data of arbitrary length to a fixed length. This process
is often referred to as hashing the data.
▻ In general, the hash is much smaller than the input data, hence hash functions
are sometimes called compression functions.
▻ Since a hash is a smaller representation of a larger data, it is also referred to
as a digest.
▻ Hash function with n bit output is referred to as an n-bit hash function.
Popular hash functions generate values between 160 and 512 bits.
110
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Properties
▻ Pre-Image Resistance: This property means that it should be computationally
hard to reverse a hash function.
▻ Second Pre-Image Resistance: This property means given an input and its
hash, it should be hard to find a different input with the same hash.
▻ Collision Resistance: This property means it should be hard to find two
different inputs of any length that result in the same hash. This property is
also referred to as collision free hash function.

111
Encryption Algorithms

112
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Popular Hash Functions

▻ Message Digest (MD): MD2, MD4, MD5 and MD6. It was adopted as Internet
Standard RFC 1321. It is a 128-bit hash function. In 2004, collisions were
found in MD5, and an analytical attack was reported to be successful only in
an hour by using computer cluster.
▻ Secure Hash Function (SHA): SHA-0, SHA-1, SHA-2, and SHA-3. SHA-2 family
has four further SHA variants, SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512. No
successful attacks have yet been reported on SHA-2 hash function.
▻ RIPEMD: RACE Integrity Primitives Evaluation Message Digest. The set
includes RIPEND, RIPEMD-128, and RIPEMD-160. There also exist 256, and
320-bit versions of this algorithm. 113
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Applications of Hash Functions

▻ Password Storage

114
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Applications of Hash Functions

▻ Data Integrity Check (Digital Signatures)

115
8. Secure Hash
Algorithm (SHA-256)

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ SHA-2 (Secure Hash Algorithm 2) is a set of cryptographic hash functions designed

by the United States National Security Agency (NSA)
▰ The SHA-2 family consists of six hash functions with digests (hash values) that are
224, 256, 384 or 512 bits: SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, SHA-512, SHA-512/224,
SHA-512/256.
▰ SHA-2 was published in 2001 by the National Institute of Standards and
Technology
▰ Currently, the best public attacks break preimage resistance for 52 out of 64 rounds
of SHA-256 or 57 out of 80 rounds of SHA-512, and collision resistance for 46 out
of 64 rounds of SHA-256
117
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Algorithm
▻ Pre-processing
▻ 1. Padding. If we note M the message to be hashed, and l its length in
bits where l < 2⁶⁴, then as a first step we create the padded message M’,
which is message M plus a right padding, such that M’ is of length l’, a
multiple of 512

118
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Algorithm
▻ Pre-processing
▻ 2. Blocks. M’ is parsed into N blocks of size 512 bits, M¹ to Mᴺ, and each
block is expressed as 16 input blocks of size 32 bits, M₀ to M₁₅.

119
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Algorithm
▻ Pre-processing
▻ 3. Hash initialization. The initial hash value H⁰ of length 256 bits (8 input
blocks of 32 bits) is set by taking the first 32 bits of the fractional parts
of the square roots of the first eight prime numbers:

120
Encryption Algorithms

121
9. Transport Layer
Security

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ SSL (Secure Sockets Layer)

▻ SSL is an application layer protocol developed by Netscape for managing the
security of a message transmission on the Internet.
▻ It uses RSA asymmetric (public key) encryption to encrypt data transferred
over SSL connections.

123
Encryption Algorithms

▰ Transport Layer Security (TLS)

▻ TLS is a protocol to establish a secure connection between a client and a
server and ensure privacy and integrity and authentication of information
during transmission.
▻ It uses the RSA algorithm with 1024 and 2048 bit strengths.
▻ TLS Handshake Protocol: It allows the client and server to authenticate each
other, select encryption algorithm, and exchange symmetric key prior to data
exchange.
▻ TLS Record Protocol: It provides secured connections with an encryption
method such as Data Encryption Standard (DES).
124
Encryption Algorithms

125
10. Pretty Good
Privacy (PGP)

Module 19
Encryption Algorithms

▰ PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) created by Phil Zimmerman, is a protocol used to

encrypt and decrypt data that provides authentication and cryptographic privacy.
▰ PGP is often used for data compression, digital signing, encryption and decryption
of messages, emails, files, directories, and to enhance privacy of email
communications.
▰ PGP combines the best features of both conventional and public key cryptography
and is therefore known as hybrid cryptosystem.
▰ PGP and similar software follow the OpenPGP, an open standard of PGP encryption
software, standard (RFC 4880) for encrypting and decrypting data.

