Module -1

Fundamentals of wireless Communications

Wireless Definition

Wireless is a term used to describe telecommunications in which

electromagnetic waves (rather than some form of wire) carry the signal over
part or the entire communication path. Some monitoring devices, such as
intrusion alarms, employ acoustic waves at frequencies above the range of
human hearing; these are also sometimes classified as wireless.
The term wireless communication was introduced in the 19th century and
wireless communication technology has developed over the subsequent years.
It is one of the most important mediums of transmission of information from
one device to other devices. In this technology, the information can be
transmitted through the air without requiring any cable or wires or other
electronic conductors, by using electromagnetic waves like IR, RF, satellite,
etc. In the present days, the wireless communication technology refers to a
variety of wireless communication devices and technologies ranging from
smart phones to computers, tabs, laptops, Bluetooth Technology, printers. This
article gives an overview of wireless communication and types of wireless
communications.

Fig. Various wireless Communication Devices

Frequency Spectrum – Wireless Communication

Types of Wireless Communciation

Introduction to Wireless Communication

In the present days, wireless communication system has become an essential

part of various types of wireless communication devices,that permits user to
communicate even from remote operated areas. There are many devices used
for wireless communication like mobiles. Cordless telephones, Zigbee wireless
technology, GPS, Wi-Fi, satellite television and wireless computer parts.
Current wireless phones include 3 and 4G networks, Bluetooth and Wi-Fi
technologies.
Types of Wireless Communication
The different types of wireless communication mainly include, IR wireless
communication, satellite communication, broadcast radio, Microwave radio,
Bluetooth, Zigbee etc.

Satellite Communication
Satellite communication is one type of self contained
wireless communication technology, it is widely spread
all over the world to allow users to stay connected
almost anywhere on the earth. When the signal (a beam
of modulated microwave) is sent near the satellite then,
satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the
antenna receiver which is located on the surface of the
earth. Satellite communication contains two main
components like the space segment and the ground
segment. The ground segment consists of fixed or
mobile transmission, reception and ancillary equipment
and the space segment, which mainly is the satellite itself.

Infrared Communication
Infrared wireless communication communicates information in a device or
systems through IR radiation. IR is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength that
is longer than that of red light. It is used for security control, TV remote
control and short range communications. In the electromagnetic spectrum, IR
radiation lies between microwaves and visible light. So, they can be used as a
source of communication

For a successful infrared

communication, a photo LED transmitter
and a photo diode receptor are required.
The LED transmitter transmits the IR
signal in the form of nonvisible light,
that is captured and saved by the
photoreceptor. So the information
between the source and the target is
transferred in this way. The source and
destination can be mobile phones, TVs,
security systems, laptops etc supports wireless communication.
Broadcast Radio
The first wireless communication technology is the open radio communication
to seek out widespread use, and it still serves a purpose nowadays. Handy
multichannel radios permit a user to speak over short distances, whereas
citizen’s band and maritime radios offer communication services for sailors.
Ham radio enthusiasts share data and function emergency communication aids
throughout disasters with their powerful broadcasting gear, and can even
communicate digital information over the radio frequency spectrum.

Mostly an audio broadcasting

service, radio broadcasts sound
through the air as radio waves.
Radio uses a transmitter which is
used to transmit the data in the
form of radio waves to a
receiving antenna (Different
Types of Antennas). To
broadcast common
programming, stations are
associated with the radio N/W’s.
The broadcast happens either in simulcast or syndication or both. Radio broadcasting
may be done via cable FM, the net and satellites. A broadcast sends information over
long distances at up to two megabits/Sec (AM/FM Radio).

Radio waves are electromagnetic signals, that are transmitted by an antenna.

These waves have completely different frequency segments, and you will be
ready to obtain an audio signal by changing into a frequency segment.

For example, you can take a radio station.

When the RJ says you are listening to 92.7
BIG FM, what he really means is that
signals are being broadcasted at a
frequency of 92.7megahertz, that
successively means the transmitter at the
station is periodic at a frequency of
92.700,000 Cycles/second.

When you would like to listen to 92.7 BIG

FM, all you have to do is tune the radio to just accept that specific frequency
and you will receive perfect audio reception.
Microwave Communication
Microwave wireless communication is an effective type of communication,
mainly this transmission uses radio waves, and the wavelengths of radio waves
are measured in centimetres. In this communication, the data or information
can be transfers using two methods. One is satellite method and another one is
terrestrial method.

Wherein satellite method, the

data can be transmitted
through a satellite, that orbit
22,300 miles above the earth.
Stations on the earth send
and receive data signals from
the satellite with a frequency
ranging from 11GHz-14GHz
and with a transmission
speed of 1Mbps to 10Mbps.
In terrestrial method, in which two microwave towers with a clear line of sight
between them are used, ensuring no obstacles to disrupt the line of sight. So it
is used often for the purpose of privacy. The frequency range of the terrestrial
system is typically 4GHz
6GHz and with a transmission speed is usually 1Mbps to 10Mbps.

The main disadvantage of microwave signals is, they can be affected by bad
weather, especially rain.

Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi is a low power wireless communication, that is
used by various electronic devices like smart phones,
laptops, etc.In this setup, a router works as a
communication hub wirelessly. These networks allow
users to connect only within close proximity to a router.
WiFi is very common in networking applications which
affords portability wirelessly. These networks need to be
protected with passwords for the purpose of security,
otherwise it will access by others
 6

Mobile Communication Systems

The advancement of mobile networks is
enumerated by generations. Many users
communicate across a single frequency band
through mobile phones. Cellular and
cordless phones are two examples of
devices which make use of wireless signals.
Typically, cell phones have a larger range
of networks to provide coverage. But,
Cordless phones have a limited range.
Similar to GPS devices, some phones make
use of signals from satellites to
communicate.

Bluetooth Technology
The main function of the Bluetooth
technology is that permits you to connect a
various electronic devices wirelessly to a
system for the transferring of data. Cell
phones are connected to hands free
earphones, mouse, wireless keyboard. By
using Bluetooth device the information
from one device to another device. This
technology has various functions and it is
used commonly in the wireless
communication market.

Advantages of Wireless Communication

o Any data or information can be transmitted faster and with a

high speed o Maintenance and installation is less cost for these
networks.
o The internet can be accessed from anywhere wirelessly
o It is very helpful for workers, doctors working in remote areas as they can be in
touch with medical centres.
 Disadvantages of Wireless Communication

o An unauthorized person can easily capture the wireless signals which spread
through the air. o It is very important to secure the wireless network so that the
information cannot be misused by unauthorized users

Applications of Wireless Communication

Applications of wireless communication involve security systems, television
remote control, Wi-Fi, Cell phones, wireless power transfer, computer
interface devices and various wireless communication based projects.

Wireless Communication Based Projects

Wireless communication based projects mainly include different technologies
like Bluetooth, GPS, GSM, RFID and Zigbee projects which are listed below.

o Android Based Smart Phone Used for Induction Motor Control

o Smart Phone Controlled Traffic Signal Override with Density
Sensing System o Arduino based Home Automation
o Phone Controlled Load Management System
o Robotic Vehicle Movement By Cell Phone
o Dialled Telephone Number LED Based Display System
o DTMF based Load Control System
o Dedicated Message Communication Wirelessly between Two
Computers o Wireless Message Communication between Two
Computers
o Android based Remotely Programmable Sequential Load Operation
o Remotely Controlled Android based Electronic Notice Board
o Remote Operated Domestic Appliances Control by Android
Application o Remote Password Operated Security Control by
Android Applications o Home Automation by Android
Application based Remote Control

