BACHELOR OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS EDUCATION

MAT 310 –MATHEMATICS II

MODULE 3

BY

MZUMARA IM.

REVISED BY …………………………

(2022)

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 COPYRIGHT
© 2022 KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY

Central Province- Zambia

All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

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 Acknowledgements

The Management of Kwame Nkrumah University wishes to thank the valuable contributions of
the staff mentioned below towards the successful production of this module:

Author: Mzumara Ian Mbakaya -0977727799 (Distance Education Coordinator/Senior Lecturer-

Mathematics (Malcolm Moffat College of Education College of Education)

Director: Dr. Chikwanda Trinity- 0977867600 (Kwame Nkrumah University)

Course Coordinator: Sister Zulu Hortensia- 0975755165 (Head of Department-Mathematics,

Kwame Nkrumah University).

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Contents
UNIT 1: MATRICES .................................................................................................... 7
1.0 Introduction......................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Definition of a Matrix ........................................................................................... 7
1.2 Order of a Matrix ................................................................................................. 8
1.3 Locating the positions of elements in a matrix ...................................................... 8
1.4 Square matrix ...................................................................................................... 9
1.5 Equal Matrices ..................................................................................................... 9
1.6 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices ................................................................. 10
1.7 Multiplication of Matrices................................................................................... 12
1.9 The Identity Matrix ............................................................................................ 16
1.10 Transpose of a Matrix ...................................................................................... 17
1.11 Algebra of Matrices .......................................................................................... 18
1.12 Determinant of a × matrix........................................................................... 20
1.13 Inverse of a × matrix ................................................................................... 23
1.14 Solving systems of Equations in two variables using Matrices .......................... 25
Unit Summary ......................................................................................................... 30

UNIT 2: VECTORS .......................................................................................................................................... 31

2.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 31
2.1 Magnitude of a vector: ........................................................................................ 31
2.2 Equal vectors: .................................................................................................... 32
2.3 Scalar multiplication: ......................................................................................... 32
2.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors: ................................................................... 32
2.4 Vector Geometry ................................................................................................ 33
Unit Summary ......................................................................................................... 37

UNIT 3: COORDINATE GEOMETRY .................................................................................................................... 38

3.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 38
3.1 General Graph Terms......................................................................................... 38
3.2 Gradient: ........................................................................................................... 38
3.3 Straight Line Graphs.......................................................................................... 39
3.4 Constant graphs ................................................................................................ 39
3.5 Linear Graphs.................................................................................................... 39

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 3.6 Curve Graphs .................................................................................................... 40
3.7 Quadratic graphs ............................................................................................... 40
3.8 Other Graphs..................................................................................................... 43
Unity Summary ...................................................................................................... 44

UNIT 4: STATISTICS .............................................................................................................................................. 45

4.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 45
4.1 Definition of statistics ........................................................................................ 45
4.2 Two kinds of Statistics ....................................................................................... 45
4.3 Descriptive Statistics ......................................................................................... 45
4.4 Inferential Statistics ........................................................................................... 46
4.5 Types of Data ..................................................................................................... 46
4.6 Characteristics and Importance of Statistics ...................................................... 46
4.7 Importance of Statistics ..................................................................................... 46
4.8 Collection and Presentation of Data ................................................................... 47
4.9 Frequency Distribution for Grouped Data .......................................................... 49
4.10 Histogram ........................................................................................................ 50
4.11 Measures of central tendency ........................................................................... 53
4.12 Standard Deviation and Variance ..................................................................... 58
4.13 Definition and Computation of Standard Deviation and Variance. .................... 58
4.14 Standard deviation for grouped data: ............................................................... 59
4.15 Cumulative Frequency ..................................................................................... 61
Unit Summary ......................................................................................................... 64

UNIT 5: PROBABILITY ........................................................................................................................................... 65

5.0 Introduction....................................................................................................... 65
5.1 Definition of probability ..................................................................................... 65
5.2 Theoretical and experimental probability ............................................................ 66
5.4 Laws of probability ............................................................................................. 67
5.5 The addition law of probability ........................................................................... 67
5.6 The multiplication law of probability .................................................................. 69
5.7 Mutually exclusive events .................................................................................. 71
5.8 Independent Events ........................................................................................... 71
5.9 Dependent Events: ............................................................................................. 72
5.10 Tree Diagrams ................................................................................................. 72
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 Unit Summary ......................................................................................................... 74

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................................ 75

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AIM
To introduce students to concepts which will act as foundation for the study of advanced
mathematics courses.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Demonstrate understanding of matrices and its application.

2. Demonstrate understanding of calculus.
3. By the end of the course students should be able to:
4. Demonstrate understanding of sampling distributions and estimations
5. Explain what is meant by confidence intervals,
6. Conduct hypothesis testing,

UNIT 1: MATRICES
1.0 Introduction
This unit introduces you to matrices. The concept of a matrix was first discovered by James Joseph
Sylvester in 1850. The matrices were first used as a means of storing information. They have many
applications not only in mathematics but also in social, biological sciences and statistics.

