CHAPTER 1

The Role of Architecture to

Achieve Well-Being
MARÍA EUGENIA MOLAR OROZCO
Faculty of Architecture, Autonomous University of Coahuila, Boulevard
Fundadores Km 13, City University, Arteaga Coahuila CP – 25354,
Arteaga, Coahuila, Mexico, E-mail: [email protected]

Over time, architecture has been debunked. People do not consult an architect
to design their homes. They turn to the builders, and some are in the hands of
accountants or other professionals who don’t have the criteria for decision-
making in design. Even if they have architects at their service, they cannot
express their opinion. What predominates is the gain even at the expense
of the customers; only when they can pay more, they can have a home to
their liking according to their particular needs, making some changes to
a construction that is already on the market. A space is not only made up
of measures or dimensions, it also considers quantitative and qualitative
aspects like lighting, sound, temperature, humidity, wind, materials, pollu-
tion, natural phenomena, and even psychological aspects, and considering
all these parameters in the design process is important for a healthy and
dignified space.
The United Nations Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights
in the Committee’s General N°4 (1999) Comment on the Right to Adequate
Housing says:
The concept of “adequate housing” should provide more than four walls
and a ceiling. It means having an accessible place (for vulnerable people),

Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach. Maria Eugenia Molar Orozco, PhD (Ed.)
© 2023 Apple Academic Press, Inc. Co-published with CRC Press (Taylor & Francis)
2 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

protection from adequate health, moisture, space, safety, lighting, and

ventilation risks, adequate location in relation to basic work and services,
availability of basic infrastructure, and at a reasonable cost (UN HABITAT,
2010).

until March 11th, 2020, was recognized as a global pandemic by the World
Health Organization (WHO), creating a new paradigm in 2020 about archi-
tecture, which is not something new.

visible, as many experts point out, like Leilani Farha from UN-Habitat, and
Emilia Saiz, Secretary-General of UCLG, and authorities from other coun-
tries, and researchers from different universities.
The architecture historian Paul Overy, highlighted that the primordial
elements in architecture are light, ventilation, and open spaces, and in
hospitals and houses, those elements should be based on three axes: good air
circulation, natural light, and easy-to-clean surfaces (Ducan, 2020); some-
thing that has been lost over time.
This chapter will explain the reasons for taking these aspects into account
in the design, explaining, and analyzing the morphological effects that affect
the interior of the buildings.

In the second half of the 20th century, two aspects related to environmental
problems became visible. The green one focused on the negative effects
of human activity on the natural environment and sustainability; and the
blue one, concerned about the effects of the environment on the health and
well-being of humanity, known as environmental health. In 1993, the WHO
defined as Environmental Health “those aspects of human health, including
quality of life, determined by physical, chemical, biological, social, and
psychosocial environmental factors; both in theory and in practice” (cited
by Ordoñez, 2000).
Some authors such as Bueno (1998), organizations like GEA Association
for Geobiological Studies and UN-Habitat, and some companies like Siber,
express the concept of a healthy environment, and a healthy home.
It is important agreeing on the importance of health through of a construc-
tion carried out conscientiously, which involves not only the building but
also its location regarding the environment, the materials and other elements
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 3

that are combined to create a home, having a product that provides a healthy
habitat for users?
It could be said that the house is a living being that if not done properly
can cause diseases. Then, the following question arises from the above, what
is a healthy environment?
A space that promotes health and well-being is a healthy environment,
in which good circulation and renewal of the air, zero noise pollution, and
avoiding conditions that allow macrobiotic agents to proliferate in the space
must be considered. These pollutants not only affect the human being, but the
building itself, generating bad odors, deteriorating construction materials,
leading to a vicious circle. Although this may sound like a fallacy, because
sometimes it is not possible to be 100% free of any pollutant or it may be
beyond our control, the goal of a home will always be where you want to get
to at the end of the day.
For this, it is necessary to avoid the use of synthetic materials, supplying

or not so harmful environment, either for a new home or one that requires
renovation, also considering other agents. From the geobiology point of
view, the following are considered:

1. Natural Factors: Telluric and geophysical alterations, Hartmann

lines, curry lines, vortices or cosmoteluric chimneys, radioactivity,
and radon gas.
2. Artificial Factors: Electrical and electromagnetic pollution, high
frequency, mobile telephony and wireless networks, air quality or
habitat chemistry, lighting (GEA, 2020).

The construction must contemplate the criteria of health and harmony, not
only aspects of design and construction, the goal is that the inhabitants feel
comfortable and maintain their well-being. For this, the materials’ selection
used in constructions is important and the materials that are not polluting or
affecting their health (Figures 1.1 and 1.2).
Most of the time, humans are in a closed space, sometimes hermetically,
without the possibility of natural ventilation, only supported by a mechanical
system to circulate the air, and in the majority of these cases, a good air
renewal is not achieved, as the air itself is stale. According to Espinosa
(2020), “biohabitability analyzes the quality of a space to be inhabited. It

health and well-being.” Therefore, based on the set of parameters existing

4 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

in the habitat and its construction, it generates a favorable environment for

humans, their well-being and health.

Local materials made of earth in 2005.

Source: Photographs of the author.

Local materials made of wood and stone in 2006.

Source: Photographs of the author.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 5

A healthy or bio-habitable habitat is characterized by:

Natural lighting;
Indoor temperature, humidity, and acoustic conditions must be within
upper and lower comfort limits;
Not emitting pollutants of physical, chemical, or biological origin;
Not emitting electromagnetic radiation;
And not receiving radiation from the outside (either natural radioac-
tivity or electromagnetic fields of artificial origin).

An unhealthy habitat causes:

Fatigue, tiredness, and insomnia;

Headache or migraine;
Frequent infections;
Allergies and sensitivity.

These effects are part of the sick building syndrome, to identify it, a
follow-up must be surveyed to see if it repeats constantly and in one or more

biological risk factors, depending on the context and geographic location. The
best way to ensure a healthy environment is to carry out a biohabitability study
according to the SBM-2015 Technical Standard and the Supplement “Frame-

The Spanish Association of Geobiological Studies has a decalogue with

10 aspects and considerations when designing, based on biohabitability
criteria (own elaboration based on Bueno (1998)):

1. Housing and surroundings. Select a place that is not vulnerable, that

is environmentally friendly, and that the construction is adapted to
the environment, having green areas for a good microclimate that
generate comfort conditions inside the spaces.
2. Global assessment of risk factors around the home: avoid noise
sources and olfactory pollution that do not allow a healthy space.
3. A geobiological study of the site to locate intimate and social spaces,
and even work spaces where they can be affected by terrestrial radia-
tion, seismicity, energy line crossings and maintain a healthy space.
4. Avoid electromagnetic contamination both from the outside (prox-
imity to power towers) and inside due to poorly executed or adequate
installations.
6 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

5. Bioconstruction criteria based on a diagnosis, selecting the appro-

priate materials for the climate to achieve a comfortable, healthy, and
ecological space with the support of clean and renewable energy.
6. Select healthy and ecological materials (not with a closed life cycle)
with zero emissions of pollutants to ensure the health of the user who
inhabits it.
7. Indoor air quality: ensure adequate renewal to avoid stagnation and
maintain good air quality inside the space.
8. Natural lighting: analysis of the place on elements that may harm or
obstruct the entry of the sunlight, place the openings in such a way
that natural light can be used to demand less energy consumption.
9. Optimal management of natural resources: include alternatives to
recycle, separate, and contain waste that can be processed as compost
for gardens, if necessary, besides having water recycling facilities,
which it is hard to achieve.
10. Responsibility of the home with life, health, and the environment: a
construction that has low environmental impact from its construction
to its demolition.

A house is a protective entity for the people who live in it. This construc-
tion interacts with the outside, being a connector with the inside, and transfers
energy according to environmental conditions. For Bueno (1998), a healthy
home must contemplate:

Site and environmental assessment;

Correct orientation and use of passive energies;
Harmonious forms integrated into the landscape or local architecture;
Construction material, healthy, non-toxic, or radioactive;
Construction systems;
Thermal comfort (heating, cooling, and insulation);
Acoustic comfort;
Harmony of colors and decoration (light and color);
Electrical installation;
Air quality.

These aspects are sometimes omitted due to cost issues. The phrase of
Bueno (1998) is interesting, and now more than ever, “tell me where you
.” Eventually, extremely, or poorly
understood technology can affect whoever lives in a home by making the
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 7

of mechanical systems, but when these fail, comfort conditions are lost to the
not having alternatives to help defray the situation.
Building in vulnerable areas will always generate stress for the inhab-
itant, as Bueno (1998) points out, housing is part of the ecosystem, since
it demands energy and generates waste. It is an entity that breathes and
interacts through its envelope, everything in the environment directly affects

able area. Areas with those characteristic are purchased by construction

companies for be cheaper and that customers are not aware of or are built
without taking these factors into account (Figures 1.3 and 1.4).

Houses near the train tracks.

Source: Photograph of the author (2020).

In Mexico, when a house is purchased, most owners do not considered

check if buildings have any problems, in Spain, there is a basic quality

dates this.

Through history, each pandemic has affected humanity by modifying what

was already established in architecture and even gave ideas for new furniture
proposals to improve the quality of life inside spaces.
8 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Damage of a house from being near a train track.

Source: Photograph of the author.

For example, is the water closet (WC) or toilet, played an important role
along with other measures for the physical and emotional health of the user.

drainage channel, cistern and bowl, is from 4,000 years ago, in the royal
palace of Knossos on the island of Crete.

were public urinals called urinal columns.

Roman ordinances of that time prohibited “dirtying on stairs, hallways,
or closets; on the walls of palaces, churches or houses for public use,” as
recounted by the 16th century Toledo historian, Father Juan de Mariana
(CurioSfera Historia, 2019).

culture in Chiapas (Figures 1.5 and 1.6).

The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 9

A space for a toilet, 2019.

Source: Photographs of the author.

A close-up view of the toilet, 2019.

Source: Photographs of the author.
10 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

In 1596, Sir John Harrington, godson of Queen Elizabeth I, conceived a

was thought for the queen who she did not like going to the bathroom because
it caused her stress, but it was not well received, some point out that it was
due to the absence of sewage networks (Sánchez, 2019) or the refusal to
accept something new. The custom was to use the potty (high and cylindrical
urinal), shouting “water goes!” emptying the potty into the streets, generating
a focus of sanitary infection since the feces brought diseases such as typhus
(CurioSfera Historia, 2019).

modern toilet. He patented a toilet with the same principle as Harrington, the
great innovation was that the drain was done through a siphon, an “S” shaped
pipe that allows the liquid level in the bowl to be maintained, creating a clean
water barrier that prevents bad odors from returning to the toilet, with the
possibility of installing the toilet in a home without problems. In 1819, Albert
Giblin created a model very similar to the current ones, without a valve in the

British Parliament of 1848 that forced the installation of toilets in new homes,
although decades passed before it reached all houses (Sánchez, 2019), even
when the sewer system in London worked until 1860 (CurioSfera Historia,
2019). In Mexico there are still some houses with a bathroom outside (Figure
1.7), however, this invention was crucial to save lives through hygiene prac-
tices, making the WC an important part of a construction (Figure 1.8).

During the 14th and 18th centuries, the Black Death was one of the most lethal
plagues in the history of mankind (Figure 1.9), caused by the bacterium
Yersinia pestis, it ravaged various areas of the planet. In history there are
three types of pests registered:

Plague of Justinian from the 6th century;

Black plague in the middle of the 14th century; and
The third major plague pandemic originated in the Chinese province
of Yunnan in 1855 (Huguet, 2020).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 11

A bathroom in a vulnerable home 2015.

Source: Photograph of the author.

The interior of a bathroom in Gaudí’s modernist era, 2003.

Source: Photograph of the author.