Therefore, this is all about Types of wireless communication, these networks

are one of the important technologies in the telecommunications market. WiFi,
WiMax, Bluetooth, Femtocell, 3G and 4G are some of the most important
standards of Wireless technology The information which is given in this article
will be helpful to the viewers. Furthermore, any queries, suggestions or
electronics projects, you can comment us by commenting in the comment
section below.
 Advantages
▪ Convenience
– The wireless nature of such networks allows users to access network
resources from nearly any convenient location within their primary networking
environment (a home or office). With the increasing saturation of laptop-style
computers, this is particularly relevant.
▪ Mobility
– With the emergence of public wireless networks, users can access the
internet even outside their normal work environment. Most chain coffee shops,
for example, offer their customers a wireless connection to the internet at little
or no cost.
▪ Productivity
– Users connected to a wireless network can maintain a nearly constant
affiliation with their desired network as they move from place to place. For a
business, this implies that an employee can potentially be more productive as
his or her work can be accomplished from any convenient location.
▪ Deployment
– Initial setup of an infrastructure-based wireless network requires little more
than a single access point. Wired networks, on the other hand, have the
additional cost and complexity of actual physical cables being run to numerous
locations (which can even be impossible for hard-to-reach locations within a
building).
▪ Expandability
– Wireless networks can serve a suddenly-increased number of clients with the
existing equipment. In a wired network, additional clients would require
additional wiring.
▪ Cost
– Wireless networking hardware is at worst a modest increase from wired
counterparts. This potentially increased cost is almost always more than
outweighed by the savings in cost and labour associated to running physical
cables.
Disadvantages
∙ Security
– To combat this consideration, wireless networks may choose to utilize some
of the various encryption technologies available. Some of the more commonly
utilized encryption methods, however, are known to have weaknesses that a
dedicated adversary can compromise.
∙ Range
– The typical range of a common 802.11g network with standard equipment is
on the order of tens of meters. While sufficient for a typical home, it will be
insufficient in a larger structure. To obtain additional range, repeaters or
additional access points will have to be purchased. Costs for these items can
add up quickly.
∙ Reliability
– Like any radio frequency transmission, wireless networking signals are
subject to a wide variety of interference, as well as complex propagation
effects that are beyond the control of the network administrator.
∙ Speed
 – The speed on most wireless networks (typically 1-54 Mbps) is far slower
than even the slowest common wired networks (100Mbps up to several Gbps).
However, in specialized environments, the throughput of a wired network
might be necessary.

11
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Introduction – Infrared Modulation Techniques

As next-generation electronic information systems evolve, it is critical that all

people have access to the information available via these systems. Examples of
developing and future information systems include interactive television,
touch screen-based information kiosks, and advanced Internet programs.
Infrared technology, increasingly present in mainstream applications, holds
great potential for enabling people with a variety of disabilities to access a
growing list of information resources. Already commonly used in remote
control of TVs, VCRs and CD players, infrared technology is also being used
and developed for remote control of environmental control systems, personal
computers, and talking signs.

For individuals with mobility impairments, the use of infrared or other wireless
technology can facilitate the operation of information kiosks, environmental
control systems, personal computers and associated peripheral devices. For
individuals with visual impairments, infrared or other wireless communication
technology can enable users to locate and access talking building directories,
street signs, or other assistive navigation devices. For individuals using
augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices, infrared or other
wireless technology can provide an alternate, more portable, more independent
means of accessing computers and other electronic information systems.
In this presentation/paper, an introduction to wireless communication in
general is first presented. A discussion specific to infrared technology then
follows, with advantages and disadvantages of the technology presented along
with security, health and safety issues. The importance of establishing a
standard is also discussed with relevance to the disability field, and future uses
of infrared technology are presented.

Wireless Communication

Wireless communication, as the term implies, allows information to be

exchanged between two devices without the use of wire or cable. A wireless
keyboard sends information to the computer without the use of a keyboard
cable; a cellular telephone sends information to another telephone without the
use of a telephone cable. Changing television channels, opening and closing a
garage door, and transferring a file from one computer to another can all be
accomplished using wireless technology. In all such cases, information is being
transmitted and received using electromagnetic energy, also referred to as
electromagnetic radiation. One of the most familiar sources of electromagnetic
radiation is the sun; other common sources include TV and radio signals, light
bulbs and microwaves. To provide background information in understanding
wireless technology, the electromagnetic spectrum is first presented and some
basic terminology defined.

The electromagnetic spectrum classifies electromagnetic energy according to

frequency or wavelength (both described below). As shown in Figure 1, the
electromagnetic spectrum ranges from energy waves having extremely low
frequency (ELF) to energy waves having much higher frequency, such as x-
rays.

The electromagnetic spectrum is depicted in Figure 1. A horizontal bar

represents a range of frequencies from 10 Hertz (cycles per second) to 10 to
the 18th power Hertz. Some familiar allocated frequency bands are labelled on
the spectrum. Approximate locations are as follows. (Exponential powers of
10 are abbreviated as 10exp.)

10 Hertz: extremely low frequency or ELF.

10exp5 Hertz: AM radio.
10exp8 Hertz: FM radio.
10exp10 Hertz: Television.
10exp11 Hertz: Microwave.
10exp16 Hertz: Infrared (frequency range is below the visible light
spectrum). 10exp16 Hertz: Visible Light.
10exp16 Hertz: Ultraviolet (frequency range is above the visible
light spectrum). 10exp18 Hertz: X-rays.]

A typical electromagnetic wave is depicted in Figure 2, where the vertical axis

represents the amplitude or strength of the wave, and the horizontal axis
represents time. In relation to electromagnetic energy, frequency is:

1. the number of cycles a wave completes (or the number of times a wave
repeats itself) in one second
2. expressed as Hertz (Hz), which equals once cycle per second
3. commonly indicated by prefixes such as

a. Kilo (KHz) one thousand b. Mega (MHz) one million c. Giga (GHz)
one billion

4. directly related to the amount of information that can be transmitted on the wave

[Figure 2 description: A sine wave is depicted in the graph in Figure 2. The

horizontal axis of the graph represents time, and the vertical axis of the graph
represents amplitude. One cycle (or one complete sine wave) is labelled on the
graph.]

[Figure 3 description: Graphs of three different sine waves are depicted in

Figure 3. The horizontal axis, with values ranging from 0 to 1, represents time
in seconds. The vertical axis, with values ranging from -1 to 1, represents
arbitrary amplitude. The first graph in the figure depicts a sine wave with a
frequency of 1 cycle per second. As shown, the energy wave makes a complete
cycle from 0 to its maximum positive value, then through to its maximum
negative value, then back to 0. The second graph in the figure depicts a sine
wave with a frequency of 2 cycles per second. The sine wave therefore makes
2 complete cycles of moving from 0 to its maximum positive value, through to
its maximum negative value, and back to 0, in the same time that the wave in
the first graph completes 1 cycle. The third graph in the figure depicts a sine
wave with a frequency of 3 cycles per second. The sine wave therefore
completes 3 full cycles in the same amount of time that the wave in the first
graph completes 1 cycle.

Figure 3 illustrates energy waves completing one cycle, two cycles and three
cycles per second. Generally, the higher the range of frequencies (or
bandwidth), the more information can be carried per unit of time.

The term wavelength is used almost interchangeably with frequency. In

relation to electromagnetic energy, wavelength is:

1. the shortest distance at which the wave pattern fully repeats itself
2. expressed as meters
3. commonly indicated by prefixes such as
a. Kilo (km) 10exp3 b. Milli (mm) 10exp-3 c. Nano (nm) 10exp-9

Inversely proportional to frequency

Figure 4 depicts an infrared energy wave and a radio energy wave, and
illustrates the two different energy wavelengths. As is expected based on the
electromagnetic spectrum, the infrared wave is higher frequency and therefore
shorter wavelength than the radio wave. Conversely, the radio wave is lower
frequency and therefore longer wavelength than the infrared wave. Anyone
who has listened to the radio while driving long distances can appreciate that
longer wavelength AM radio waves carry further than the shorter wavelength
FM radio waves.

[Figure 4 description: Figure 4 depicts a radio frequency energy wave

superimposed upon an infrared energy wave, and illustrates the inverse
relationship between frequency and wavelength. The infrared energy wave
completes nearly 5 and a half cycles in the time that the radio frequency wave
completes 2 cycles. The wavelengths of the infrared wave and the radio wave
are labelled, and the infrared wavelength is less than half the wavelength of the
radio wave.]

Other terms commonly used in describing wireless communication include

transmitter, receiver, and transceiver. In any type of wireless technology,
information must be sent (or transmitted) by one device and captured (or
received) by another device. The transmitter takes its input - a voice or stream
of data bits for example, creates an energy wave that contains the information,
and sends the wave using an appropriate output device. As an example, a radio
transmitter outputs its energy waves using an antenna, while an infrared
transmitter uses an infrared light- emitting diode (LED) or laser diode. The
electromagnetic energy waves are captured by the receiver, which then
processes the waves to retrieve and output the information in its original form.
Any wireless device having the circuitry to both transmit and receive energy
signals is referred to as a transceiver. Depending on the communication
protocol being used, a device may be capable of only transmitting or receiving
information at one time or it may be capable of both transmitting and receiving
information at the same time.