127
Public Key
Infrastructure (PKI)

Module 19
 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ The most distinct feature of Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is that it uses a pair of
keys to achieve the underlying security service.
▰ Since the public keys are in open domain, they are likely to be abused. It is, thus,
necessary to establish and maintain some kind of trusted infrastructure to manage
these keys.
▰ Key Management
▻ Cryptographic keys are nothing but special pieces of data. Key management
refers to the secure administration of cryptographic keys.
▻ Key management deals with entire key lifecycle.
129
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

130
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ There are two specific requirements of key management for public key
cryptography.
▻ Secrecy of private keys. Throughout the key lifecycle, secret keys must remain
secret from all parties except those who are owner and are authorized to use
them.
▻ Assurance of public keys. In public key cryptography, the public keys are in
open domain and seen as public pieces of data. By default there are no
assurances of whether a public key is correct, with whom it can be associated,
or what it can be used for.

131
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▻ PKI provides assurance of public key. It provides the identification of public
keys and their distribution. An anatomy of PKI comprises of the following
components.
▻ Public Key Certificate, commonly referred to as ‘digital certificate’.
▻ Private Key tokens.
▻ Certification Authority.
▻ Registration Authority.
▻ Certificate Management System.
132
1. Digital Signatures

Module 19
 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ Digital certificates are based on the ITU standard X.509 which defines a standard
certificate format for public key certificates and certification validation.
▰ Public key pertaining to the user client is stored in digital certificates by The
Certification Authority (CA) along with other relevant information such as client
information, expiration date, usage, issuer etc.
▰ CA digitally signs this entire information and includes digital signature in the
certificate.
▰ Anyone who needs the assurance about the public key and associated information
of client, he carries out the signature validation process using CA’s public key.
Successful validation assures that the public key given in the certificate belongs to
the person whose details are given in the certificate.
134
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

135
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

136
2. Certification
Authorities

Module 19
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ CA issues certificate to a client and assist other users to verify the certificate. The
CA takes responsibility for identifying correctly the identity of the client asking for a
certificate to be issued, and ensures that the information contained within the
certificate is correct and digitally signs it.
▰ Key Functions of CA
▻ Generating key pairs
▻ Issuing digital certificates
▻ Publishing Certificates
▻ Verifying Certificates
▻ Revocation of Certificates 138
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ Classes of Certificates: There are four typical classes of certificate −

▻ Class 1 − These certificates can be easily acquired by supplying an email
address.
▻ Class 2 − These certificates require additional personal information to be
supplied.
▻ Class 3 − These certificates can only be purchased after checks have been
made about the requestor’s identity.
▻ Class 4 − They may be used by governments and financial organizations
needing very high levels of trust.
139
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ Registration Authority (RA)

▻ CA may use a third-party Registration Authority (RA) to perform the necessary
checks on the person or company requesting the certificate to confirm their
identity. The RA may appear to the client as a CA, but they do not actually sign
the certificate that is issued.
▰ Certificate Management System (CMS)
▻ It is the management system through which certificates are published,
temporarily or permanently suspended, renewed, or revoked.

140
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ Hierarchy of CA
▻ It is practically not feasible to have only one trusted CA from whom all users
obtain their certificates, also may lead to difficulties if CA is compromised.
▻ The root CA is at the top of the CA hierarchy and the root CA's certificate is a
self-signed certificate.
▻ The CAs, which are directly subordinate to the root CA (For example, CA1 and
CA2) have CA certificates that are signed by the root CA.
▻ The CAs under the subordinate CAs in the hierarchy (For example, CA5 and
CA6) have their CA certificates signed by the higher-level subordinate CAs.
141
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

142
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

143
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

144
Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

▰ A client whose authenticity is being verified supplies his certificate, generally along
with the chain of certificates up to Root CA.
▰ Verifier takes the certificate and validates by using public key of issuer. The
issuer’s public key is found in the issuer’s certificate which is in the chain next to
client’s certificate.
▰ Now if the higher CA who has signed the issuer’s certificate, is trusted by the
verifier, verification is successful and stops here.
▰ Else, the issuer's certificate is verified in a similar manner as done for client in
above steps. This process continues till either trusted CA is found in between or
else it continues till Root CA.
145
Cryptanalysis