The recurring element in all three is hygiene and avoiding contact with
the sick. Architects cannot be in the comfort zone, which has been allowed
12 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

for a long time, in history there have been factors or variables that have
demanded creativity and have drawn the shape of cities. Pandemics have

customs, and even in the spaces.

A mask based on those used by 17th-century doctors.

Source: Photograph of the author.

It is a bacterial disease spread by lice or fleas (Medline plus, 2020). The first
description of the disease is from 1489 in Spain during the Nasrid kingdom
of Granada. Between 1577 and 1759 “Gaol fever” or “Aryotitus fever”
(Aryotus fever) was common in English prisons, and it is believed that it
was typhus. Typhus was caused by the overcrowding of prisoners in dark and
poorly cleaned cells, facilitating the spread of lice, and outbreaks routinely
appeared in Europe from the 16th to the 19th centuries (Sánchez, 2014; Trials
of War Criminals, 1949).

during the Second World War in a Warsaw ghetto, in Poland. In 1940, poor
sanitation, famine, and a population density of 5 to 10 times larger than any
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 13

city, it was the perfect breeding ground for the typhus epidemic to spread like
-
gies implemented by the Jewish doctors, followed among the inhabitants of
the ghetto which were social distancing, general hygiene and clean spaces
were promoted (Chaparro, 2020).

In the 19th century, choleras’ effect was devastating, shocking Asia and
Europe. The world was beginning to globalize, and international business
transactions moved huge amounts of money. The bacterium producing
cholera is quite common in areas where there is no drinking water and
poor hygienic conditions. Water is the main source of contagion and it is
transmitted between people. The lack of hygiene and overcrowding among
workers helped in its spread (Ríos, 2020). Unhealthy cities and the lack of
sewerage were the main causes for this disease (France 24, 2020), spreading
through an infected well, giving way to legislative reforms and sanitary
infrastructure (Confidential, 2020), and changing the cities.
This generated a change at the urban level and cities planning, including
drinking water treatment, connection to the public sewer and to a septic
tank, siphon latrines, simple pit latrines and improved and ventilated latrines
(González, Casanova, and Pérez, 2011).
Another change in the urban aspect is the intervention of Ildenfonso
Cerdá in Barcelona, Spain, by introducing his draft for the Ensanche, he
pointed out that, when cholera disappears, it leaves a mark in each house
due to the poor hygienic conditions of the villages Barcelona and the over-
crowding of inhabitants on a small surface. Cerdá’s main work was based on
detailed analyzes of the climate, such as temperature, wind, and air purity, up

of buildings regarding the needs of the occupants (Laboratori D’urbanisme,

1992).
Cerdá suggested that in the simplest and most hygienic of all the combi-
nations between houses, there should be a space equal to the area of a house
(Figure 1.10) to receive light, air, and ventilation from all sides without
requiring patios, which are perennial reservoirs of stale air (Laboratori
D’urbanisme, 1992). The shape of an urban design should have a reticular
expansion, the orientation of the vertices coinciding with the cardinal points,
with the objective that most of the sides receive sunlight (Figure 1.11).
14 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Height and space relationship for sun access.

Source: Own elaboration.

Orientation of the blocks in the Ensanche of Barcelona.

Source: Own elaboration.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 15

Measles has been known for centuries, the first descriptions are attributed
to the Hebrew physician Allyehudi in the 7th century and in the 10th century
to the Persian physician, Rhazes, who named it “rash.” In the 17th century,
during a severe epidemic in London, measles, and smallpox were reported,
and people thought were one disease (Fadic and Repetto, 2019).
In the 21st century, measles is no longer a well-known disease, but still
requires isolation of the sick person, personal hygiene and keeping clean
surfaces.

The influenza or the flu pandemic of 1918 during World War I was spread in
confined and closed spaces, and the high density of troops helped to spread
the disease (CDC, 2018). Based on this, there were architects who gener-
ated new proposals, such as Édouard Jeanneret known as Le Corbusier who
revolutionized architecture thanks to the reflections that were born during
his days of confinement in his Parisian department to survive the Spanish
influenza epidemic.
During the following years, Le Corbusier became obsessed with the rela-
tionship between space and disease, between 1920 and 1921 he published
articles in the magazine L’Esprit Nouveau, where he proposed new ways that
architecture should respond, based on a fresh vision on hygiene in the cities.
He and other architects were concerned about the impact of architecture on
public health. The architecture historian Paul Overy highlighted light, venti-
lation, and open spaces as essential elements in modern architecture, mainly
in hospitals and homes, based on three conceptual axes: good air circulation,
natural light, and surfaces easy to clean (Ducan, 2020); something that has
been lost in the 20th and 21st centuries in some constructions.
The proposals can still be seen in hospitals, because the bacteria survived
in dark and dusty spaces, the sun and air were the weapons to help reduce this,

be moved in order to have good ventilation (Figures 1.12–1.15). Hospitals

not only had large windows but also terraces where patients could take the
sun and fresh air to recover from the disease (Figures 1.16 and 1.17), in the
houses, architects used columns so the rooms were far from the surface, the
modernist architecture and minimalism were born with the sole objective of
having surfaces easy to clean, that did not keep dust.
16 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Windows in the Civil Hospital of Tampico, Tamaulipas, 2012.

Source: Photographs of the author.

High ceilings in the Civil Hospital of Tampico, Tamaulipas, 2012.

Source: Photographs of the author.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 17

The Civil Hospital of Tampico, Tamaulipas, 2012.

Source: Photographs of the author.

Interior doors and patios of the Civil Hospital of Tampico, Tamaulipas, 2012.
Source: Photographs of the author.
18 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Terrace for patients of the Civil Hospital of Tampico, Tamaulipas, 2012.

Source: Photographs of the author.

The view of the terrace for patients of the Civil Hospital of Tampico,
Tamaulipas, 2012.
Source: Photographs of the author.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 19

This strategy was even applied in schools called open air schools or
anti-tuberculosis schools, an example that still exists is the Open-Air School
(Openluchtschool) which was constructed between 1927 and 1930, located
in Cliostraat 36–40, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, by the architects Johannes
Duiker and Bernard Bijvoet (Figure 1.18). The fundamental condition of
the design is that all the classrooms were arranged, so they received the
maximum amount of light and sun, and that the terraces worked for two
classrooms, even in bad weather, since they were protected by covers and
sheltered from the wind on the side.

Classroom connecting terraces.

Source: Render by Hartz (2020); adapted from: Uribe (2016).

space to have a uniform temperature without causing annoying air and

dust circulations, even when the windows were open. An inspection report
carried out on July 27, 1948 recognized that the school satisfactorily met
the required conditions, from the pedagogical, hygienic, and physiological
point of view. The building currently retains its complete form, even with the
passage of time and the evolution of education (Uribe, 2016) (Figure 1.19).
20 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

View of the building in Amsterdam.

Source: Render by Hartz (2020); adapted from: Uribe (2016).

The goal at that time was to create healing buildings, and even clinical
white colors were part of the design, dust was avoided in decorative parts.

The most recent pandemic occurred at the end of 2019 in the city of Wuhan,
China, identified as a coronavirus (COVID-19), on March 11th, 2020, the
WHO recognized it as a global pandemic. The population of the entire
world was asked to quarantine, stay inside their homes, and leave as little as
possible. All public spaces were closed to avoid the transmission of the virus,
but this evidenced that most houses are not designed for this.
Using the words of Leilani Farha of the UN, “housing has become the
,” who shows that, in the world,
there are around 1.8 billion people who do not have adequate housing or are
homeless (Figures 1.20 and 1.21).
Also, Leilani Farha points out that inadequate housing refers to one that
lacks quality materials, suffers from overcrowding, or does not have basic
services (Urban Center, 2020), aspects that determine life’s quality, but over
time these parameters have lost importance, relegating them even by the
same users not only from the authorities, however, COVID-19 made visible
the problem which makes us rethink, what are the conditions to live in a
healthy place?
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 21

A house made of urban waste housing in a vulnerable area in Torreón,

Coahuila, 2015.
Source: Photograph of the author.

Bathrooms in a vulnerable neighborhood, 2015.

Source: Photograph of the author.

Nowadays, there are many aspects we take as normal, without real-

izing that the evolution and changes of the furniture, spaces, openings,
symbols, regulations, and standards, have been and will be determined by
22 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

needs related to health. In general, infectious diseases are those generated

by microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and parasites, which
can be transmitted through direct contact with infected patients, their blood,
or secretions (Unión de Mutuas, 2019), and hygiene is required, coinciding
with the requirements of past pandemics.
Alternative measures against the spread of pandemics are the closure of
schools, theaters, or the prohibition of public events, to help the mitigation,

imposed by governments, delay peaks infections (Chaparro, 2020).

But the question is, what is the challenge that architecture must face in
the face of this pandemic? Some actions have been put on:

First, it is a healthy distance, which breaks the paradigm of social

distancing, which is related to the capacity to occupy spaces, where
signs are required to establish the distances to be considered between
users (Figure 1.22).

Social distancing in the municipal office of Ramos Arizpe, 2020.

Source: Photograph of the author.

Second, consider the time of the active virus on the surfaces by

providing protection for the spread of the virus between users when
distancing is not possible (Figures 1.23 and 1.24).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 23

Examples of protections in work, 2020.

Source: Photographs of the author.

Examples of protections in toilet areas in public or service areas, 2020.

Source: Photographs of the author.
24 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Third, ventilation, and air renewal in closed spaces help to dilute

the virus in the area, even more so if a certain number of people are
concentrated.
Fourth, control access of entrances and exits to check people’s
temperature with enough space between users, and if it is possible, the
entrance should be far from the exit, although sometimes buildings do
not have the appropriate dimensions (Figures 1.25 and 1.26).

Strategies to control the entry of the virus through the users, 2020.
Source: Photographs of the author.

Strategies to control the entry of the virus through the users, 2020.
Source: Photographs of the author.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 25

Fifth, and not least the access to hygiene services; however, there are
still places where the supply is not good or is scarce.

There are protocols that can be a guidance to spatial design; neverthe-

less, these recommendations are omitted. Something important to highlight
is that these pandemics have similar requirements and over time have been
forgotten (Table 1.1).

Comparison of Design Strategies Generated by Pandemics

Period Pandemic Opportunity Areas Alternatives
XIV Century Plague Lack of hygiene Distancing
There were no documented
proposals in spaces design
1489 Typhus Overcrowding Distancing
Absence of light Hygiene
Bad ventilation Natural light
Dirt Ventilation
Cleaning
There were no specific
proposals
XIX Century Cholera Lack of hygiene Sanitary drainage
Bad ventilation Ventilation in bathrooms
Lack of sewage Adequate spaces for the
Overcrowding number of people
Bathrooms
Air renewal in spaces
Spaces with natural light
From the 7th Measles Overcrowding Distancing
century until Cleaning Cleaning
now Indifference to get Hygiene
vaccinated There are no proposals, only
consider easy-to-clean surfaces
Modernist Influenza Overcrowding Minimalist concept where the
period Dark and dusty decoration on the surfaces
(1918) spaces were zero
Easy to clean surfaces
Ventilation for air renewal
Light colors, mainly white
Interior spaces connected to
exteriors to promote a healthy
space
Entry of light to sanitize the
spaces
Prevent the entry of dust
26 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

(Continued)

Period Pandemic Opportunity Areas Alternatives

2020 COVID-19 Crowding Social distancing
Constant lack of Avoid being in crowded spaces
hygiene Ventilation that promotes air
There is no renewal in interior spaces
distancing between Control area when accessing
people a space and, if it is possible,
Lack of clean direct access to a bathroom
surfaces An area for shoe cleaning
(special installation to place
the sanitizing covers)
Ample space to keep distance,
especially in public areas.
Smooth surfaces for easy
cleaning or coating that does
not allow the virus to remain
or reproduce.
Propose flexible spaces that
can be expanded or reduced
Consider expanding
dimensions to have a distance
of 1.5 to 2 meters between
users
Source: Own elaboration.