The above described terminology is relevant in all forms of wireless

communication, regardless of the band of electromagnetic energy (radio,
infrared, etc.) being used. Although radio and ultrasound waves have frequent
application in wireless communication, the remainder of the
presentation/paper is devoted more specifically to infrared (IR) technology.
Infrared technology is highlighted because of its increasing presence in
mainstream applications, its current and potential usage in disability-related
applications, and its advantages over other forms of wireless communication.

Infrared Technology

As depicted in Fig. 1, infrared radiation is the region of the electromagnetic

spectrum between microwaves and visible light. In infrared communication an
LED transmits the infrared signal as bursts of non-visible light. At the
receiving end a photodiode or photoreceptor detects and captures the light
pulses, which are then processed to retrieve the information they contain.
Some common applications of infrared technology are listed below.

1. Augmentative communication devices

2. Car locking systems
3. Computers
a. Mouse
b. Keyboards
c. Floppy disk drives
d. Printers
4. Emergency response systems
 5. Environmental control systems
a. Windows
b. Doors
c. Lights
d. Curtains
e. Beds
f. Radios
6. Headphones
7. Home security systems
8. Navigation systems
9. Signage
10. Telephones
11. TVs, VCRs, CD players, stereos
12. Toys

Infrared technology offers several important advantages as a form of wireless

communication. Advantages and disadvantages of IR are first presented,
followed by a comparative listing of radio frequency (RF) advantages and
disadvantages.

IR Advantages:

1. Low power requirements: therefore ideal for laptops, telephones,

personal digital assistants
2. Low circuitry costs: $2-$5 for the entire coding/decoding circuitry
3. Simple circuitry: no special or proprietary hardware is required, can be
incorporated into the integrated circuit of a product
4. Higher security: directionality of the beam helps ensure that data isn't
leaked or spilled to nearby devices as it's transmitted
5. Portable
6. Few international regulatory constraints: IrDA (Infrared Data
Association) functional devices will ideally be usable by international
travelers, no matter where they may be 7. High noise immunity: not as
likely to have interference from signals from other devices

IR Disadvantages:

1. Line of sight: transmitters and receivers must be almost directly aligned

(i.e. able to see each other) to communicate
2. Blocked by common materials: people, walls, plants, etc. can block
transmission
3. Short range: performance drops off with longer distances
4. Light, weather sensitive: direct sunlight, rain, fog, dust, pollution can
affect transmission
5. Speed: data rate transmission is lower than typical wired trans

RF Advantages:
 1. Not line of sight
2. Not blocked by common materials: can penetrate most solids and pass
through walls
3. Longer range
4. Not light sensitive
5. Not as sensitive to weather/environmental conditions

RF Disadvantages:

1. Interference: communication devices using similar frequencies - wireless

phones, scanners, wrist radios and personal locators can interfere with
transmission

2. Lack of security: easier to "eavesdrop" on transmissions since signals are

spread out in space rather than confined to a wire
3. Higher cost than infrared
4. Federal Communications Commission(FCC) licenses required for
some products
5. Lower speed: data rate transmission is lower than wired and infrared
transmission

In addition to the above noted advantages and disadvantages of IR and RF

technology, there are other issues that are also pertinent to the consideration of
wireless communication systems. Health, safety and security issues are now
discussed.

Health Risks

Imagine for a moment going about your daily routine without electricity. You
probably awoke to an electric clock radio/alarm, showered under warm water
supplied via an electric hot water heater, drank a couple of cups of coffee from
your automatic electric coffee maker, listened to the weather on the electric
powered TV or radio - and the list goes on and on. We live in an electrical
environment!

Electricity is all around you and while you cannot see electricity, you can
certainly appreciate the results. However, any time electric current travels
through a wire, the air, or runs an appliance, it produces an electromagnetic
field. It is important to remember that electromagnetic fields are found
everywhere that electricity is in use. While researchers have not established an
ironclad link between the exposure to electromagnetic fields and ailments such
as leukemia, the circumstantial evidence concerns many people.

The evidence also suggests that we need to use some common sense when
dealing with electricity. In scientific terms, your body can act as an antenna, as
it has a higher conductivity for electricity than does air. Therefore, when
conditions are right you may have experienced a small "tingle" of electric
current from a poorly grounded electric appliance. As long as these currents
are very small there isn't much danger from electric fields, except for potential
shocks. Your body, however, also has a permeability almost equal to air, thus
allowing a magnetic field to easily enter the body. Unfortunately your body
cannot detect the presence of a strong magnetic field, which could potentially
do much more harm.

In terms of wireless technology, there are no confirmed health risks or

scientific dangers from infrared or radio frequency, with two known
exceptions:

1. point-to-point lasers which can cause burns or blindness

2. prolonged microwave exposure which has been linked to cancer and

leukemia

Therefore, most health concerns related to electromagnetic fields are due to

electricity in our day-to-day use, such as computer monitors and TVs. These
dangers, if any, are already in the home and work place, and the addition of
wireless technology should not be seen as an exceptional risk. We might be
rightfully worried or concerned about the electric power grid two blocks from
our home or school, but at the same time, we sleep each night with our head
only a few feet from an AC powered clock radio, which may be far worse due
simply to proximity. We might be also be worried about the magnetic
radiation or magnetically induced electrical fields which surround us from the
fluorescent light fixtures and high voltage, high frequency lighting we sit
under at work and at home. The real danger, however, is that we normally
position ourselves too close to the electromagnetic field source (computer
monitor, TV, etc.). Remember that the strength of the electromagnetic field
(EMF) decreases as the square of the distance from the field source. Therefore,
if we are 2 meters away from the source, the EMF strength is reduced to 1/4,
but if we move 8 meters away from the source, the EMF strength is reduced to
1/64 of its original strength.

Safety

There are a few things you can do to make your home and work environment a
safer "electronic" place. The first thing to consider when possible is to buy
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Class B rated equipment. The
FCC classifies computer equipment for its potential to generate radio
frequency pollution. Class B emits less radio frequency pollution than Class A,
and is more suitable for the residential environment. Unfortunately, while
Class B emits less radio frequency pollution, there is nothing in the FCC
classes regarding magnitude or level of the pollution.

Other potential risks exist in high voltage (e.g. power) components such as
display monitors, computer power supplies, etc. If possible select low power
units, shielded units, etc. and operate them at lower resolutions. For example,
VGA resolution has a lower refresh scan rate than SVGA, and thus lower
magnetic field pollution. If you are adding internal cards to your computers,
don't tamper with the computer by removing any internal shielding, covers,
etc. Any metal shielding inside your computer was probably put there for a
purpose, although to you it may look like a harmless spacer!

If you are really concerned, you can purchase formal safety testing tools or hire
a consultant to do formal testing for EMF. There are also cheap tools you can
utilize to test for the presence of strong radio or magnetic fields. For example,
the presence of a strong magnetic field will deflect a compass needle from
pointing north, or the presence of a strong radio frequency field will distort an
AM radio's ability to clearly tune in a station. Simple tools like these can be
used to screen for strong EMF.

Security

Electromagnetic frequencies currently have little legal status for protection and
as such, can be freely intercepted by motivated individuals. This doesn't mean
wireless transmission is easily breached, as security varies by the type of
wireless transmission method. As presented earlier in the advantages and
disadvantages of infrared versus radio frequency transmission, what might be
considered an advantage to one method for transmission could turn out to be a
disadvantage for security. For example, because infrared is line-of-sight it has
less transmission range but is also more difficult to intercept when compared
to radio frequency. Radio frequency can penetrate walls, making it much
easier to transmit a message, but also more susceptible to tapping.

A possible solution to security issues will likely be some form of data

encryption. Data encryption standards (DES) are also being quickly developed
for the exchange of information over the Internet, and many of these same
DES will be applied to wireless technology.

