Intro to Logical Reasoning

Logical Reasoning
An Example:

An undergraduate degree is necessary for

appointment to the executive board. Further,
no one with a felony conviction can be
appointed to the board. Thus, Murray, an
accountant with both a bachelor’s and a
master’s degree, cannot be accepted for the
position of Executive Administrator, since he
has a felony conviction.

The argument’s conclusion follows logically if

which one of the following is assumed?

(A) Anyone with a master’s degree and

without a felony conviction is eligible for
appointment to the executive board.

(B) Only candidates eligible for appointment to

the executive board can be accepted for
the position of Executive Administrator.

(C) An undergraduate degree is not necessary

for acceptance for the position of
Executive Administrator.

(D) If Murray did not have a felony conviction,

he would be accepted for the position of
Executive Administrator.

(E) The felony charge on which Murray was

convicted is relevant to the duties of the
position of Executive Administrator.

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Smoking in bed has long been the main cause of home fires. Despite a significant decline in
cigarette smoking in the last two decades, however, there has been no comparable decline in the
number of people killed in home fires.

Maria won this year’s local sailboat race by beating Sue, the winner in each of the four previous
years. We can conclude from this that Maria trained hard.

The United States ranks far behind countries such as Sweden and Canada when it comes to
workplace safety. In all three countries, joint labor-management committees that oversee workplace
safety conditions have been very successful in reducing occupational injuries. In the United States,
such committees are found only in the few companies that have voluntarily established them.
However, in Sweden and several Canadian provinces, joint safety committees are required by law
and exist in all medium-sized and large workplaces.

In his book, published in 1892, Grey used the same metaphor that Jordan used in her book, which
was published in 1885. The metaphor is so unusual that there is little chance that two different
people independently created it. Therefore, it is highly likely that Grey read Jordan’s book.

It is inaccurate to say that a diet high in refined sugar cannot cause adult-onset diabetes, since a
diet high in refined sugar can make a person overweight, and being overweight can predispose a
person to adult-onset diabetes.

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Words Introducing Premises:

since for as indicated by

because for the reason that may be inferred from

given that in that as

Words Introducing Conclusions:

therefore it follows that accordingly

hence it can be concluded that as a result

thus we may infer so

consequently for this reason

BEWARE:

X is a carrot and all carrots are vegetables. Therefore, X is a vegetable.

One can conclude that X is a vegetable because X is a carrot and all carrots are vegetables.

The fact that X is a carrot establishes that X is a vegetable because all carrots are vegetables.

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Premise: All carrots are vegetables.
Premise: X is a carrot.
Conclusion: X is a vegetable

Premise: Anyone named Sue is a girl.

Premise: X is named Sue.
Conclusion: X is a girl

Premise: It is cold.
Conclusion: It will snow.

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Main Point
• Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main point of the argument?
• The main point of the argument is that

Argument Structure
• The statement that the car Peter took got damaged and the car Alicia took did not plays which
one of the following roles in the argument?
• The claim that a university should not be entitled to patent the inventions of its faculty
members plays which one of the following roles in the argument?

Must Be True
• If all of the statements in the passage are true, which one of the following must also be true?
• If the statements above are both true, which one of the following conclusions can be drawn on
the basis of them?

Cannot Be True
• If all of the claims offered in support of the conclusion are accurate, each of the following
could be true EXCEPT:
• The statements above, if true, most seriously undermine which one of the following
assertions?

Weaken
• Which one of following statements, if true, casts doubt on the argument?
• Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Strengthen
• Which one of the following, if true, provides the strongest additional support for the conclusion
above?

Strengthen w/ Necessary Premise

• Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?

Strengthen w/ Sufficient Premise

• Which one of the following is an assumption that would allow the company president’s
conclusion to be properly drawn?

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Methods of Reasoning
• The advertisement employs which of the following argumentative strategies?
• The argument proceeds by

Errors in Reasoning
• Which one of the following is an error of reasoning contained in the argument?
• Which one of the following describes a flaw in the reasoning underlying the foundation’s
conclusion?

Parallel Reasoning
• Which one of the following most closely parallels the reasoning in the argument above?
• The pattern of reasoning displayed above most closely parallels that displayed in which one
of the following arguments?

Flawed Parallel Reasoning

• The flawed reasoning in the argument above most closely parallels that in which one of the
following?
• Which one of the following arguments contains flawed reasoning parallel to that in the
argument above?

Paradox
• Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the discrepancy?
• Which one of the following, if true, does the most to resolve the apparent paradox?

Illustration
• Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the example presented in the
passage?
• The passage conforms most closely to which one of the following propositions?

Principle
• The reasoning above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?
• Which one of the following principles, if accepted, most strongly justifies drawing the
conclusion above?

Argument Exchange

Point of Agreement
• If Murray and Jane are both sincere in what they say, then it can properly be concluded that
they agree that
• Kim’s and Hampton’s statements most strongly support the claim that both of them would
agree with which one of the following?

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 Point at Issue
• Which one of the following is a point at issue between Harris and Vogel?
• The main issue in dispute between Francis and Sharon is

Misinterpretation
• Judith’s response shows that she interprets Harry’s statement to imply that
• The student has interpreted the professor’s remarks to mean that

Argument Evaluation
• Clarification of which one of the following issues would be most important to an evaluation of
the skeptic’s position?
• Which one of the following would it be most relevant to investigate in evaluating the
conclusion of George’s argument?

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 Must Be True Cannot Be False

Not Necessarily True Could Be False

Could Be True Not Necessarily False

Cannot Be True Must Be False

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Which one of the following statements can be false?

Which one of the following must be false?

Each of the following could be false EXCEPT:

All of the following statements must be false EXCEPT:

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