The letter of Athens of 1933 and what it says in Part II, is still valid. In
Current State of Cities. Critiques and Remedies, the room observations in
point 9 indicate:
The admissible density for buildings is 250 to 300 inhabitants per hectare.
When 600, 800, and even 1,000 inhabitants are reached, then they are slums,
characterized by the following signs:

Insufficient living space per person;

Mediocrity of openings to the outside;
Lack of sun (orientation to the north or consequences of the shadow
that falls on the street or in the patio);
A permanent presence of morbid germs (tuberculosis);
Absence or insufficiency of sanitary facilities;
Promiscuousness in the interior layout of a home, a poorly organized
property, or the presence of annoying neighborhoods.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 27

Over the centuries, vegetation has been replaced by hard surfaces and the
green surfaces, which are the lungs of the city, have been destroyed. With
these conditions, permanent discomfort and illness occur.
Point 10 says:
In congested urban sectors, living conditions are dire due to a lack of

aggravated by the inability of people to adopt defensive measures by

themselves.

of green spaces, to improve air quality, and a healthy place for children to
recreate.
Point 12 says:
The constructions intended for living beings are distributed by the surface
of the city, contrary to hygienic needs.

men. The health of each person depends, in large part, on their submission to
natural conditions, the sun, which presides over the entire growth process,
should penetrate the interior of each home to spread its rays, without them,
life withers; air, whose quality ensures the presence of vegetation, should
be pure, free of harmful gases and dust suspended in it. Finally, the space
would have to be widely distributed. It should not be forgotten that the
sensation of space is psychophysiological, and that the narrowness of the
streets or the narrowing of the avenues create an atmosphere that is as
unhealthy for the body as it is depressing for the spirit. At the same point
are indicated requirements that should be met for all, but this has not yet
been achieved.

Not only pandemics modify architectural environments, but there are also
other artificial or man-made elements, which makes us rethink everything
we know.
28 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

During the first half of the 19th century, at the height of the Industrial Revolu-
tion, the installation of industries and demographic expansion collapsed the
cities surrounded by walls. The old Spanish urban centers were not only
the cradle of the processes of densification and urban speculation but also
the origin of the first complaints about the extreme living conditions that
affected the weakest social groups. In Spain, as in other parts of Europe, the
first voices of alarm about the living conditions in the cities were by doctors
and hygienists. In 1841, in Barcelona, Pedro Felipe Monlau, denounced the
hygiene conditions (Laboratori D’urbanisme, 1992). Commercial profit,
the high control by the government and other factors have maintained until
today these conditions of overcrowding and lack of access to basic services,
which allow the proliferation and lack of control in the health aspect.

In 1871, Chicago was attacked by a fire that practically destroyed it, and
multiple factors that changed the way of thinking about architecture influ-
enced the reconstruction of the city. In its first decades the city was built of
wood using the Balloon Frame technique, since it could be built quickly and
with no specialized labor (Benévolo, 2002).
The catastrophic event generated a change in the vision of architects
and engineers at the time of the reconstruction, breaking the traditional
paradigm of building and designing a city. This movement was known
as the Chicago school and the trend was to build vertically, using new
techniques like a steel skeleton and another type of foundation, giving the

large windows, and the result was an esthetic balance between vertical and
horizontal lines (Benévolo, 2002).
In 1895 someone who visited Chicago expressed:

steel skeleton structure that supports the internal and external walls, has
become a custom in almost all the great American cities. This construction
style was born in Chicago, at least in its practical application, and this city
now has more buildings of the steel skeleton type than all other American
cities combined (cited by Benévolo, 2002).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 29

Clean air is one of the basic requirements of health and well-being. However,
the development of industrial and post-industrial societies has considerably
increased the presence of polluting particles in the atmosphere, which is
damaging to human health and the environment. Air pollution is any change
caused by an unnatural external agent that alters the physical and chemical
properties of the air, mainly derived from industrial processes that involve
combustion, in industries, cars, and heating systems (Soler and Palau, 2018,
p. 3).
The General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection

possible the existence and development of human beings and other living
organisms that interact in a space through time” (Article 3, Section I).

Humans have a close relationship with the environment and nature, so the
quality of life, health, and even the present and future material and cultural
heritage are linked to the biosphere. In other words, the life of human beings
depends on the life of the planet, its resources, and species (CNDH, 2016).
WHO estimates that over 90% of the population live in places where air
quality is not taken care of, but not all pollutants come from outside, inside
buildings there are activities that modify air quality, due to use of cleaning
chemicals, sprays, and materials used in the building’s construction.
Air pollution is one of the main causes that deteriorate the quality of life
in cities due to the harmful effects it has on people’s health (Soler and Palau,
2018, pp. 13) and the lack of green spaces that minimize this impact.

We will start from two laws:

In the General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protec-

tion (2018), the environment is defined as the set of natural and
artificial elements or those induced by man that make possible the
existence and development of human beings and other living organ-
isms that interact in a determined space.
30 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

In the General Law of Climate Change (2018), environment is the

variation in climate attributed directly or indirectly to human activity,
which alters the global atmosphere composition and adds to the
natural variability of the climate observed during comparable periods.

but this change has gradually affected the planet, and is now being reversed
against the inhabitants. This can be observed as how the climate in different
areas changes over the years, resulting in the spaces inside buildings no longer
responding in the same way as they did before, cities gradually increase their

The problem is the exponential growth of the population without adequate

planning, the exploitation of natural resources, the alteration of ecosystems,
and the contamination of water, soils, and air; among others (CNDH, 2016).
We classify sources of contamination of human origin into four major
groups (CNDH, 2016; WHO, 2018):

1. Transportation: Motor vehicles, airplanes, trains, ships, and the

consequent handling of the fuels they use.
2. Stationary Combustion: Homes, businesses, industrial energy,
including thermoelectric plants.
3. Industrial Processes: Chemical, metallurgical, refineries, paper
mills, etc.
4. Others: Agricultural burns, garbage dumps, fires, leaks, spills.

In Coahuila, as in Mexico City and others, there is concern about air quality,
which is seen in the increase of discomfort and diseases associated with
pollution. Authorities have quantitatively evaluated its quality, spatially, and
temporally, and were supported by national and international standards that
determined if the air quality was satisfactory or not. Therefore, the Secretary
of Environment of the State of Coahuila (SMA) has implemented an air
quality monitoring program in the city, and they have three fixed automatic
monitoring stations.
Where the following standards are considered:

NOM-025-SSA1-2014. DOF, Official Mexican NORMA NOM-

025-SSA1-2014, Environmental health. Permissible limit values for
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 31

the concentration of suspended particles PM10 and PM2.5 in ambient

air and criteria for their evaluation.
NOM-020-SSA1-2014. DOF, Official Mexican STANDARD NOM-
020-SSA1-2014. Permissible limit value for the concentration of
ozone (O3) in ambient air and criteria for its evaluation.
NOM-021-SSA1-1993. DOF, Official Mexican NOM-
021-SSA1-1993, Environmental Health. Criterion for evaluating
ambient air quality with respect to carbon monoxide (CO).
NOM-022-SSA1-2010. DOF, 2010. Official Mexican STANDARD
NOM-022-SSA1-2010, Environmental health. Criterion for evalu-
ating the quality of ambient air with respect to sulfur dioxide (SO2).
NOM-023-SSA1-1993. DOF, Official Mexican NOM-
023-SSA1-1993, Environmental health. Criterion for evaluating the
quality of ambient air with respect to nitrogen dioxide (NO2).

They consider the regulated pollutants for which a maximum concentra-

tion limit has been established (Table 1.2).

Pollutants and Their Nomenclature

Pollutants Chemical Formula
Ozone O3
Carbon monoxide CO
Nitric oxide NO
Nitrogen dioxide NO2
Nitrogen oxide NOx
Sulfur dioxide SO2
Suspended particles smaller than 10 microns PM10
Suspended particles smaller than 2.5 microns PM2.5
Source: Own elaboration based on SMA.

In addition, they measure meteorological parameters to model pollutant

emissions:

Temperature;
Humidity;
Atmospheric pressure;
Direction of the wind;
Wind speed;
32 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Solar radiation;
Precipitation;
UV radiation.

The results of the air quality monitoring are evaluated under the scale
Metropolitan Air Quality Index (IMECAS) (Table 1.3).

Flagging based on the IMECA Scale

Flag IMECA Points Air Quality
0–50 Good
51–100 Regular
101–150 Bad
151–200 Very bad
201 Extremely bad
Source: Own elaboration based on SMA (2020).

The impact of air pollution directly affects health according to the WHO
(2018) (Table 1.4).

Pollutants and Their Impact

Pollutant Health Effects
Sulfur dioxide Headache, anxiety, and eye and throat
irritation
Suspended particles smaller than 10 microns Impact on the respiratory system
Suspended particles smaller than 2.5 microns Cardiovascular and nervous system
diseases
Ozone Respiratory diseases
Nitrogen dioxide Breathing problems and asthma
Carbon monoxide Cardiovascular disease and
neurobehavioral effects
Source: Own elaboration based on SMA (2020) and WHO (2018).

The continued exposure to air polluted with high levels of solid particles
reduces life expectancy, being an important aspect to consider in any space,
whether open or closed.
In 2007, the Saltillo Secretary of the Environment monitored seven areas
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 33

in that the least critical is Boulevard Morelos and the most critical reaching
the Unsatisfactory level with suspended particles corresponded to Boulevard
Isidro López Zertuche and Periférico Luis Echeverría Álvarez due to the
great anthropic impact. These avenues lack green areas, in addition to having
nearby the company TUPY, Vitromex, many shops and gas stations. Two
years later, an increase in pollutants can be seen in other areas, although the
most critical continue to be Boulevard Isidro López Zertuche and Periférico
Luis Echeverria.
The latest data recorded by SMA on air quality was in 2017. Until
October, the SMA showed that the highest percentage of pollutants occurred
in January and May with PM10; even though the most constant was PM2.5,
generating poor air quality, followed by ozone. Most affect the respiratory,
nervous, and cardiovascular systems. The problem is that PM particles
include pollen, microscopic biological material, dust, recirculating soil, soot,
and other small solids.
But it should be noted that pollution not only comes from the outside,
it can also be generated inside the same construction, so it is important to
always take into account good ventilation, since we can have two invisible
and sometimes silent enemies.

In a construction, the walls play an important role in achieving a healthy

environment; the materials used together with ventilation and natural light
are relevant, if the space is hermetic to save energy and does not allow good
ventilation, it generates poor air quality and does not allow sanitation, prolif-
erating microbiological contamination that causes allergies, asthma, among
other diseases, due to the prolonged stay in an unhealthy space damaging
health, sometimes air quality is not compatible with energy efficiency. Ashrae
points out that “the main obligation is to achieve healthy and comfortable
buildings and that energy saving is in the background” (cited by Higuero,
2016).

This is another polluting element that may not be so harmful, but it does
generate discomfort outside and inside buildings, generated by different
34 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

sources, such as factories, garbage, among others, caused mainly by man by

not considering environmental smells when constructing a building.
The Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie MSB (2015)
comments that:

leading role. In addition, it is possible to distinguish if the smell is pleasant

or unpleasant, or if there are concrete indications of the cause (fungi or
chemical products) (pp. 34).

For this, it is necessary to search for alternatives that help to mitigate

them, in case it is not possible, the source or the capture point can be moved
considering the direction of the wind, for example, placing a screen with trees
that captures or disguises odors or channeling the unwanted winds through

the place in detail to detect sources of contamination before building.