Importance of Standards

Several of the wireless devices demonstrated during the presentation (see

Appendix A) have benefited to some degree from standardization. For
example, a universal IR remote was once priced at roughly $100.00. It is now
possible, for under $15.00, to purchase a universal remote that will learn the
IR codes for all of your electronic appliances - not just the TV or VCR.
Another example of a device that has benefited from standardization is the
Macintosh IR mouse. The compatibility of this mouse to the Apple Desktop
Bus (ADB) Standard has certainly contributed to its inexpensive price and
availability. As you look around the exhibit hall, think of all the assistive
devices that have proliferated due to the ADB (IntelliKeys, Ke:nx, etc.).
Additionally, the X10 devices that were demonstrated in the presentation not
only rely on but have benefited from the 60 HZ AC standard which applies to
most of North America. As a result these devices are now numerous and
inexpensive. One final example demonstrating the importance of standards is
the relationship of augmentative alternative communication (AAC) devices to
the General Input Device Emulating Interface (GIDEI) standard. Any AAC
device programmed to use the GIDEI protocol can access any PC or Macintosh
running either the DOS, Windows, or Macintosh version of SerialKeys. The
collaboration of the rehabilitation field to create the GIDEI standard has
allowed AAC users to access multiple computers without the need to
reprogram their devices or purchase expensive, proprietary hardware.

Likewise, there is an urgent need to develop standards regarding the use of

wireless technology in accessing electronic appliances of all kinds. Without
such a standard, it may be difficult if not impossible for those using assistive
devices to communicate with all available information systems. Examples of
current or developing appliances which can or may potentially be accessed via
wireless technology include:

1. ATMs
2. Information Kiosks
3. Building Directories
4. TV Set Top Boxes
5. Bus Stops (Electronic Interactive)
6. Fare Machines (ticket machines, etc.)
7. Home Appliances (especially touchscreens)
8. Informational Telephones, Screen Based Telephones
9. POS (point of sale) equipment
10. Home environmental controls
11. Home security systems
12. Whiteboards, for classroom / interactive office use
13. Games and entertainment

Multiple Access Techniques - FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, OFDMA

Comparison of TDMA , FDMA, CDMA , CSMA & OFDMA

In telecommunications and computer networks, a channel access method or

multiple access method allows several terminals connected to the same multi-
point transmission medium to transmit over it and to share its capacity.
Examples of shared physical media are wireless networks, bus networks, ring
networks and half-duplex point-to-point links.

A channel-access scheme is based on a multiplexing method,that allows several

data streams or signals to share the same communication channel or physical
medium. Multiplexing is in this context provided by the physical layer. Note
that multiplexing also may be used in full duplex point-to-point communication
between nodes in a switched network, which should not be considered as
multiple access.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

The frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) channel-access scheme is

based on the frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) scheme, which provides
different frequency bands to different data-streams. In the FDMA case, the
data streams are allocated to different nodes or devices. An example of FDMA
systems were the first-generation (1G) cell-phone systems, where each phone
call was assigned to a specific uplink frequency channel, and another downlink
frequency channel. Each message signal (each phone call) is modulated on a
specific carrier frequency.

A related technique is wavelength division multiple access (WDMA), based on

wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), where different datastreams get
different colors in fiber optical communications. In the WDMA case, different
network nodes in a bus or hub network get a different color.

An advanced form of FDMA is the orthogonal frequency-division multiple

access (OFDMA) scheme, for example used in 4G cellular communication
systems. In OFDMA, each node may use several sub-carriers, making it
possible to provide different quality of service (different data rates) to different
users. The assignment of sub-carriers to users may be changed dynamically,
based on the current radio channel conditions and traffic load.

Time division multiple access (TDMA)

The time division multiple access (TDMA) channel access scheme is based on
the time division multiplexing (TDM) scheme, which provides different time-
slots to different data streams (in the TDMA case to different transmitters) in a
cyclically repetitive frame structure. For example, node 1 may use time slot 1,
node 2 time slot 2, etc. until the last transmitter. Then it starts all over again, in
a repetitive pattern, until a connection is ended and that slot becomes free or
assigned to another node. An advanced form is Dynamic TDMA (DTDMA),
where a scheduling may give different time sometimes but some times node 1
may use time slot 1 in first frame and use another time slot in next frame.

As an example, 2G cellular systems are based on a combination of TDMA and

FDMA. Each frequency channel is divided into eight timeslots, of which seven
are used for seven phone calls, and one for signalling data.

Statistical time division multiplexing multiple-access is typically also based on

time-domain multiplexing, but not in a cyclically repetitive frame structure.
Due to its random character it can be categorised as statistical multiplexing
methods, making it possible to provide dynamic bandwidth allocation. This
require a media access control (MAC) protocol, i.e. a principle for the nodes to
take turns on the channel and to avoid collisions. Common examples are
CSMA/CD, used in Ethernet bus networks and hub networks, and CSMA/CA,
used in wireless networks such as IEEE 802.11.

Code division multiple access (CDMA)/Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA)

The code division multiple access (CDMA) scheme is based on spread

spectrum, meaning that a wider radio spectrum in Hertz is used than the data
rate of each of the transferred bit streams, and several message signals are
transferred simultaneously over the same carrier frequency, utilizing different
spreading codes. The wide bandwidth makes it possible to send with a very
poor signal-to-noise ratio of much less than 1 (less than 0 dB) according to the
Shannon-Heartly formula, meaning that the transmission power can be reduced
to a level below the level of the noise and co-channel interference (cross talk)
from other message signals sharing the same frequency.

One form is direct sequence spread spectrum (DS-CDMA), used for example
in 3G cell phone systems. Each information bit (or each symbol) is represented
by a long code sequence of several pulses, called chips. The sequence is the
spreading code, and each message signal (for example each phone call) use
different spreading code.

Another form is frequency-hopping (FH-CDMA), where the channel frequency

is changing very rapidly according to a sequence that constitutes the spreading
code. As an example, the Bluetooth communication system is based on a
combination of frequency-hopping and either CSMA/CA statistical time
division multiplexing communication (for data communication applications)
or TDMA (for audio transmission). All nodes belonging to the same user (to
the same virtual private area network or piconet) use the same frequency
hopping sequence synchronously, meaning that they send on the same
frequency channel, but CDMA/CA or TDMA is used to avoid collisions
within the VPAN. Frequency-hopping is used to reduce the cross-talk and
collision probability between nodes in different VPAN:s.

Space division multiple access (SDMA)

Space division multiple access (SDMA) transmits different information in

different physical areas. Examples include simple cellular radio systems and
more advanced cellular systems which use directional antennas and power
modulation to refine spacial transmission patterns.

Space-division multiple access (SDMA) is a channel access method based on

creating parallel spatial pipes next to higher capacity pipes through spatial
multiplexing and/or diversity, by which it is able to offer superior performance
in radio multiple access communication systems. In traditional mobile cellular
network systems, the base station has no information on the position of the
mobile units within the cell and radiates the signal in all directions within the
cell in order to provide radio coverage.

This results in wasting power on transmissions when there are no mobile units
to reach, in addition to causing interference for adjacent cells using the same
frequency, so called co-channel cells. Likewise, in reception, the antenna
receives signals coming from all directions including noise and interference
signals. By using smart antenna technology and differing spatial locations of
mobile units within the cell, space-division multiple access techniques offer
attractive performance enhancements. The radiation pattern of the base station,
both in transmission and reception, is adapted to each user to obtain highest
gain in the direction of that user. This is often done using phased array
techniques.

In GSM cellular networks, the base station is aware of the distance (but not
direction) of a mobile phone by use of a technique called "timing advance"
(TA). The base transceiver station (BTS) can determine how distant the mobile
station (MS) is by interpreting the reported TA. This information, along with
other parameters, can then be used to power down the BTS or MS, if a power
control feature is implemented in the network. The power control in either
BTS or MS is implemented in most modern networks, especially on the MS, as
this ensures a better battery life for the MS. This is also why having a BTS
close to the user results in less exposure to electromagnetic radiation.

This is why one may actually be safer to have a BTS close to them as their MS
will be powered down as much as possible. For example, there is more power
being transmitted from the MS than what one would receive from the BTS
even if they were 6 meters away from a BTS mast. However, this estimation
might not consider all the Mobile stations that a particular BTS is supporting
with EM radiation at any given time.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Carrier Sense Multiple Access

Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detect (CSMA/CD) is the protocol for

carrier transmission access in Ethernet networks. On Ethernet, any device can
try to send a frame at any time. Each device senses whether the line is idle and
therefore available to be used. If it is, the device begins to transmit its first
frame. If another device has tried to send at the same time, a collision is said to
occur and the frames are discarded. Each device then waits a random amount
of time and retries until successful in getting its transmission sent.