Module 19
Cryptanalysis

▰ Study of analyzing information systems in order to study the hidden aspects of the
systems. Cryptanalysis is used to breach cryptographic security systems and gain
access to the contents of encrypted messages, even if the cryptographic key is
unknown.
▰ Methods and techniques to reverse the principles of cryptography without knowing
the applied algorithms and encryption key.
▰ Cryptanalysis includes the study of side-channel attacks that do not target
weaknesses in the cryptographic algorithms themselves, but instead exploit
weaknesses in their implementation.

147
Cryptanalysis

▰ Amount of information available to the attacker

▻ Ciphertext-only: the cryptanalyst has access only to a collection of ciphertexts
or codetexts.
▻ Known-plaintext: the attacker has a set of ciphertexts to which he knows the
corresponding plaintext.
▻ Chosen-plaintext (chosen-ciphertext): the attacker can obtain the ciphertexts
(plaintexts) corresponding to an arbitrary set of plaintexts (ciphertexts) of his
own choosing.

148
Cryptanalysis

▰ Amount of information available to the attacker

▻ Adaptive chosen-plaintext: like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker
can choose subsequent plaintexts based on information learned from
previous encryptions. Similarly Adaptive chosen ciphertext attack.
▻ Related-key attack: Like a chosen-plaintext attack, except the attacker can
obtain ciphertexts encrypted under two different keys. The keys are unknown,
but the relationship between them is known; for example, two keys that differ
in the one bit.

149
Cryptanalysis

150
Cryptanalysis

▰ Symmetric ciphers
▻ Boomerang attack
▻ Brute-force attack
▻ Davies' attack
▻ Differential cryptanalysis
▻ Impossible differential cryptanalysis
▻ Improbable differential cryptanalysis
▻ Integral cryptanalysis
151
Cryptanalysis

▻ Linear cryptanalysis
▻ Meet-in-the-middle attack
▻ Mod-n cryptanalysis
▻ Related-key attack
▻ Sandwich attack
▻ Slide attack
▻ XSL attack
152
Cryptanalysis

▰ Attacking cryptographic hash systems

▻ Birthday attack
▻ Hash function security summary
▻ Rainbow table

153
Cryptanalysis

▰ Side-channel attack
▻ Attack based on information gained from the implementation of a computer
system, rather than weaknesses in the implemented algorithm itself. Timing
information, power consumption, electromagnetic leaks or even sound can
provide an extra source of information, which can be exploited.
▻ Some side-channel attacks require technical knowledge of the internal
operation of the system, although others such as differential power analysis
are effective as black-box attacks.

154
Cryptanalysis

155
Cryptanalysis

▰ General
▻ Cache attack — attacks based on attacker's ability to monitor cache
accesses made by the victim in a shared physical system as in virtualized
environment or a type of cloud service. (Meltdown and Spectre in 2017)
▻ Timing attack — attacks based on measuring how much time various
computations (such as, say, comparing an attacker's given password with the
victim's unknown one) take to perform.
▻ Power-monitoring attack — attacks that make use of varying power
consumption by the hardware during computation.
156
Cryptanalysis

▻ Electromagnetic attack — attacks based on leaked electromagnetic radiation,

which can directly provide plaintexts and other information. Such
measurements can be used to infer cryptographic keys using techniques
equivalent to those in power analysis or can be used in non-cryptographic
attacks, e.g. TEMPEST (aka van Eck phreaking or radiation monitoring)
attacks.
▻ Acoustic cryptanalysis — attacks that exploit sound produced during a
computation (rather like power analysis).
▻ Differential fault analysis — in which secrets are discovered by introducing
faults in a computation.
157
Cryptanalysis

▻ Data remanence — in which sensitive data are read after supposedly having
been deleted. (i.e. Cold boot attack)
▻ Software-initiated fault attacks — Currently a rare class of side-channels, Row
hammer is an example in which off-limits memory can be changed by
accessing adjacent memory too often (causing state retention loss).
▻ Optical - in which secrets and sensitive data can be read by visual recording
using a high resolution camera, or other devices that have such capabilities.

158
HACKING
Is an art, practised through a creative mind.

159