Radon (222Rn) is a naturally occurring radioactive gas from the decomposi-

tion chain of 238Uranium and is therefore ubiquitous in nature. It can accu-
mulate inside buildings, and its disintegration products can be inhaled and
deposited in the bronchopulmonary tract. Radon is currently considered the
main source of natural radiation exposure for humans (CTE, 2019, p. 144).
WHO (2016) indicates:

walls, spaces around pipes or cables, small pores in walls built with hollow
concrete blocks, or through sinks and drains. The concentration of radon in
a home depends on the amount of uranium contained in the rocks and the
soil, and it is mainly concentrated in living spaces that are in direct contact
with the ground, such as basements and cellars.

Depending on the type of construction, the ventilation habits of its inhab-

itants vary from day to day and the tightness of the building. Therefore, when
constructing a building, one must consider the exposure to radon, especially
in geological areas with a high concentration of this gas.
In the Technical Building Code (CTE, 2019) in Section HS6 in point 2 it
states that:
To limit the risk of exposure of users to inappropriate concentrations of
radon from the ground inside habitable premises, a reference level is
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 35

established for the annual average concentration of radon of 300 Bq/m3

(pp. 138).

It is important to know the terrain, but also to ensure that the spaces have
adequate ventilation to have a constant renewal of air that does not allow the
air in the space to be contaminated.
Section 3.1 protection barrier, point 1, indicates the importance of having
this element that limits the passage of gases from the ground, having the
following characteristics of point 2 in the same section:

To have continuity in joints and sealed joints;

To seal passageways or similar;
The communication doors that interrupt the continuity of the
barrier must be watertight and equipped with an automatic closing
mechanism;
Avoid cracks that allow the passage of radon from the ground by
convection;
To have adequate durability for the useful life of the building, its
conditions, and the planned maintenance (pp. 139).

The Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie SBM (2015) indi-

being important that together with the ventilation of the indoor air, consider

as the characteristics of the soil.

In winter, because of calefaction, Rn concentrations are noticeably

higher because of higher temperatures, poorer ventilation, and
concentrations of air from the ground.
In summer, radon concentrations in indoor spaces are usually up to
five times lower than in winter. Also, in the subsoil, there can be clear
differences in radon gas concentration due to the seasons, but the
differences are usually smaller and are approximately 1.5 to 3 times.

Problems in the indoor atmosphere can also occur from open, nuclide-
rich (pp 14) building materials.
The WHO (2015, p. 60) indicates that it is important that the strategy
must be applied not only to new homes, but also to existing ones, mitigation
should not be the only objective, but also prevention to reduce the concentra-
tion of this gas in the homes and even in buildings where there is a high
36 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

concentration of people who have a long stay inside the building. The struc-
tural systems, foundations, and ventilation should be studied, considering
that the conditions and propagation mechanisms may vary from one place

construction materials and through water.

Radon control options in a construction can be (USEPA, 1993, p. 61):

Option Tracing Functioning

Active ventilation of the sanitary chamber Periodic following of Moderate
radon
Active soil depressurization (it is the most Periodic following of Moderate
common) pressure and radon
Balanced ventilation (between the air flow Periodic following for Moderate to high
extracted from a space and the one blown radon
inside)
Source: Own elaboration based on USEPA (1993). They establish other options, but the rest
were low to non-existent.

Ventilation of non-living spaces between the ground and habitable space

such as vented sanitary chambers, which can help reduce indoor radon
concentrations by separating the interior from the ground and reducing radon
concentration below the habitable space.
For it to work, it depends on several factors, such as the degree of air

in the case of passive ventilation, the distribution of the ventilation openings

along the perimeter of the non-habitable space, a variant involves the use of a
fan to pressurize or depressurize the non-habitable space, but it can generate
problems such as reverse draft in combustion appliances or energy losses
(ASTM, 2003 cited by WHO, 2015).
It must be considered that ventilation presents uneven results, and can
cause energy losses, especially in extreme climates. But if the main source of
radon is building materials, ventilation is necessary (WHO, 2015).

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the most common pollutants found inside
buildings and affects human health. CO2 is generated by household appli-
ances (Serrano, 2017) and by humans when breathing, although it is harmless.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 37

The ranges to be considered regarding CO2 concentration according to

Serrano (2017) and Siber (2016) are:

Typical outdoor CO2 concentrations: 350–450 ppm (parts per million).

The normal range in a CO2 home should be between 400 to 600–800
ppm.
Tolerable CO2 concentrations in IAQ: 1,000 ppm.
The annual average concentration must be less than 900 ppm in each
location.

occupancy periods, with respect to CO2 generation values, it is considered 19

L/h per occupant, or 12 L/h per occupant for the period sleep and 19 L/h per
occupant for the waking period.
The number of occupants to be considered for calculating the CO2 gener-
ated will basically depend on the number of bedrooms:
Amount of Space Number of Occupants

1 bedroom 2

2 bedrooms 3

3 bedrooms or more 4
Source: Own elaboration based on Serrano (2017).

In the main bedroom, two occupants are considered. In the others only
one occupant, in the bathrooms 0.5 L/h per occupant is considered. For this
reason, all passive and mechanical systems must be capable of maintaining
recommended levels of ventilation according to the activity, occupation,
and location with respect to the climate (Serrano, 2017). A person resting
takes about 12 breaths per minute, which involves mobilizing about 360
L/h.
At night, a high amount of CO2 can be concentrated if it has little
ventilation with one or two people, and in the morning the stale air can

minutes so that the space is ventilated which allows to restore values of

500 to 600 ppm, improving air quality (Villena, 2018). Since a high level
of CO2 in the environment can cause effects on health or performance
(Serrano, 2017).
38 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Humidity plays an important role not only in health but also in the construc-
tion itself. To control humidity, ventilation in the space is important, along
with other measures, the high percentage of humidity in a space prevents
sweat evaporation of the human body, making it impossible to eliminate body
heat (Siber, 2016), when the air is saturated with humidity, it cannot absorb
it, generating discomfort in space. It is important to remember that when
temperature drops, humidity increases, favoring the growth of microorgan-
isms like mold, on the contrary, if a high temperature is maintained, other
organisms such as Legionella pneumophila proliferate, so the selection of
materials used in a construction is crucial, so those do not serve as substrates
for these microorganisms. There are standards that establish the parameters
and considerations for health spaces and equipment, such as ISO 14644-1,
the CTN 171 – indoor environmental quality, UNE 171330, UNE 171330
standards-2: 2014 Indoor environmental quality, Part 2: Interior environ-
mental quality inspection procedures, and the UNE 100012 standard whose
objective is to define a method to assess the hygiene of air conditioning
systems, among others.
The Department of Health and Human Services (2005) notes:
People exposed to a damp, moldy environment can have several health

to mold. For these people, mold can cause nasal congestion, throat
irritation, coughing or wheezing, eye irritation, or, in some cases, skin
irritation. Mold is found indoors and outdoors and grows in places with
high humidity.

Moisture causes problems for building owners, maintenance personnel

and occupants. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE, 2016) notes that, in many cases, common
humidity problems can be due to poor decisions in design, construction or
maintenance.
An environment with a high humidity rate negatively affects the well-
being and mood of the occupants because of bad smells and the perceived
poor air quality (Siber, 2016). Humidity control is important for the well-
being of the occupants and for the conservation of the building, furniture,
and facilities, for the following reasons (Table 1.5).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 39

Relationship of the Percentage and its Effects

Humidity Percentage Effect
If the relative humidity is below 30% Wooden furniture tends to dry out and
crack
Under 40% Viruses, bacteria, and respiratory disorders
appear
If the relative humidity exceeds 40% Produces oxidation on ferrous metals
If the relative humidity is below 55% Generates static electricity in synthetic
carpets and furniture
Above 60% Produces fungus, mold, and allergy in people
For people who do not have chronic problems Humidity should not exceed 65%
For people with health conditions Humidity must not exceed 60%
If the relative humidity is high, more than People can be uncomfortably hot during
90% the summer, because the evaporative
cooling of the body through sweat is
suppressed
If the relative humidity in winter is not too People feel more comfortable and do not
low suffer from dry, cracked skin
If the relative humidity is high in winter There will be condensation on cold
surfaces
Between 40 and 60% relative humidity It is the ideal level in a closed space
Source: Own elaboration (2020); Siber (2016).

mechanical ventilation systems generate an improvement in air quality and

reduce gas emissions; in the case of allergy victims, it helps a lot to improve

and Palau, 2018, p. 14). There are materials that, through photocatalysis, i.e.,

are activated and eliminate pollutants, or others that, through zeolites in

plasterboard, purify the air (Maroto, 2016).
Finally, the Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie MSB (2015)

to the users themselves through visual and olfactory inspections; if relying

documentation, it is recommended:

To inspect the interior spaces;

To consult residents about the history of the building;
40 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

To check the materials used, equipment, furniture, flooring, adhesives,

paints, lacquers or other construction and renovation materials;
To investigate current or past episodes of odors, suspicions, or symp-
toms of illnesses.

The visual inspection must be exhaustive, including information related

points in the construction according to the year of construction (pp. 24).

The technical measurement standard in Baubiologie SBM (2015) on fungi

states that:
Indoors should not have visible signs of mold or fungi, nor contamination
by spores or their metabolites:

The number of mold fungi in the indoor atmosphere, on surfaces, in

dust, in gaps, in materials, etc., should be lower than the exterior or
at the same level as the unaffected comparison rooms. The type of
mold inside it is not always the same from that on the outside or in the
unaffected comparison rooms.
Particularly critical and toxin-producing fungi that are allergenic, or
that thrive at a body temperature of 37 C, should not be detectable at
all or only extraordinarily little.
Long-term high humidity in materials and air, as well as cold surface
temperatures, should be avoided as they are the basis for fungal growth.

must be detected, for example, discolorations, and stains, characteristic

odors of fungi that indicate humidity, construction damage, even more so
in constructions with hygiene problems, with a humidity contribution from
the outside above of the average, with pathologies of the past, the history of
the building, diseases of the users, etc. In some cases, fungi appearance is
just the tip of the iceberg of microbiological contamination, fungi are a base
element for recycling organic waste that returns assimilable substances to the
environment. As a result of humidity and hygiene problems, bacteria very
often appear together with fungi, which generates problems for the health of
the inhabitants (pp. 37).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 41

These microorganisms not only affect surfaces or furniture, but also

inhabitants’ health, 10 to 20 critical agents have been studied in interior
spaces such as endotoxin, bacteria, or viruses. Fungi proliferate due to the
conditions of temperature, humidity, and light, in a warm humid climate
the conditions are favored, instead with constant ventilation and dry air it
disseminates.
Some considerations would be the use of materials with good hygro-
scopicity, since it reduces the accumulation of moisture on the surface, it
is important that the materials are dry before use to avoid the accumulation
of moisture. Capillarity in the enclosures should be avoided to reduce the
conditions for mold proliferation, reduce thermal bridges and improve indoor
ventilation conditions. Air conditioning equipment must be maintained in
optimal conditions (Table 1.6).

Source and Type of Microorganisms in the Spaces

Source (if is not well done from the beginning) Microorganism
Painting on surfaces, ceiling, wallpaper on They generate fungi
surfaces or in a plaster
Human beings Bacteria, fungi, and viruses
Surfaces where there is no constant cleaning or Bacteria, fungi, and viruses
that are not easy to clean
Mechanical systems that are not given periodic Bacteria, endotoxins, fungi, viruses,
maintenance and that do not renew the air and amoebae
Composting area, if it is not located far from the Not only pollutes with bad
spaces and is in the direction of the winds odors, it generates fungi that can
enter the interior of a house (a
minimum distance of 10 meters is
recommended)
Source: Own elaboration based on Figols (2016).