Short for Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection, a set of rules
determining how network devices respond when two devices attempt to use a
data channel simultaneously (called a collision). Standard Ethernet networks
use CSMA/CD to physically monitor the traffic on the line at participating
stations. If no transmission is taking place at the time, the particular station can
transmit. If two stations attempt to transmit simultaneously, this causes a
collision, which is detected by all participating stations. After a random time
interval, the stations that collide attempt to transmit again. If another collision
occurs, the time intervals from which the random waiting time is selected are
increased step by step. This is known as exponential back off.
CSMA/CD is a type of contention protocol. Networks using the CSMA/CD
procedure are simple to implement but do not have deterministic transmission
characteristics. The CSMA/CD method is internationally standardized in IEEE
802.3 and ISO 8802.3.

Carrier sense multiple access (CSMA) is a probabilistic media access control

(MAC) protocol in which a node verifies the absence of other traffic before
transmitting on a shared transmission medium, such as an electrical bus, or a
band of the electromagnetic spectrum.

Carrier sense means that a transmitter uses feedback from a receiver to

determine whether another transmission is in progress before initiating a
transmission. That is, it tries to detect the presence of a carrier wave from
another station before attempting to transmit. If a carrier is sensed, the station
waits for the transmission in progress to finish before initiating its own
transmission. In other words, CSMA is based on the principle "sense before
transmit" or "listen before talk".

Multiple access means that multiple stations send and receive on the medium.
Transmissions by one node are generally received by all other stations
connected to the medium

Protocol modifications

CSMA/CD is used to improve CSMA performance by terminating

transmission as soon as a collision is detected, thus shortening the time
required before a retry can be attempted.

In CSMA/CA collision avoidance is used to improve the performance of

CSMA by attempting to be less "greedy" on the channel. If the channel is
sensed busy before transmission then the transmission is deferred for a
"random" interval. This reduces the probability of collisions on the channel.

Virtual time CSMA

VTCSMA is designed to avoid collision generated by nodes transmitting

signals simultaneously, used mostly in hard real-time systems. The VTCSMA
uses two clocks at every node, a virtual clock (vc) and a real clock (rc) which
tells "real time". When the channel is sensed to be busy, the vc freezes, when
channel is free, it is reset. Hence, calculating vc runs faster than rc when
channel is free, and vc is not initiated when channel is busy.
CSMA access modes

1-Persistent

1-Persistent CSMA is an aggressive transmission algorithm. When the sender (station) is ready to
transmit data, it senses the transmission medium for idle or busy. If idle, then it transmits
immediately. If busy, then it senses the transmission medium continuously until it becomes idle,
then transmits the message (a frame) unconditionally (i.e. with probability=1). In case of a collision,
the sender waits for a random period of time and attempts to transmit again unconditionally (i.e.
with probability=1). 1-persistent CSMA is used in CSMA/CD systems including Ethernet.

Non-persistent
Non persistent CSMA is a non aggressive transmission algorithm. When the sender
(station) is ready to transmit data, it senses the transmission medium for idle or busy.
If idle, then it transmits immediately. If busy, then it waits for a random period of
time (during which it does not sense the transmission medium) before repeating the
whole logic cycle (which started with sensing the transmission medium for idle or
busy) again. This approach reduces collision, results in overall higher medium
throughput but with a penalty of longer initial delay compared to 1–persistent .
P-persistent
This is an approach between 1-persistent and non-persistent CSMA access modes.
When the sender (station) is ready to transmit data, it senses the transmission medium
for idle or busy. If idle, then it transmits immediately. If busy, then it senses the
transmission medium continuously until it becomes idle, then transmits a frame with
probability p. If the sender chooses not to transmit (the probability of this event is 1-
p), the sender waits until the next available time slot. If the transmission medium is
still not busy, it transmits again with the same probability p. This probabilistic hold-
off repeats until the frame is finally transmitted or when the medium is found to
become busy again (i.e. some other sender has already started transmitting their data).
In the latter case the sender repeats the whole logic cycle (which started with sensing
the transmission medium for idle or busy) again. p-persistent CSMA is used in
CSMA/CA systems including Wi-Fi and other packet radio systems.
O-persistent
Each station is assigned a transmission order by a supervisor station. When medium
goes idle, stations wait for their time slot in accordance with their assigned
transmission order. The station assigned to transmit first transmits immediately. The
station assigned to transmit second waits one time slot (but by that time the first
station has already started transmitting). Stations monitor the medium for
transmissions from other stations and update their assigned order with each detected
transmission (i.e. they move one position closer to the front of the queue). O-
persistent CSMA is used by CobraNet, LonWorks and the controller area network.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing, an FDM modulation technique

for transmitting large amounts of digital data over a radio wave. OFDM works
by splitting the radio signal into multiple smaller sub-signals that are then
transmitted simultaneously at different frequencies to the receiver. OFDM
reduces the amount of crosstalk in signal transmissions. 802.11a WLAN,
802.16 and Wimax technologies use OFDM.

OFDM is a combination of modulation and multiplexing. Multiplexing

generally refers to independent signals, those produced by different sources.
So it is a question of how to share the spectrum with these users. In OFDM
the question of multiplexing is applied to independent signals but these
independentsignals are a sub-set of the one main signal. In OFDM the signal
itself is first split into independent channels, modulated by data and then re-
multiplexed to create the OFDM carrier.

OFDM is a special case of Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM). As an

analogy, a FDM channel is like water flow out of a faucet, in contrast the
OFDM signal is like a shower. In a faucet all water comes in one big stream
and cannot be sub-divided. OFDM shower is made up of a lot of little
streams.

(a) (b)

Fig. – (a) A Regular-FDM single carrier – A whole bunch of water

coming all in one stream. (b) Orthogonal-FDM – Same amount of
water coming from a lot of small streams.

Think about what the advantage might be of one over the other? One
obvious one is that if I put my thumb over the faucet hole, I can stop the
water flow but I cannot do the same for the shower. So although both do the
same thing, they respond differently to interference.

Fig. All cargo on one truck vs. splitting the shipment into more than
one.
Another way to see this intuitively is to use the analogy of making a shipment via a
truck.
We have two options, one hire a big truck or a bunch of smaller ones.
Both methods carry the exact same amount of data. But in case of an
accident, only 1/4 of data on the OFDM trucking will suffer.
These four smaller trucks when seen as signals are called the sub-carriers in
an OFDM system and they must be orthogonal for this idea to work. The
independentsub-channels can be multiplexed by frequency division
multiplexing (FDM), called multi-carrier transmission or it can be based on a
code division multiplex (CDM), in this case it is called multi-code
transmission.

Fig. – Multi-carrier FDM and Multi-code division multiplex

The importance of being orthogonal

 The main concept in OFDM is orthogonality of the sub-carriers. Since the
carriers are all sine/cosine wave, we know that area under one period of a
sine or a cosine wave is zero. This is easily shown.

Let's take a sine wave of frequency m and multiply it by a sinusoid (sine or

a cosine) of a frequency n, where both m and n are integers. The integral or
the area under this product is given by
f (t) = sin mwt × sin nwt (1)

f (t) = sin wt *sin nwt ; Sine wave multiplied by another of a different

harmonic
A guide to 5G network security insight report - Ericsson
By the simple trigonometric relationship, this is equal to a sum of two
sinusoids of frequencies (n-m) and (n+m)
1 1
= cos(m − n) − cos(m + n)
22
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) & Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum
(FHSS)

In telecommunications, direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) is a spread spectrum

modulation technique. Spread spectrum systems are such that they transmit the message
bearing signals using a bandwidth that is in excess of the bandwidth that is actually needed
by the message signal. This spreading of the transmitted signal over a large bandwidth
make the resulting wideband signal appear as a noise signal which allows greater
resistance to intentional and unintentional interference with the transmitted signal. [1]

One of the methods of achieving this spreading of the message signal is provided by DSSS
modulation. In DSSS the message signal is used to modulate a bit sequence known as the
Pseudo Noise (PN) code; this PN code consists of pulses of a much shorter duration (larger
bandwidth) than the pulse duration of the message signal, therefore the modulation by the
message signal has the effect of chopping up the pulses of the message signal and thereby
resulting in a signal which has a bandwidth nearly as large as that of the PN sequence. [1] In
this context the duration of the pulse of the PN code is referred to as the chip duration and
the smaller this value, the larger the bandwidth of the resultant DSSS signal and the more
immune to interference the resultant signal becomes.[1]

Some of the uses of DSSS include the Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) channel
access method and the IEEE 802.11b specification used in Wi-Fi networks

Direct-sequence spread-spectrum transmissions multiply the data being transmitted by a

"noise" signal. This noise signal is a pseudorandom sequence of 1 and −1 values, at a
frequency much higher than that of the original signal.