In the 21st century, the SAR-COVID-19 pandemic is not different from

the previous ones, and it is making changes again. It makes us rethink the
paradigm of spaces and social distancing, in addition to hygiene. It should
be considered that the normality before this pandemic is not going to return,
and we need to prepare ourselves. The virus is here to stay along with other
42 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

viruses and bacteria, and it has come to shake and reveal what has been
hidden under the carpet.
The pandemic does not consider economical, race or social aspects, it
could have started with people with high resources or constant international
mobility for work or study, but upon reaching the countries it was distributed

ment was the most vulnerable, poor people with limited resources, without a
permanent job, forcing them to not comply with the quarantine, some even
do not have a roof.
The emergence of the pandemic exposed the housing crisis in recent years
and exacerbated it exponentially. The connection between the reproduction
of the virus with the type of urbanization is very visible; the higher the
concentration, the greater the spread. Overcrowding multiplies the spread
of the virus; the population that was invisible, became visible due to the
saturation of the health system. The question is, did a pandemic have to come

right? (Di Filippo, 2020).

The answer is no, and in the academia and in architecture research and
related areas, the housing crisis had already been exposed for a long time, but

(Figures 1.27–1.29).

An example of a sustainable social housing, 2017.

Source: Photograph of the author.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 43

The access to sustainable social housing, 2017.

Source: Photograph of the author.

The access to sustainable social housing, 2017.

Source: Photograph of the author.

An example of this is presented by Ibarra and López (2019) who remark

that in Guadalajara, private companies are always reducing costs in the
production of social interest houses that directly affects the location on cheap
44 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

and poorly located land, with a lack of facilities and infrastructure or in the
worst case, located in vulnerable areas. Using cheap and fast materials in their
construction process, which are not suitable for the climate, and with spaces
with minimal measures based on the regulations with the sole objective to
build three houses where two or one is better; in situations of a prolonged
stay, it generates stress and other physical and emotional pathologies, due to
discomfort, and resulting in a damage society.
When talking about space, it has been observed that closed social housing
areas in Mexico have been reduced to a minimum mobility to such a degree

space affects the capacity for privacy. The kitchen is a basic service area
and, in most cases, is ridiculously small, which makes it impossible to carry
out activities with more than two people. Another aspect is the mobility for
the elderly, disabled or temporarily disabled, the most critical area being the
bathroom, which has been punished in its dimensions and prevents adequate
access to its interior, resulting in a reduced home or mini housing due to its

with reduced mobility to carry out daily tasks.

Since May 2020, a discussion was opened about what was happening and
what will come, from government and academic levels, highlighting several
aspects, for example, in the webinar entitled
refuge, organized by the Universidad de los Andes, held on May 12, master’s
students of architecture, lawyers, and anthropologists from Colombia high-
lighted the impact of staying at home:

Lack of water service;

Good ventilation and lighting inside the houses;
The systematic reduction of spaces in homes, including those of social
interest;
Lack of network connectivity to be able to work from home;
Commuting from work to home;
Evictions;
Overcrowding.

In another webinar titled Housing after COVID-19 webinar (UCLG,

2020); including people from different governmental levels and internation-
alities from London, Barcelona, France, Canada, and UN-Habitat; held on
May 22, it was showed that:

Resilient cities are those that help social cohesion;

The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 45

That housing must be affordable;

Social distance is a problem for spaces with a high concentration of
people;
Community housing should be commissioned by non-governmental
groups;
Houses should meet quality standards;
Home offices are on the rise and it is possible that it is a trend which
saves rent money;
Those who are homeless.

In the webinar Conditions of homes habitability and the urban environ-

ment in the face of social isolation imposed by COVID-19, held on May 22,

shown, focusing on 10 axes: on typology, services, activities carried out

at home, use of open and closed public space, family, and neighborhood
coexistence, security, and perception of government action, highlighting
similarities and differences in each city:

The greatest activity that increased at home was domestic;

Half of the people in the study indicated that the government’s actions
are correct;
The majority said that the house is their own and is paid for;
The problem of paying for housing and services;
Space for the elderly;
Home-work connection;
Lack of equipment in their neighborhood;
Lack of accessibility to public spaces, mainly those with low resources.

Even when they are from different environments, they coincide on some
problems and show the opportunity areas that this pandemic has brought to
light. UN-HABITAT, points out seven indicators of adequate housing and
COVID-19, which focus on:

1. Secure Tenure: Housing is not adequate if its occupants do not have

a certain measure of security of tenure that guarantees them legal
protection against forced eviction, harassment, and other threats.
2. Affordability: Housing is not adequate if its cost endangers or
hinders the enjoyment of other human rights by its occupants.
3. Habitability: The home is not adequate if it does not guarantee
physical security or does not provide sufficient space, as well as
46 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

protection against cold, humidity, heat, rain, wind or other health

risks or structural dangers.
4. Access to Basic Services, Materials, Facilities, and Infrastruc-
ture: Housing is not adequate if its occupants do not have drinking
water, adequate sanitary facilities, energy for cooking, heating,
lighting, and food preservation, or waste disposal.
5. Accessibility: Housing is not adequate if the specific needs of disad-
vantaged and marginalized groups are not considered.
6. Location: Housing is not suitable if it does not offer access to
employment opportunities, health services, schools, daycare centers
and other social services and facilities, or if it is in contaminated or
dangerous areas.
7. Cultural Adequacy: Housing is not adequate if it does not consider
and respect the expression of cultural identity.

Since the quarantine was directed in Mexico, many researchers have

and its consequences, the Academic group of Technology in Architecture

of the Faculty of Architecture in the Saltillo Unit, of the Autonomous
University of Coahuila, together with The Ministry of Housing and Territo-
rial Planning in contact with ONU-HABITAT, developed an instrument to
measure the perception of people regarding their environment and the way

OF COVID-19 IN ARCHITECTURE in the Southeast Metropolitan Area of

Coahuila, reaching 600 surveys, exceeding the representative sample (384
surveys), with data from other cities outside the state, in total 462 corre-
sponded to the studied area.
The survey was online with 29 items, considering some UN HABITAT
indicators with response options using the Likert scale, to people aged over
15 years, disseminated through social networks and emails, previously a
pilot test was carried out at the end of April and changes were made in three
items, mainly in writing and response options, and the survey was distributed
throughout the month of May 2020. This chapter will only show some of the
results related to the subject of the book, the objective is to monitor during the
rest of 2020 and 2021, to observe the differences throughout the quarantine,

the UN-HABITAT indicators and the location of the respondents to obtain a

The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 47

Figure 1.30 shows that 81.1% of the population has their own home,
only 13.4% rent a property, and the rest lived in a borrowed house or did not
respond. In a second stage, the survey included if they had payment prob-

paying it, in June, the Mexican government proposed alternatives together

with banks to support debtors, but the issue of income is another aspect that
is still under discussion.

State of the properties of the respondents: Owned, rented, or borrowed.

Figure 1.31 shows that 33% of the families comprised four members,
55% had three rooms, the percentage of more than six members with less
than three rooms was low; 19% of the homes were overcrowded, coupled
with this was the type of users.

Overcrowding was analyzed regarding the number of inhabitants (a); and the
number of rooms (b).
48 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Figure 1.32 shows that 50% are adults or young people, 27% live with
children, 18% with the elderly, and a low percentage with people with
disabilities (PWD) or have with these three types of inhabitants, being an
important aspect to consider in terms of coexistence and space limitations
based on the type of construction.

Characteristics of the inhabitants.

Figure 1.33 shows that 92% are families, 3.9% with pets, and the rest
of the relationships are friends, alone, or work colleagues, so family coex-
istence predominates in this metropolitan area of Saltillo, although in other
cities may not be the case anymore, due to migration for college or work.

Relationship between the inhabitants.

The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 49

PWD living in it, the rest live in an apartment, the number of people is also
important when considering hygiene and health.

Construction typology of the houses in the study.

Figure 1.35 shows that 41.3% indicate that people have three or more
bathrooms in their home, 22% only have one bathroom. If the number of
people living in a house is not greater than three, it does not generate so

hygiene control is required, this could be considered in order to control the

sources of infection among those who live in the house, requiring alternatives

when adapting to new needs.

Number of bathrooms.
50 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

new spaces, 31.6% say that it is possible, and 15% do not believe that their
home can be adapted, due to spatial limitations.

Flexibility of the space inside the house.

Figure 1.37 shows that 43% think their home is comfortable, 32% say
that it is more or less, and 9% say that their home is not comfortable. This
does not only include the thermal sensation inside the house, but the percep-
tion of tranquility, and that allows you to carry out activities inside the house.

Comfort in the houses.

The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 51

At this point, it is important to specify that studies carried out by Kampf,

Dodt, Pfaender, and Steinmann (2020), indicate that the virus at temperatures
of 30 to 40 C with a humidity of 30% reduces its duration on a surface, at
room temperature the virus can last up to nine days.
Additionally, it has been demonstrated that temperature and ventilation
reduce or increases the virus contagion, for example, in open spaces there is
a lower contagion possibility, as well as in closed spaces with ample ventila-
tion (Instituto Nacional de Bolivia cited by FM Bolivia, 2020). The key is
good ventilation, because recent studies have showed that virus particles are
so small, that can remain suspended in the air for some time, so it is relevant
to keep the space aerated and not use a mechanical system to recycle it, as it
generates a source of infection among the people who use that space.
In Figure 1.38, 44.2% feel calm inside their home, only 4.4% do not feel
calm in their home. This is an opportunity area, to work in a space that can
help people feel good in their homes, more so now that they must stay for
longer. For this, it is important that the house can adapt to other activities

than 8 hours and have a peaceful space to rest. An important aspect is to keep
noise pollution low or null to reduce stress for the inhabitants or prevent

Perception of tranquility.

In Figure 1.39, 54% indicated that their home did not require drastic
changes to develop other activities that were not common before, 19%
adapted a space to take classes, other activities that predominated during
this pandemic were doing sports followed by family activities. In a low
percentage was work from home, businesses, and even dancing lessons,
52 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

0.2% adapted a containment space in the access to their home, a special area
to control the entry of the virus to the house.

Adequacy of the space for other activities.

Figure 1.40 shows that 53.2% of the people fully agreed to have this
space; when considering the role it plays in the health of the inhabitants of
the home, only 2.2% did not agree, 10.2% considered taking it into account.

Containment space or access filter.

In particular, this space has been established with safety regulations in

areas with a high concentration of people such as work and public spaces,
but it should also be taken into account for homes, especially when there is
one or two people who leave constantly, in addition to using accessories such
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 53

as a sanitizing mat for footwear, having a space where to put street shoes
and place footwear commonly used for the house, with a shelf to have a
sanitizing gel, which allows the person coming from outside to be sanitized
and reduce the introduction of the virus into the home as little as possible.
In some cases, there are houses that have a hallway, garage, or bathroom
where you can sanitize upon arrival. Besides, it is recommended that the
person when arriving home maintain a healthy distance from those who are
inside, and if possible, stay isolated, in case they work in a place of medium
and high risk, along with other actions such as bathing right away and wash
their clothes separately from others.
Figure 1.41 shows that 36.6% had not realized if they kept a healthy
distance when they got home, 29% claimed to have a distance of 1.5 m,
and 12% indicated that they had a distance less than 1 m. These are inter-
esting data and give an answer as to why the increase in infections in the

importance of considering to include a space that serves as containment and

control before accessing a closed space.

Healthy distance when arriving home.

In Figure 1.42, when asking the question, if you agree to change some
surfaces in your home to make it easier to clean viruses and bacteria, 57.3%
agreed, 6.7% did not agree, and 17% had not even thought about it. Evidence

surfaces than on others, here is the relevance of rethinking what materials to

use in buildings to help maintain a healthy home.
54 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Surfaces in the home.