The resulting signal resembles white noise, like an audio recording of "static". However,
this noise-like signal is used to exactly reconstruct the original data at the receiving end, by
multiplying it by the same pseudorandom sequence (because 1 × 1 = 1, and −1 × −1 = 1).
This process, known as "de-spreading", mathematically constitutes a correlation of the
transmitted PN sequence with the PN sequence that the receiver already knows the
transmitter is using.

The resulting effect of enhancing signal to noise ratio on the channel is called process gain.
This effect can be made larger by employing a longer PN sequence and more chips per bit,
but physical devices used to generate the PN sequence impose practical limits on attainable
processing gain.

If an undesired transmitter transmits on the same channel but with a different PN sequence
(or no sequence at all), the de-spreading process has reduced processing gain for that
signal. This effect is the basis for the code division multiple access (CDMA) property of
DSSS, which allows multiple transmitters to share the same channel within the limits of
the cross-correlation properties of their PN sequences.
As this description suggests, a plot of the transmitted waveform has a roughly bell-shaped
envelope centered on the carrier frequency, just like a normal AM transmission, except
that the added noise causes the distribution to be much wider than that of an AM
transmission.

In contrast, frequency-hopping spread spectrum pseudo-randomly re-tunes the carrier,

instead of adding pseudo-random noise to the data, the latter process results in a uniform
frequency distribution whose width is determined by the output range of the
pseudorandom number generator.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Evolution of wireless generations - 1G to 5G

Generation Definition Throughput/ Technology Time

Speed period
1G Analog 14.4 Kbps (peak) AMPS 1970 –
1980
2G Digital 9.6/14.4 Kbps GSM 1990 -
Narrow band 2000
circuit data
2.5G Packet Data 171.2 Kbps(peak) GPRS 2001-
20-40 Kbps 2004

3G Digital 3.1 Mbps (peak) CDMA 2000 2004-

Broadband 500-700 Kbps (1xRTT, 2005
Packet Data EVDO)
UMTS,
EDGE
3.5G Packet Data 14.4 Mbps (peak) HSPA 2006 –
1-3 Mbps 2010

4G Digital 100-300 Mbps WiMax 2010

Broadband (peak) LTE
Packet All IP 3-5 Mbps Wi-Fi
Very high 100 Mbps (Wi-Fi)
throughput
5G Industrial 1 Gbps to 3.5 Cognitive 2020 till
Internet Gbps Radio date
Technology

• 5th generation(wireless systems) projects to denote the next major phase

of mobile telecommunications standards beyond the current 4G/IMT-
Advanced standards.
• 5G is also referred to as beyond 2020 mobile communications technologies.
Evolution of Cellular networks 1G, 2G, 3G and 4G

Difference between 3G and 4G

Technical Parameters 3G 4G
Network architectures Wide area cell based Hybrid
Speed 384 kbps to 2 Mbps 20 to 100 Mbps

Frequency band 1800 to 2400 MHz 2 to 8 GHz

Bandwidth 5-20 MHz 100 MHz (or more)
Switching tech. Packet and circuit Only packet
Access technology W-CDMA , 1xRTT OFDMA
 Components Optimized antenna Smart antenna
IP IPv4 IPv6

At the initial phase, mobile communication was restricted to certain official users and the
cellular concept was never even dreamt of being made commercially available. Moreover,
even the growth in the cellular networks was very slow. However, with the development of
newer and better technologies starting from the 1970s and with the mobile users now
connected to the PSTN, there has been a remarkable growth in the cellular radio. However,
the spread of mobile communication was very fast in the 1990s when the government
throughout the world provided radio spectrum licenses for Personal Communication
Service (PCS) in 1.8 - 2 GHz frequency band.
1G: First Generation Networks
The first mobile phone system in the market was AMPS. It was the first U.S. cellular
telephone system, deployed in Chicago in 1983. The main technology of this first
generation mobile system was FDMA/FDD and analog FM.
2G: Second Generation Networks
Digital modulation formats were introduced in this generation with the main technology as
TDMA/FDD and CDMA/FDD. The 2G systems introduced three popular TDMA
standards and one popular CDMA standard in the market. These are as 11 follows:
TDMA/FDD Standards
(a) Global System for Mobile (GSM): The GSM standard, introduced by Groupe Special
Mobile, was aimed at designing a uniform pan-European mobile system. It was the first
fully digital system utilizing the 900 MHz frequency band. The initial GSM had 200 KHz
radio channels, 8 full-rate or 16 half-rate TDMA channels per carrier, encryption of speech,
low speed data services and support for SMS for which it gained quick popularity. (b)
Interim Standard 136 (IS-136): It was popularly known as North American Digital Cellular
(NADC) system. In this system, there were 3 full-rate TDMA users over each 30 KHz
channel. The need of this system was mainly to increase the capacity over the earlier
analog (AMPS) system. (c) Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC): This standard was developed as
the counterpart of NADC in Japan. The main advantage of this standard was its low
transmission bit rate which led to its better spectrum utilization.
CDMA/FDD Standard
Interim Standard 95 (IS-95): The IS-95 standard, also popularly known as CDMAOne,
uses 64 orthogonally coded users and codewords are transmitted simultaneously on each of
1.25 MHz channels. Certain services that have been standardized as a part of IS-95
standard are: short messaging service, slotted paging, over-the-air activation (meaning the
mobile can be activated by the service provider without any third party intervention),
enhanced mobile station identities etc.
2.5G : Mobile Networks
In an effort to retrofit the 2G standards for compatibility with increased throughput rates to
support modern Internet application, the new data centric standards were developed to be
overlaid on 2G standards and this is known as 2.5G standard. Here, the main upgradation
techniques are:
• supporting higher data rate transmission for web browsing
• supporting e-mail traffic
• enabling location-based mobile service 2.5G networks also brought into the market some
popular application, a few of which are: Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), General
Packet Radio Service (GPRS), High Speed Circuit Switched Dada (HSCSD), Enhanced
Data rates for GSM Evolution (EDGE) etc.
3G: Third Generation Networks
3G is the third generation of mobile phone standards and technology, superseding 2.5G. It
is based on the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) family of standards under
the International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000). ITU launched IMT-2000
program, which, together with the main industry and standardization bodies worldwide,
targets to implement a global frequency band that would support a single, ubiquitous
wireless communication standard for all countries,to provide the framework for the
definition of the 3G mobile systems.Several radio access technologies have been accepted
by ITU as part of the IMT-2000 framework. 3G networks enable network operators to
offer users a wider range of more advanced services while achieving greater network
capacity through improved spectral efficiency.
Services include wide-area wireless voice telephony, video calls, and broadband wireless
data, all in a mobile environment.
Additional features also include HSPA data transmission capabilities able to deliver speeds
up to 14.4Mbit/s on the down link and 5.8Mbit/s on the uplink. 3G networks are wide area
cellular telephone networks which evolved to incorporate high-speed internet access and
video telephony.
IMT-2000 defines a set of technical requirements for the realization of such targets, which
can be summarized as follows:
• high data rates: 144 kbps in all environments and 2 Mbps in low-mobility and indoor
environments

• symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission

• circuit-switched and packet-switched-based services
• speech quality comparable to wire-line quality
• improved spectral efficiency
• several simultaneous services to end users for multimedia services
• seamless incorporation of second-generation cellular systems
• global roaming
• open architecture for the rapid introduction of new services and technology.
3G Standards and Access Technologies
As mentioned before, there are several different radio access technologies defined within
ITU, based on either CDMA or TDMA technology. An organization called 3rd Generation
Partnership Project (3GPP) has continued that work by defining a mobile system that
fulfills the IMT-2000 standard. This system is called Universal Mobile
Telecommunications System (UMTS). After trying to establish a single 3G standard, ITU
finally approved a family of five 3G standards, which are part of the 3G framework known
as IMT-2000:
• W-CDMA
• CDMA2000
• TD-SCDMA Europe, Japan, and Asia have agreed upon a 3G standard called the
Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS), which is WCDMA operating at
2.1 GHz. UMTS and WCDMA are often used as synonyms. In the USA and other parts of
America, WCDMA will have to use another part of the radio spectrum.

3G W-CDMA (UMTS)
WCDMA is based on DS-CDMA (direct sequencecode division multiple access)
technology in which user information bits are spread over a wide bandwidth (much larger
than the information signal bandwidth) by multiplying the user data with 14 the spreading
code. The chip (symbol rate) rate of the spreading sequence is 3.84 Mcps, which, in the
WCDMA system deployment is used together with the 5-MHz carrier spacing. The
processing gain term refers to the relationship between the signal bandwidth and the
information bandwidth. Thus, the name wideband is derived to differentiate it from the 2G
CDMA (IS-95), which has a chip rate of 1.2288 Mcps. In a CDMA system, all users are
active at the same time on the same frequency and are separated from each other with the
use of user specific spreading codes.
The wide carrier bandwidth of WCDMA allows supporting high user-data rates and also
has certain performance benefits, such as increased multipath diversity. The actual carrier
spacing to be used by the operator may vary on a 200-kHz grid between approximately 4.4
and 5 MHz, depending on spectrum arrangement and the interference situation. In
WCDMA each user is allocated frames of 10 ms duration, during which the user-data rate
is kept constant. However, the data rate among the users can change from frame to frame.
This fast radio capacity allocation (or the limits for variation in the uplink) is controlled and
coordinated by the radio resource management (RRM) functions in the network to achieve
optimum throughput for packet data services and to ensure sufficient quality of service
(QoS) for circuit-switched users.
WCDMA supports two basic modes of operation: FDD and TDD. In the FDD mode,
separate 5-MHz carrier frequencies with duplex spacing are used for the uplink and
downlink, respectively, whereas in TDD only one 5-MHz carrier is time shared between
the uplink and the downlink. WCDMA uses coherent detection based on the pilot symbols
and/or common pilot. WCDMA allows many performance- enhancement methods to be
used, such as transmit diversity or advanced CDMA receiver concepts. Table summaries
the main WCDMA parameters. The support for handovers (HO) between GSM and
WCDMA is part of the first standard version. This means that all multi-mode
WCDMA/GSM terminals will support measurements from the one system while camped
on the other one. This allows networks using both WCDMA and GSM to balance the load
between the networks and base the HO on actual measurements from the terminals for
different radio conditions in addition to other criteria available.
3G CDMA2000
Code division multiple access 2000 is the natural evolution of IS-95 (cdmaOne). It
includes additional functionality that increases its spectral efficiency and data rate
capability.(code division multiple access) is a mobile digital radio technology where
channels are defined with codes (PN sequences). CDMA permits many simultaneous
transmitters on the same frequency channel. Since more phones can be served by 16 fewer
cell sites, CDMA-based standards have a significant economic advantage over TDMA- or
FDMA based standards. This standard is being developed by Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA) of US and is is standardized by 3GPP2.

The main CDMA2000 standards are: CDMA2000 1xRTT,CDMA2000 1xEV and

CDMA2000 EV-DV. These are the approved radio interfaces for the ITU’s IMT-2000
standard. In the following, a brief discussion about all these standards is given.
CDMA2000 1xRTT: RTT stands for Radio Transmission Technology and the designation
”1x”, meaning ”1 times Radio Transmission Technology”, indicates the same RF
bandwidth as IS-95.The main features of CDMA2000 1X are as follows:
• Supports an instantaneous data rate upto 307kpbs for a user in packet mode and a typical
throughput rates of 144kbps per user,depending on the number of user, the velociy of user
and the propagating conditions.
• Supports up to twice as many voice users a the 2G CDMA standard • Provides the
subscriber unit with upto two times the standby time for longer lasting battery life.
CDMA2000 EV: This is an evolutionary advancement of CDMA with the following
characteristics:
• Provides CDMA carriers with the option of installing radio channels with data only
(CDMA2000 EV DO) and with data and voice (CDMA2000 EV-DV) .
• The cdma2000 1xEV-DO supports greater than 2.4Mbps of instantaneous high-speed
packet throughput per user on a CDMA channel, although the user data rates are much
lower and highly dependent on other factors.
• CDMA2000 EV-DV can offer data rates upto 144kbps with about twice as many voice
channels as IS 95B. CDMA2000 3x is (also known as EV-DO Rev B) is a multi-carrier
evolution.
• It has higher rates per carrier (up to 4.9 Mbit/s on the downlink per carrier). Typical
deployments are expected to include 3 carriers for a peak rate of 14.7 Mbit/s.Higher rates
are possible by bundling multiple channels together. It 17 enhances the user experience
and enables new services such as high definition video streaming.
• Uses statistical multiplexing across channels to further reduce latency, enhancing the
experience for latency-sensitive services such as gaming, video telephony, remote console
sessions and web browsing.
• It provides increased talk-time and standby time.
• The interference from the adjacent sectors is reduced by hybrid frequency reuse and
improves the rates that can be offered, especially to users at the edge of the cell.
• It has efficient support for services that have asymmetric download and upload
requirements (i.e. different data rates required in each direction) such as file transfers, web
browsing, and broadband multimedia content delivery.
3G TD-SCDMA
Time Division-Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access, or TD-SCDMA, is a 3G
mobile telecommunications standard, being pursued in the People’s Republic of China by
the Chinese Academy of Telecommunications Technology (CATT). This proposal was
adopted by ITU as one of the 3G options in late 1999. TD-SCDMA is based on spread
spectrum technology. TD-SCDMA uses TDD, in contrast to the FDD scheme used by W-
CDMA. By dynamically adjusting the number of timeslots used for downlink and uplink,
the system can more easily accommodate asymmetric traffic with different data rate
requirements on downlink and uplink than FDD schemes. Since it does not require paired
spectrum for downlink and uplink, spectrum allocation flexibility is also increased. Also,
using the same carrier frequency for uplink and downlink means that the channel condition
is the same on both directions, and the base station can deduce the downlink channel
information from uplink channel estimates, which is helpful to the application of
beamforming techniques.
TD-SCDMA also uses TDMA in addition to the CDMA used in WCDMA. This reduces
the number of users in each timeslot, which reduces the implementation 18 complexity of
multiuser detection and beamforming schemes, but the non-continuous transmission also
reduces coverage (because of the higher peak power needed), mobility (because of lower
power control frequency) and complicates radio resource management algorithms. The ”S”
in TD-SCDMA stands for ”synchronous”, which means that uplink signals are
synchronized at the base station receiver, achieved by continuous timing adjustments. This
reduces the interference between users of the same timeslot using different codes by
improving the orthogonality between the codes, therefore increasing system capacity, at
the cost of some hardware complexity in achieving uplink synchronization.
The 4G WiMAX networks are now being commercially deployed. In the U.S., WiMAX is
being deployed primarily in the 2.5 GHz BRS band, while LTE is targeted for the 700
MHz band. Even though the two 4G technologies operate in different frequency bands and
use different access protocols, they have several major attributes in common.
Security Requirements for 4G
1. Security requirements on ME (Mobile Equipment)/USIM (Universal Subscriber
Identity Module) • Protection of integrity of the hardware, software and OS in mobile
platform. • Data control access in ME/USIM.
• Maintenance of confidentiality and integrity of data stored in the ME/USIM or
transported on the interface between ME and USIM.
• User identity privacy retention to ME.
2. Security requirements on radio interface and network operator:
• Entity authentication: mutual authentication between user and network shall be
implemented to ensure secure service access and provision.
• Ensure confidentiality of data including user traffic and signalling data on wired or
wireless interface.
• Ensure integrity and origin authentication of user traffic, signalling data and control data.
• Security of user identity: It shall protect user identity confidentiality, user location
confidentiality and user untraceability.
• Lawful interception: It shall be possible for law enforcement agencies to monitor and
intercept every call-in accordance with national laws.
3. Security visibility, configurability and scalability:
• Transparency of security features of the visited network to the user.
• Ability to negotiate acceptable security lever with the visited network when user roams
outside HE (home environment).
• Scalability of the security mechanism to support increase of user or n/w elements.
3GPP standardization of the 5G system

What is a 3GPP standardized 5G system?