It is important to consider the time the virus stays on surfaces and mate-
rials, even more so if someone is or was sick, studies carried out by Kampf,
Dodt, Pfaender, and Steinmann (2020), indicate that the virus can last from
2 hours to 9 days on a surface (Table 1.7) there are other studies from the
Paraguayan Society of Infectology and the University of Hong Kong, which
in some data coincide and in others differ in the days or hours, in addition,
they indicate that the temperature also plays a role.

Persistence of SARS-COV of Different Types of Inanimate Surfaces

Type of Surface Temperature Persistence
Metal Room temperature 5 days
Wood Room temperature 4 days
Paper Room temperature 4 to 5 days
Glass Room temperature 4 days
Plastic 22–25°C or room temperature 4 to 9 days
Disposable gown Room temperature 2 days
Aluminum 21°C 2 to 8 days
Surgical glove (latex) 21°C 8 hours
Steel 4–40°C 48 hours to 28 days
Cardboard box there is no data 24 hours
Source: Own elaboration. Based on Kampf, Dodt, Pfaender y Steinmann and Sociedad
Paraguaya of Infectología quoted by Ultimahora (2020)
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 55

The importance of knowing the duration of the virus on surfaces is that

cleaning is carried out easily and at least twice a day on these, mainly in
common areas, avoiding porous surfaces that are not easy to sanitize.
Another aspect to consider from being at home is having basic services,
such as electricity and water, but now another service has become the main
actor for work, study, and leisure at home in this quarantine and it was the
internet.
Figure 1.43 shows that 41.1% had no network service problems, 10.4%
indicated that the quality of the network was not good during the pandemic.
This service previously considered a luxury, now plays an important role
not only for leisure, but also for work, study, and commerce. In the case of
remote work and study, a good connection and easy internet access should be
considered, designating a different space and hours, if there are several who
are going to use it (CMIC, 2020), but this is sometimes not easy when the
house is small and another matter to consider is the noise pollution from the
outside, since the buildings are not designed to generate an environment that
allows these activities to be carried out properly, nor does the environment
help to achieve these conditions.

Internet services in the houses.

Figure 1.44 shows that 78% indicated that they had a very good water
supply, and only 5.2% indicated that the service was not adequate or was
being supplied constantly. This natural element is essential for life, and
crucial for health control through constant hygiene, but it is scarce in some
56 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

parts of the world, it becomes the most requested protagonist in this quar-
antine. That is why the importance of guaranteeing the supply of this liquid
everywhere.

Water services.

In informal settlements there is a vulnerable niche in the face of the

COVID-19 pandemic. And it is that the lack of services, such as water and
drainage, poor quality materials in a house, but the families that inhabit it in
a risk of contagion (Centro Urbano, 2020).
Figure 1.45 shows that 48.1% have a mall near their home, 21% said they
have a shopping center nearby and the rest have access to public transpor-
tation, which are basic. There are three scenarios of the pandemic (IMSS,
2020) in relation to social distance; when there are dozens of cases, no action
is necessary in open or closed public spaces, but when there are hundreds or
thousands of incidents, activities, and events must be suspended.

Another indicator are the stores close to the home.

The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 57

When phase 3 of the pandemic is reached, which consists of the reopening

activities, open public spaces are the most demanded by the population
to practice sports, meeting with people and recreation, this is considered
medium risk (Government of Mexico, 2020).
With the new normality or reality, other parameters are established to
consider in the different scenarios of a city (Table 1.8) based on the amount
of agglomeration and the type of ventilation in the site (Table 1.9). These
criteria are met in most cases, but sometimes it is relaxed by both the
employees and the users themselves, even in some companies they control
and monitor their staff to reduce contagion and use strategies such as rotation
of schedules to lower the number of people in the spaces.

Considerations and Priority Level

Closed Public Workspaces Business Spaces Open Housing
Spaces Public Spaces
Spaces
Very high priority High priority Medium to high Medium Low priority
priority priority
Entrance and exit Entrance and Entrance and exit No control Entrance and
exit exit
Cinemas Government Offices with cubicles Plaza Houses
offices
Stores Industries Production Parks Public roads
companies
Museums Banks Beauty and Private
hairdressing salons vehicles
Hospitals Elevators Malls – –
Public transport Cinemas Restaurants – –
Family reunions Supermarkets Doctor’s office – –
Bars and Study centers Supermarkets – –
discotheques (preschool to
graduate)
Religious events – Refuge – –
Massive events – Shelters – –
Gyms – Drugstores – –
Source: Own elaboration; National Institute of Bolivia and Colombia (2020) cited by FM.
Bolivia and Microsoft News.
58 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Considerations to Adapt or Design Spaces

General Considerations for Enclosed Spaces
To access the buildings, you must have control where the entrance is, which should be
separated from the exit, the temperature should be taken with a laser thermometer or a
thermal camera, a sanitizing mat together with the gel to sanitize the hands when entering,
throwing away the garbage that from outside and garbage from the inside in special
containers, even more so when they wear disposable masks, in some cases they have
bathrooms where staff can shower before leaving, depending on the activity they carry
out.
Spaces at 50% of their capacity or less according to the phase, but if the pandemic phase
is red or orange, the percentage may be lower.
Surfaces that are easy to clean.
Maximum capacity of people within a space, in special cases have a control for
appointments so as not to have excess capacity.
Constant ventilation, in case of using a mechanical system that the air renewal does not
recycle the air.
Distances of at least 2 meters between workspaces and have separating elements that help
maintain isolation between people in case someone does not use a mask.
Source: Own elaboration.

Public places will have to be adapted to avoid physical contact and miti-
gate contagion, avoid contact with surfaces that carry viruses and bacteria. It
should be considered that the doors are automated, as well as the elevators,
and implement an automated temperature control. Logistics are required to
apply these adaptations to the new reality, as well as the resilience to make
it work. In places of constant movement of tourists, adapting private spaces
or few people, as well as in meeting places such as lobbies or elevators,
limiting the passage or contact of several people at the same time should be
considered, but taking care of the details to not having a cold architecture
that isolates everyone is a task that should be considered and avoided.
The Mexican Institute of Social Security (2020) points out that after this
pandemic, the way of acting with the environment should change and be
more empathetic with the most vulnerable, privileging the right to a healthier
life. Another variable must also be added, which was proposed before the
pandemic and climate change; pointed out by Lionel Ohayon, founder of the
New York design and urban planning study ICRAVE, he comments that tele-
commuting and the redesign of work cubicles had to be rethought by other
more closed and personal ones, with technology and reducing social contact.
If virtual work is successful or generates more production, the value of
shared workspaces will change, considering the creation of spaces in homes
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 59

designed for work or studies with the conditions that allow developing this
new activity without distractions.

Previously, architects were sought to create a place to live, at the end of the
First World War, due to the destruction of cities, mainly in Europe, the accel-
erated growth of constructions, including houses, was promoted, initiating
massive construction, breaking with the patterns above, prioritizing rational
distribution. In Mexico, this construction process was based on institutional
programs that over time lost the objective of adequate housing for just a
commercial product, resulting in the reduction of spaces and materials that
are cheap, but not suitable for all types. In addition, the particular needs of
its inhabitants are not considered, having a direct impact on the quality of
life of users.
Sometimes the bricklayer or the engineer or even the user himself creates
his designs or takes the idea of an architect, and based on this he builds his
home, resulting in most cases, spaces that fail to cover the basic needs that
meet the standards of a healthy and comfortable home, since it is not only
creating a space, it is taking into account other elements.
Since its inception, architecture has laid its foundations on three Vitru-
vian pillars: constructive solidity, functionality, and beauty. However, the
experience of space, whether in natural, urban, or indoor environments, is
also an emotional experience, so that another fundamental aspect underlies
the user’s emotional response, closely related to well-being (Guixeres,
Higuera, and Montañana, 2016), which generate experiences (Figures
1.46–1.48).

The role of the architect when constructing a building or house is to

make the user’s dream come true, since it is not only a physical space, it
is the habitat that contains the cultural, social, and psychological aspects,
generating sensations or covering emotional needs. The question is,
what experiences do we generate in the spaces and if this is positive or
negative?
60 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

The experience in interior spaces in Morocco, 2005.

Source: Photographs of the author.

Shapes together with color and light play an important role when
designing spaces, since they generate various sensations in the user such
as joy, sadness, phobia, or stress, which affect not only physical but also

health as a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not
only the absence of affections or diseases.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 61

The experience in exterior in Romania, 2007.

Source: Photographs of the author.

The experience in exterior in Vienna, 2008.

Source: Photographs of the author.
62 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Designing implies considering all the architectural elements that provide

security, ease of mobility, adequate visibility, which contribute to the well-
being of the user and the pleasure of feeling good most of the time during
their stay in the space where they live, and this is related to the comfort.

This concept applies to the interior of buildings not only covering air quality,
but also health, comfort, esthetic, anthropometric, ergonomic, acoustic, and
light conditions and considering the existence of electromagnetic fields in
the site or its immediate surroundings.

UN HABITAT (2010) comments:

Everyone has the right to an adequate standard of living, including
adequate housing. Despite this, the number of people without adequate
housing far exceeds 1 billion worldwide, living in dangerous conditions for
life or health, overcrowded, and makeshift settlements (pp. 1).

The relationship between health and comfort of the people cannot be

ignored in the buildings where they live, work, study or have fun (Siber,
2017), in other words, where we live most of the time.
Reckford (2009), points out that:
The quality standards are about a living environment rather than a house,

family that inhabits it, that is, to provide protection against the weather,
an appropriate living space, adaptations of a house that are culturally
acceptable and access to adequate public services of drinking water and

Comfort is subjective, it depends on many factors and aspects, in general

it describes the perception and feeling of well-being of the subject in a given
place and time that allows them to carry out an activity without the distraction
of discomfort or being thermally, physically, and mentally uncomfortable in
which are involved:

Age;
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 63

Complexion (metabolism);
Culture (place of origin, adaptation to its environment);
Race (skin color);
Health;
Activity.

It can be evaluated qualitatively and quantitatively, the latter based on

qualitative refers to the perception of the subject that is a physical stimulus

hearing).
The role of each of the senses actively participates with architecture,
the texture of the materials awakens interest through sight, generating the
need to touch the surface to corroborate what one thinks will feel, the smells
that focus on the space can bring to mind childhood memories or tell us if

smelling popcorn reminds us of the cinema since that space has that identity,

element in a construction, if it is handled properly you can get total isolation

from the outside if you do not take into account the morphological aspects
of the nearby environment, surfaces, and the shape of the building can have

point, the knowledgeable architect and sensitized about this, takes advantage
of the architectural elements to obtain something unique.
Quantitative comfort encompasses the thermal, acoustic, and visual
aspect, which when harmoniously combined result in physical and psycho-
logical well-being, whether in an open or closed space. Most of the time,
humans are inside a closed space, therefore, it is important to achieve
a healthy space. The human habitat must have conditions to avoid a high
percentage of mechanical systems, these should only be complementary or
for support, the temperature and air quality depend on achieving comfort and
health.
Bueno (1998) points out that a construction should not be hermetic, since it
is not ensured that it breathes, recommends having a balance between energy
savings and air quality, that there must be a relationship with the climate and
the geographical relationship of the construction based on selecting biocli-

to the bioclimatic zone, in accordance with the ASHRAE decalogue, which

indicates prioritizing comfort and health before energy saving.
64 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

This parameter is relevant when designing spaces, since it is part of the

analysis of the terrain, the first thing is to identify the surroundings of where
it is intended to build, if there are visual pollutants and odors, which could
affect the level of comfort and health of the users. To establish a strategy that
reduces the negative impact, through modifications in the morphology of the
subdivision, analyzing the wind direction and implementing the vegetation
as an ally, insulator or as a protective screen, the placement of buildings to
redirect the wind in favor or opposing.
It is important to know not only the direction of the wind and its speed
for air renewal, but also the quality of the air and unwanted noise, to consider
natural elements that help reduce this pollution before entering the interior
spaces of the constructions, there are currently subdivisions that are located
near municipal garbage dumps, factories, schools, main roads or very close
to these, which indirectly affect the well-being of users.

through the existing elements in the environment (Figure 1.49) and how
it enters the interior of the spaces, besides considering the Venturi effect,

inhabitants.

Wind movement through buildings.

Source: Own elaboration based on Fuentes and García (2005).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 65

disturb the wind regime laminar as turbulent, having an idea of how the
movement is between the buildings, gives the possibility of placing them,
that they do not remain in the shadow of the wind and make it impossible
to take advantage of the favorable winds to renew the air indoors. On the
other hand, if there are undesirable winds such as bad smells or cold winds
in winter season, the shade can be used in favor to avoid them, this being the
best strategy. If you have a dense barrier and a high permeability barrier, the

200 meters.
Even when it is not possible to have an opening in the orientation of the
dominant or secondary winds, it is possible to use constructive or natural
elements that channel the wind to the desired space (Figure 1.50).
Even when it is not possible to have an opening in the orientation of the
dominant or secondary winds, it is possible to use constructive or natural
elements that channel the wind to the desired space (Figure 1.50).

Redirection of the wind by means of another element.

Source: Own elaboration.
66 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Fluids always look for an exit, opposite openings generate air mobility
inside the constructions (Figures 1.51 and 1.52), but this mobility is due
both to the speed it has when entering and the difference in temperature
with respect to the spaces, if there are obstacles inside, the air will seek the

Movement inside the construction in a floor.

Source: Own elaboration based on Fuentes and García (2005).

Movement inside an elevated construction.

Source: Own elaboration based on Fuentes and García (2005).

It should be remembered that the objective of good ventilation is to

supply enough fresh air, to extract emissions from the activities that are
carried out by the occupants and their appliances, together with the humidity
and dangerous substances that are inside the building. To dehumidify the
space, the ventilation rate must be high.

The use of mechanical systems in interiors plays an important role, espe-

cially when climatic conditions or activity demand environmental control, in
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 67

microbiological proliferation, for which several aspects must be considered

(Table 1.10).

Relationship of Air and Pollutants

Source Result Recommendation

Poor outdoor air quality Proliferation of Test the air quality of the
microorganisms environment

Filters Fungi Constant cleaning of the filters and

renew them every so often

Stagnant water in Biological agents such Constant cleaning

humidifiers as bacteria

Air recycling Contaminates existing The extracted air goes directly to

biological agents the outside
Source: Own elaboration based on Figols (2016).

It is important to always have a control of humidity and temperature,

along with an adequate air renewal based on the activity and capacity of
users.

Air renewal has a role to achieve comfort in the spaces by providing fresh
air, and it must be completed with a system that allows the evaluation of
the polluting products that have accumulated in the stale air mass, because
a person resting absorbs, approximately about 27 liters of oxygen per hour
under normal conditions and expels 23 liters of CO2. The optimal level of air
movement indoors should be between the limits of 1.50 m/s during the day
and 1.00 m/s at night (Molar, 2014; Siber, 2017; WHO, 2018).
The main drawback of natural ventilation is regulation, since the renewal
of each moment will depend on the weather conditions, the size of the open-
ings and the orientation it faces outside.

says:

The urban morphology of the immediate surroundings, which help

channel the wind or divert it, increase its speed, or reduce it;
68 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Constructive characteristics of the building;

Natural elements near the openings;
Artificial elements of the same building that direct or obstruct the
access of the wind to the interior;
Orientation and position of the building;
Position and dimension of the openings, these must guarantee the
number of renovations necessary to ensure optimal indoor air quality,
depending on their shape and type of window;
The contour of the building must be as tight as possible, to avoid
unwanted ventilation;
The building can play the role of air reservoir, ensuring the quality of
the outside air without constant ventilation.

The Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie SBM (2015)

comments that:
The renewal of the air in a building depends on many factors such as the
tightness of the building, the exterior and interior climate, the season of the
year, the wind and pressure circumstances in the environment and within
the building, the position and dimension of windows, open aeration over
windows, as well as technical ventilation installations (decentralized or
centralized) using fans (pp. 35).

The Technical Building Code (CTE) in Spain (2019), establishes the

3
) (Table 1.11), since it indicates that
all homes must have a ventilation system, either hybrid or mechanical,
recommends that the air must circulate from the dry to the humid places, the

the ventilation duct of the rest of the house.

Minimum Flow Rates for Constant Flow Ventilation in Habitable Premises

Housing Type Minimum Flow qv in l/s
(m3) Dry Places (1) (2) Humid Places (2)
Main Bedrooms Living Minimum in Minimum
Bedroom Rooms Total per Location
and Dining
Rooms (3)
0 or 1 bedrooms 8 – 6 12 6
2 bedrooms 8 4 8 24 7
3 or more 8 4 10 33 8
bedrooms
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 69

(Continued)
Housing Type Minimum Flow qv in l/s
(m3) Dry Places (1) (2) Humid Places (2)
Main Bedrooms Living Minimum in Minimum
Bedroom Rooms Total per Location
and Dining
Rooms (3)
In the cooking A system must be in place to extract the pollutants produced with a
zone of kitchens minimum flow rate of 50 l/s.
(considered as a This space must have good air extraction to generate constant
humid place) renewal.
Bathrooms It is a humid place
(1)
In the dry premises of the dwellings for various uses, the flow corresponding to the use
for which the highest flow results is considered.
(2)
When both dry and wet premises are used in the same room, each area must be provided
with its corresponding flow.
(3)
Other premises belonging to the dwelling with similar uses (gaming rooms, offices, etc.).
Own elaboration based on the Official State Gazette (2017); CTE (2019); and Siber (2020).

The air renewal rates based on the technical measurement standard in

Baubiologie SBM (2015) for other rooms (Table 1.12).

General Renovation
Space Air Renovation (m3/h)
Open office 40–50
Individual office 40
Classroom, auditorium, and inn 30–40
Conference room 30
Theater, concert, and cinema 20
The minimum hygienic renovation 0.3
Source: Own elaboration; Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie SBM (2015), p. 35.

In the Basic Document (DB) in section HS, of article 13 of point 1, it

states:

of the environment,” is to reduce to acceptable limits pollutants that risk

or illness, as well as the risk on deteriorated buildings which deteriorate

the environment in their immediate surroundings, as a consequence of the
70 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

In Section 13.3 on the basic requirement HS 3: Indoor air quality, from

point 1:
Buildings should have enough resources so that their enclosures can be
adequately ventilated, eliminating the pollutants that occur regularly

air is provided and the extraction and expulsion of the air stale by pollut-
ants is guaranteed (pp. 3).

In Section 3.2.6 exterior windows and doors, from point 1:

The exterior windows and doors that are available for supplementary
natural ventilation must be in contact with a space that has the same char-
acteristics as that are required for intake openings (pp. 70).

In Section H3 regarding air quality, in general in point 2:

be provided to ensure that in each premises, the average annual concentra-

tion of CO2 is less than 900 ppm, and that the annual accumulated CO2 that
exceeds 1,600 ppm is less than 500,000 ppm per h (pp 63).

If CO2 concentration values in the outdoor air are not available at the
building site, an annual average of 400 ppm is considered, Appendix C, point
3 (pp. 80).
The big problem with traditional heating and air conditioning is that
they do not create a circulation that extracts poor quality air, nor do they
allow humidity or bad smells to escape. If you have the windows closed to
keep warm in winter and cool in summer, a stale air mass is generated that
can cause disease, discomfort, and bad odors, among other negative effects
(Siber, 2016), generated by enemies that persist in the area such as humidity
and other contaminants that are not perceived, such as mites and germs that
exist in closed spaces.

A properly lit space generates tranquility and harmony, the opposite result
in a dark setting that gives the feeling of insanity and insecurity. The
combination of light with color makes a space appear large or small, happy,
or sad, being light distribution better with light colors (Figures 1.53 and
1.54).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 71

Natural light and space, 2005.

Source: Photographs of the author.

Natural light and space, 2005.

Source: Photographs of the author.
72 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

visual comfort based on the activities that are intended to be carried out in
a space in a given time and the sensations that are to be obtained directly
or indirectly (Figure 1.55), the use of natural light is important for energy
saving and comfort, but it should not be forgotten that natural light equals
heat, so it should be avoided that it enters directly in critical orientations,
producing unwanted glare that generates visual discomfort to users.

The interior of Conran’s design in Vienna, 2008.

Source: Photo by the author.

The orientation criteria based on sunlight, start from the heating of a

facade depending on two aspects:

The radiant energy you receive;

The air temperature results in comfort.

It is about orienting the building so that it receives the most radiation

in the coldest months, but that is the minimum in hot season, so it is neces-

environment or of the building itself.

The orientation of the buildings will depend on:

Local topography;
Privacy;
Taking advantage of the views;
Reduction of unwanted noise;
Macroclimate and the microclimate.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 73

In the Athens letter of 1933, second part of the requirements section,

point 26, it is indicated that:
Studies showed that solar is essential for human health and that, in certain
cases, it could be harmful. The sun is the motor of life. Medicine has shown
that where the sun does not enter, tuberculosis settles; it requires placing
the individual back, as far as possible, in natural conditions. The sun must
penetrate every home for a few hours a day, even during the less favored
season. Society will not tolerate entire families being deprived of sun
and condemned to languish. Any building plan in which a single house is
oriented exclusively towards the north or deprived of sun by the shadows

provide a plan that shows that during the winter solstice the sun penetrates
all homes for at least two hours a day, without this, the building license
should be denied. Introducing the sun is the new and most imperative duty
of the architect.

What is stated by the Athens letter, remains as a mere recommendation,

since there is no follow-up or regulation that indicates it, another aspect is
that there are people who do not like the sun, even their rooms keep them in
the dark, there are special cases, but even so it must be sought that all spaces
have the minimum percentage of light, it is up to each user to use it or not.
As Robles (2016) points out, the occupants of a space interpret light based
on their experience (Figure 1.56).

The interior of Casa Batló in Barcelona, 2006.

Source: Photograph of the author.
74 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

The Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie SBM (2015)

reports the following:

during the day the light should be cooler, and warmer in the afternoon.
The higher the color temperature, the greater the blue component should
be in the light; the lower the red component, the higher. The blue and
red components are the determining factors in directing the wake/sleep
rhythm. Melatonin is the main responsible hormone that is governed by
this element; the bluer, the lower the release of the “sleep hormone,” with
the redder components, the higher its release. Midday light has a very high
component of blue and the evening sun has more of red (pp. 22).

Melatonin increases below 500 luxes (lx), the ranges of this parameter
vary according to the source and this is also related to the activities in the
spaces (Figures 1.57 and 1.58; Table 1.13).

Natural lighting in a Romanian church, 2007.

Source: Photographs by the author.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 75

Natural and artificial lighting in a dining room in La Pedrera, 2004.

Source: Photographs by the author.