The main service which the 5G system provides today's users is mobile (wireless)
connectivity of a device to a network, often for Internet connectivity. This is also why
the first 5G system use cases e.g. enhanced mobile broadband and fixed wireless
access, were piloted to offer users a better experience of the Internet.
3GPP does not typically standardize application services (such as Internet applications)
since they are considered to be out of scope of 3GPP's connectivity focus.

There are however a few exceptions: telecommunication networks have traditionally

provided the possibility for two devices to connect to each other with the support of the
network (e.g., to set up voice calls). In 4G networks, voice calls are set-up using voice
over LTE (VoLTE) service on top of the connectivity service. VoLTE uses the IP
Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) also standardized in 3GPP, similar voice service is also
planned for 5G. Furthermore, 3GPP standardizes the security to support these services.

3GPP standards also cover some aspects of machine type communications and IoT. Here,
the focus is to provide the devices with connectivity. Consequently, the 3GPP standards
cover efficient means to provide these devices with an IP point of presence. Any security
issues related to the actual application is considered out of scope and needs to be taken
care of over the top. For example, 3GPP's 5G system can provide a temperature
controller in a refrigerated goods wagon of a train with IP connectivity, but seen from
the general 5G view, the authentication of the management traffic to the controller must
be addressed over the top, since the IP address may be accessible via the Internet, so
anyone could send messages to the controller.

Apart from the security assurance specifications (see section 4.3 below), 3GPP does not
standardize how 5G system functions are implemented and realized. The main purpose of
the specifications is secure interoperability between the functions required to provide
network connectivity. Consequently, there is little about virtualization and cloud
deployments in the 3GPP specifications. Those aspects are handled by other standards
organizations, especially ETSI I5G NFV (European Telecommunications Standards
Institute, Industry Specification Group, Network Functions Virtualization) and ONAP
(Open Network Automation Platform).
Some details are not standardized at all and are left for implementations and deployments.
Further, aspects that are part of a digitized society and industrial IoT that are not related to
the radio access connectivity is mainly out of scope for 3GPP.

Security functions provided by the 3GPP standard

This section contains an overview of some of the most important security services
provided by 3GPP standard to safeguard the connectivity for users, and the service
availability and charging by the operator of the network. 3GPP's 5G system standards
provide security mechanisms, which are based on well-proven 4G security mechanisms,
but also include new enhancements for e.g. encryption, authentication and user privacy.

While 3GPP security mechanisms provide reliable links for non-malicious bad radio
conditions (see below) they do not protect against all possible threats, for instance
DDoS and radio jamming. Protecting against DDoS attacks and radio jamming is
something that is left for implementation and deployment, e.g. to re-route traffic via
other base stations if one is jammed, or scaling mechanisms and selective
dropping/throttling in case of DDoS.

Therefore, the appropriate level of cyber-resilience in the 5G system and 5G in general

needs to be understood and addressed in a much broader way (see section 5) - 5G
standards or, for that matter, any other technical standards will only be part of a much
bigger picture.

Mutual authentication:the endusers of the 5G system are authenticated to support

charging for network access, accountability (e.g., which user had which IP address and
when), and Lawful Intercept. The network is also authenticated towards the end-users
so that the end- users know that they are connected to a legitimate network.
Confidentiality of user plane data: the actual traffic data that is being transmitted - is
achieved by encryption of end-user data as it passes through the mobile network to
prevent eavesdropping over the air or on wires. Once the data leaves the 5G system
and traverses the Internet, the 3GPP standard does not ensure confidentiality.

Privacy: threats to end users are mitigated by mechanisms that protect user identifiers.
Note that, similarly to confidentiality, even though the 5G system protects the privacy
of the end- user using an Internet application over the 5G system, the 3GPP standards
do not intend to, and cannot, mitigate all privacy threats outside the 5G system even
though there may be privacy concerns for the application also in a more general 5G
setting. These threats require additional efforts by Internet application providers. The
5G system protects the messages sent by a social media user while they traverse
through the mobile RAN and 5G system core network. The social media service must
itself ensure that the message is protected end-to-end, since it will traverse the Internet
once it leaves the 5G system. It is of course also up to the social media service to
ensure the privacy of the user data once it has reached their servers and is being stored
and processed.

Encryption and integrity protection: 3GPP standards ensure that appropriate

encryption and integrity protection algorithm choices are made. 3GPP here enjoys the
support of security algorithm expert group of ETSI (European Telecommunications
Standards Institute), specifically ETSI SAGE (Security Algorithms Group of Experts).
ForIP layer and above, 3GPP relies on well- proven IETF security protocols.

The 5G system provide reliability and robustness against non-malicious unavailability

situations, i.e. errors that appear due to unusual but expected bad radio conditions and
broken links.

A false base station[lS]: in GSM could identify a subscriber via the IMSI (International
Mobile Subscriber Identity)[16]. The technique is called IMSI catching. In GSM an
attacker could even eavesdrop on users' data. Later generation mobile networks,
starting from 3G, prevent the eavesdropping attacks because the network is there
authenticated to the user. However, IMSI catching attacks are still possible in 3G and
4G. In 5G standards, even IMSI catching attacks are prevented. This is through a
technique where the user's long-term identifier is never transmitted over the radio
interface in clear text. Further, 5G increases the frequency with which temporary user
identifiers are updated, further improving privacy.

Compartmentalization: The 5G system supports different types of ompartmentalization,

e.g. functions that aim to isolate possible security breaches from escalating from one part
of the network to another. For example, there is a clear split between the Radio Access
Network and the core network functions. This means that, should a radio base station get
compromised, the core network, which provides global functions and processes more
sensitive data, is still secure. Other examples of compartmentalization are
cryptographically separated keys used at mobility events, and network slicing. Isolation
of network slices is an important aspect, but it is not in the scope of 3GPP standards and
is provided through implementation and deployment, e.g. targeted for specific use cases
(see section 3) and desired performance and derived economic benefit.

Finally, one of the key purposes of 3GPP standardization is to ensure interoperability

of security mechanisms between 5G system functions.

Implementation aspects of the 5G system are only standardized by 3GPP to a very

limited degree.

For example, whether certain functions are implemented in single physical servers
(physically isolated and separated) or implemented as virtual machines (VMs) in a cloud
or virtualized environment (shared hardware) is up to implementation and operator
deployment choices (economics). This means that there is no simple rule of thumb derived
from 3GPP standards regarding the separation of RAN and Core functions but rather
flexibility prevails, even in a single physical network different configuration for different
5G use cases are possible, resulting in several differently configured logical networks are
running over one physical network. For functions implemented in a traditional non-
virtualized fashion, 3GPP, in cooperation with GSMA, develops security assurance
specifications, which sets requirements for some implementation aspects[17].

Security Assurance in3GPP SECAM: Mobile networksform the backbone of the

connected society and are even classified as critical infrastructure in some
jurisdictions, making security assurance especially important. Early on,the telecom
industry realized the need to ensure secure implementationsin addition to the secure
standardized system and protocols. Therefore,
3GPP and GSMA took the initiative to create a security assurance scheme called the
Network Equipment Security Assurance Scheme (NESAS), which is suitable to the
telecom equipment lifecycle. Ericsson strongly and actively supports the initiative in
both 3GPP and GSMA by feeding the strongest parts of our own Security Reliability
Model (SRM) into the scheme, ensuring the other parts are covered by the scheme, and
aligning the two.

NESAS comprises two main components: security requirements and an auditing

infrastructure. The security requirements are defined jointly by operators and vendors in
3GPP. These requirements are currently defined on a node basis and collected in so-
called Security Assurance Specifications (SCAS).
There is, for example, one specification defining security requirements for 4G base
stations. Various types of requirements exist, including the use of functional security
policies, such as minimum length of management passwords, but also qualitative
requirements on hardening and penetration testing. The auditing infrastructure is
governed by the GSMA, the global mobile operator organization.
The GSMA appoints audit firms that perform the audits of vendors' development and
testing processes. The GSMA also awards certificates to the vendors that pass audit
and revokes certificates from the ones that do not.
NESAS aims to meet the needs of many national and international cybersecurity
regulations, such as the EU cybersecurity certification framework. The move towards
larger portions of products being software - as we can see with SBA and cloud-based
implementations - also offersthe possibility for faster update cycles if vulnerabilities
are discovered.