Lux Levels Based on Source

Light Condition LUXES Result
Sunny summer day 100,000
Cloudy summer day 30,000
Sunny winter day 20,000
Cloudy winter day 10,000
Gray winter day 5,000
Clear workplace 1,000
Lighting of a room or office 100–500 Melatonin release
Street lighting 10–50 Melatonin release
Candlelight one meter 1 Melatonin release
Full moon night 0.2–1 Melatonin release
Source: Own elaboration; Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie SBM (2015).
76 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Moisture is water vapor present in the atmosphere. Humidity control is

important in a space, humidification is adding water vapor to increase the
level of humidity in the air and it is used when the percentage of humidity is
very low, and dehumidification is when it is necessary to eliminate the vapor
of water in a climate with a high percentage of humidity; it depends on the
type of local climate to select the strategy.

humidity levels are high. Even when there are spaces where it is not possible
to control humidity, due to different sources of production that are neces-
sary, such as in the area of showers, washing dishes, clothes, and cooking,
in addition, the same human being contributes to a certain percentage of

per day). Sterling Ray (1980) points out, the need to dehumidify must be
determined on an individual basis, since the sense of personal comfort is
subjective.
An environment with a high humidity rate negatively affects the well-
being and mood of the occupants, given the bad smells and the poor quality
of the air that is breathed. The best solution to avoid condensation humidity
is to provide adequate ventilation. If the spatial distribution does not allow
natural cross-ventilation, mechanical ventilation will be required to maintain
the living space with quality air. Other alternatives are to keep the kitchen
and bathrooms closed to prevent the steam from spreading to other spaces,
but if the kitchen is an open space, the action will be to close the other spaces
and try to circulate the air through the openings avoiding blocking these air
vents with other elements.
In cold weather, heating should be kept at a low level for a fairly long
period, so it is important to keep the spaces ventilated with constant air

outside, which allows the expulsion of stale air from the space, so it is crucial
to enable a natural, mechanical or hybrid ventilation system depending on
the situation, which guarantees the expulsion of pollutants generated by
breathing, cooking, and other sources.
The humidity in buildings is due to (Siber, 2016):

1. Condensation: It occurs when you have more than 70% relative

humidity and you find a surface with a lower temperature that can
be walls, windows, ceilings, and wood, resulting in dark stains. The
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 77

causes are an inadequate ventilation, poor insulation in the windows,

a poor construction system that allows infiltrations or an inadequate
heating system that does not distribute the homogenic air in the
space. To avoid this, the thermal insulation of the enclosure must be
increased, thermal bridges controlled, guarantee the correct renova-
tion of spaces, use an extractor in kitchen and bathroom areas that
generate humidity due to its use, in addition to calculate and install
heating and cooling equipment is suitable for a good distribution of
air in the space.
2. Capillarity: It is the humidity that rises on surfaces that have
contact with the ground, for this it is important to protect them with
waterproofing materials, especially if you have knowledge of the
groundwater in the area.
3. By Lateral Infiltration: Which occurs in semi-buried constructions
and which is close to a phreatic level. To avoid this, waterproofing is
not only required, but is also combined with ventilation and drainage
installation.

In a building, the ability to dampen temperature variations depends

on the materials because of their hygroscopic capacity, the furniture and
the layers that cover the surface, the fact that a construction is breath-
able is the ability it has to interact with the outside and the conditions
that occur in different periods and that is also related to heat transfer,
since it is the energy released or absorbed by its latent heat capacity,

called passive humidity regulation through systems based on bioclimatic

strategies.
The excess humidity in interiors is generated by daily activities, mainly in

room, and even by the occupant’s own perspiration. The ability of materials
to dampen humidity oscillations depends on their thickness, permeability
to water vapor and their capacity for storing humidity. According to their
microporous structure (Gómez, 2016), this is called phase change or change
of state, is the fourth heat transfer mechanism, in which a substance receives
or delivers thermal energy instead of changing its temperature, it changes
from one physical state to another, without modifying its chemical nature
(Huelsz, 2014), for what should be a parameter to consider when selecting
materials for construction.
78 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Boulangeot (cited by Bueno, 1998), indicates that the transmission of noise

inside buildings occurs in two ways:

The air, which goes directly or indirectly from the emitter to the
receiver, crossing obstacles being absorbed to a greater or lesser
extent, according to the characteristics of the materials (Figure 1.59);
and
The pathway, where the airborne sound wave transmitted by solid
bodies (an example is a blow to the wall) which, when produced,
diffuses into the air.

A conference room, 2019.

Source: Photograph of the author.

The main objective is to isolate itself from noise, complying with two
principles which is to prevent transmission, favoring isolation or prevent

heavier a material is, the greater capacity insulation will have. Protecting
from outside sound is very different from damping noise generated from
inside.
There are different ranges of noise, from low to very high or harmful to
humans, it is considered that in residential areas or hospitals, it should be
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 79

maintained between 25 decibels (dB) to 40 dB, but even a normal conversa-

tion between two people can reach 60 to 65 dB, if people are speaking low or
whispering, 40 to 20 dB are achieved, it also depends on the tone of people’s
voice. There are urban regulations that recommend less than 80 dB.
It is advisable not to exceed 30 dB at night, but a peak of 40 dB is accept-
able, although 30 dB can disturb the sleep of a sensitive person. Due to each
activity the levels vary (Table 1.14).

Noise Level (Reference Values)

Levels in Origin Objective Subjective
Decibels Feeling Feeling
(dB)
160 Toy gun near the ear Risk of Pain
perforation of the
eardrum
125 to 140 Aircraft, shotgun firing Almost intolerant Pain
130 Jet engines start at 50 meters Pain threshold Big hassle
110 to 125 Truck engine, runway, sirens, explosion Very irritating Big hassle
95 to 110 Dance music and motorbike motor, drill, Very irritating Big hassle
horn, disco, shooting
80 to 95 Car engine, industry noise, traffic, bell, rail Irritating Annoying
traffic
65 to 80 Noise from washing machine, vacuum Little irritating, Tolerable
cleaner, noisy traffic stress
60 to 70 Noise of the day, street traffic, call, loud Little irritating, Tolerable
music stress
50 to 65 Radio music, office, loud talk, door knock Little irritating, Soft
borderline stress
35 to 50 Conversations in offices or public places, Little irritating Soft
crowded room, lively conversation, radio,
and television
30 to 40 Living room, quiet conversation, room Little irritating to Soft
volume quiet
20 to 35 People chatting quietly, library, dripping Silent Pleasant to
faucet, rain, the clock ticking annoying if
constant
20 or less Birdsong, very soft outside sounds Silent Pleasant
10 to 20 Quiet bedroom, wind, whisper Silent Pleasant
0 to 10 Breathing Audible threshold
Source: Own elaboration; Molar Source (2014); and Technical Measurement Standard in
Baubiologie SBM (2015).
80 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

The factors that must be considered to achieve acoustic comfort are

(Molar, 2014) in Table 1.15:
Sound pressure level;
Type of noise;
Characteristics of the receiving subject;
Characteristics of the task or activity;
Characteristics of the place or space.

Acoustic Environmental Quality Inside the Home

Interior Space Daytime Period Night Period Observations
(7 to 22 h) (22 to 7 h)
Bedrooms 35 to 40 dB 20 to 30 dB The control will depend on the
(although it orientation of the intimate area,
is difficult to its proximity to an external source
measure below and the material of the envelope,
35 dB) requires more control to achieve
this level.
Living rooms 40 to 45 dB 35 dB It is a space where certain noises
can be accepted.
Service areas 50 to 55 dB 40 dB Noise generator.
Common zones 50 decibels There is no Noise generator.
range
Source: Own elaboration based on Molar (2014).

The environment plays an important role to achieve the adequate decibels

inside the buildings (Table 1.16).

Recommendations for an Acoustic Environmental Quality of the Environment

Source Place By Day (dB) By Night (dB)
Traffic noise Near streets and railways near 59 49
residential area
Mixed zones 64 54
Source: Own elaboration based on the Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie
SBM (2015).

There are 10 decibels of difference between day and night, which are
recommended to maintain and ensure that the interior of the houses do not
have noise pollution that harms health. But this is sometimes not possible to
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 81

achieve, there are subdivisions built very close to sound sources that are loud
and constant.
A healthy young person hears frequencies from about 20 Hz to 20 kHz,
and especially the medium ones between 1 and 5 kHz. Infrasound and ultra-
sound are called low and high frequency sound events below 20 Hz and
above 20 kHz, which are no longer perceived by the ear, but are felt by many
people, often unpleasantly that may affect people’s health as indicated in the
Technical Measurement Standard in Baubiologie SBM (2015).

This is sometimes omitted when designing, especially when it is produced

in series, it is forgotten that people are different and that each one has
an emotional and psychological need to cover, the role of a space works
indirectly to generate sensations (basic and immediate experiences) and
perception (which is perceived through the senses and interpreted) of what
surrounds them, resulting in a positive or negative reaction in people. The
psychology of color, natural, and artificial light in combination with the
shape of the space or elements of the surroundings must be considered, since
these can evoke different memories in each person and provoke a perception
of openness or narrowness (Figures 1.60 and 1.61).

A zenithal light, color, and regular form, 2005.

Source: Photos by the author.
82 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Natural light from the window, organic shapes in slabs and textures, 2006.
Source: Photos by the author.

The use of color in spaces is not only an art, it is a science, you must

and how it behaves in each space, both indoors and outdoors, as you
can appreciate in the works of great architects like Barragán, the classic
yellow space in one of their houses where the light at the entrance gives
a feeling of warmth and mystery, for some and for others the feeling
could be another. At the same time, the materials used in combination

connection of the inhabitants with the space they inhabit (Figures 1.62
and 1.63).
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 83

Natural light in the morning outside a house, 2020.

Source: Photographs of the author.

Artificial light in a closed space, 2009.

Source: Photographs of the author.
84 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

Natural light should not only be considered in terms of savings, but also
in terms of the mood of those who inhabit it, so as not to increase stress
and improve their mood when carrying out an activity, leisure, or simple
contemplation.
The materials not only surround or limit a space, but also play a role in
the sensations that can be generated, visual, and sound, the materials used

refraction, some will have attributes, even give off odors, natural materials
such as wood and earth have that particularity, but currently there are new

drink, for example, a block made from bottles of plastic mixed with coffee
husks gives off that typical smell, which for some will give a distinctive and
pleasant tone to the space. There are even surfaces that keep the smell of
what is done constantly in a particular space; therefore, spaces sometimes
become protagonists that give an esthetic quality through the senses of the
user who inhabits it (Figure 1.64).

The interior of a patio in a house in Saltillo, Coahuila, 2019.

Source: Photograph of the author.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 85

Therefore, it depends on the baggage of each one, their culture, knowledge,

experiences, and their tastes what makes each individual different even within
the same group, which for someone may be comfortable and not comfortable
for others. The word house is not the same as home since the latter implies the
sentimental factor (Figure 1.65). This is also part of inhabiting, by valuing the
space through experiences, the sense of appropriation of making it their own
and an extension of their being, representing the personality of the person who
inhabits the space leaving its essence (Figures 1.66 and 1.67).

The interior space of a house in Saltillo, Coahuila, 2019.

Source: Photograph of the author.

An intime space of a house, 2006.

Source: Photograph of the author.
86 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

A Moroccan Synagogue, 2005.

Source: Photograph of the author.

The way of living in a space generates symbols in architecture, responding

to the context and environment of the occupant or the person who appreci-
ates it, even when it is from another point (Figures 1.68 and 1.69).

A Friedensreich construction in Vienna, 2008.

Source: Photograph of Macedo.
The Role of Architecture to Achieve Well-Being 87

Pedrera de Gaudi in Barcelona, 2007.

Source: Photograph of the author.

The experience of space has as its protagonist, the person who inhabits
it (Figures 1.70 and 1.71) who builds mental symbols, giving meaning and
value to the things that surround him, obtaining emotions and feelings as
a result, which constitute a scenario where architecture is involved, where
each space, color, texture, light, and smells will communicate a message

otics is, every human being intends to build a home where the sense of
appropriation, shelter, and comfort are not limiting (Robles, 2016) and
for each individual the experience and expectations will result in different
assessment levels.
88 Architecture for Health and Well-Being: A Sustainable Approach

A bridge designed by Zaha Hadid in Zaragoza for the expo ZH2O, 2008.
Source: Photographs of the author.

The Central Plaza MQ in Vienna, 2008.

Source: Photographs of the author.