1.1 Definition of a Matrix

I have no slightest doubt that you have on daily basis seen numbers in various tables in newspapers,
Televisions, computers, phones or other documents such as those used to present football league
results, locally and internationally.
Let us look at the results of 6 matches played by the 3 English Football teams indicated in the
league table below:

Team Win Draws Losses

Kabwe Worries FC 3 1 2
Nkana FC 4 0 2
Zesco United FC 2 4 0

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If you observe carefully, the numbers in the table are arranged in rows and columns. In
mathematics, we usually enclose such an array of numbers in parentheses or brackets and call it as
a matrix. Therefore, a matrix is defined as a rectangular array of numbers.
The numbers in a matrix are called as elements or entries. A matrix is always denoted by a capital
letter.
From the table above, the results of the 3 English football teams can be presented in a matrix form
as follows:

3 1 2
= 4 0 2
2 4 0

1.2 Order of a Matrix

The matrix above has 3 rows and 3 columns. We say that the order is a 3 × 3 (‘3 by 3’) matrix.
Therefore, in general the order of a matrix with rows and columns is called a × matrix.
Discuss with your colleagues to find the order of each of the following matrices:
3 −4
( ) 4 −7 (ii) 0 2 ( )
1 7 0
3 2 −8 −3 5
1 6
From your discussion with your colleagues, you might have arrived at the following:
Matrix (i) has 2 rows and 2 columns; we call it a 2 x 2 (‘2 by 2’) matrix.
Matrix (ii) has 3 rows and 2 columns, so you say it is a 3 x 2 (‘3 by 2’) matrix and
Matrix (iii) is called a 2 x 3 (‘2 by 3’) matrix because it has 2 rows and 3 columns.

1.3 Locating the positions of elements in a matrix

Is it possible that you can locate the position of a particular element in a matrix? The answer to
this question is yes, you can locate the position of an element in a matrix, simply by stating its row
position and column position.
Let us consider matrix B below:

1 −4
= 0 8
9 6

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(i) the position of 1 in matrix B is in first row and first column
(ii) the position of 8 in matrix B is in second row and second
column.
(iii) the position of 0 in matrix B is in second row and first
column.
I am sure now on your own, you can locate the positions of -4, 9 and 6, in matrix B. Try!

1.4 Square matrix

Any matrix which has the same number of rows as columns is called a square matrix such as a 2
x 2 matrix and a 3 x 3 matrix, where m = n.
Examples
2 3 −4
1 3
(i) = (ii) = −1 5 6
2 −4
1 −2 −3
2 ×2 3 × 3

1.5 Equal Matrices

Two matrices are said to be equal IFF (if and only if) they have the same elements in
corresponding positions.
Examples
1 2 3 1 2 3
1. If = and = , then
−5 4 6 −5 4 6

1 2 3 1 2 3
=
−5 4 6 −5 4 6
=
4 −3
−3 1 4
2. If = and = 0 2 ,
0 2 5
1 5
From your own observation, what can you say about C and D?

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ACTIVITIES
1. Find the order of each of the following matrices:

5 4
() −2 1 ( ) ( ) (2
3 −4 −1 7)
6 0
−1 2
2. Find the positions of each of the given elements in
the following matrices:

2 4 −2
( ) −4 and 8 in 1 3 7
5 −4 8

( ) 3 and 2 in 1 −3 0
−4 2 3

1.6 Addition and Subtraction of Matrices

We can add or subtract two matrices if and only if they have the same number of rows and columns.
This implies that you can add two matrices by adding their corresponding elements. Similarly, you
can subtract one matrix from another by subtracting the corresponding elements.
So, you can add a 2 x 2 matrix to a 2 x 2 matrix and you can subtract a 3 x 3 matrix from a 3 x 3
matrix, and so on.

Let us now consider the following examples:

Examples
1. Evaluate:
1 0 −1 0 1 1
2 1 6 −5
() + ( ) 2 1 2 − 2 1 −3
3 −4 1 −7
3 1 −2 0 1 2
2. Given that:
1 5 0 1 6 0
= , = and =
3 2 4 3 8 7
Find: ( ) + ( ) − ( ) ( + )−

Solutions

1 0 −1 0 1 1
2 1 6 −5
1. ( ) + ( ) 2 1 2 − 2 1 −3
3 −4 1 −7
3 1 −2 0 1 2

10 | P a g e
 2+6 1 + (−5) 1−0 0−1 −1 − 1
= = 2−2 1−1 2 − (−3)
3+1 −4 + (−7)
3−0 1−1 −2 − 2

1 −1 −2
2+6 1−5
= = 0 0 2+3
3+1 −4 − 7
3 0 −4

1 −1 −2
8 −4
= = 0 0 5
4 −11
3 0 −4

2. ( ) + ( ) −

1 5 0 1 0 1 6 0
= + = −
3 2 4 3 4 3 8 7

1+0 5+1 0−6 1−0

= =
3+4 2+3 4−8 3−7

1 6 −6 1
= =
7 5 −4 −4

( ) ( + )−

1 5 0 1 6 0
= + −
3 2 4 3 8 7

1 6 6 0
= −
7 5 8 7

−5 6
=
−1 −2

ACTIVITY

1. Evaluate:

() 1 −2
+
−8 9
7 5 3 −2

10 −7 −9 2
( ) −
−5 4 1 −3

11 | P a g e
 1 8 4 0 3 −1
( ) 6 5 1 + −4 1 1
2 0 2 2 0 5

1 8 4 0 1 −3
( ) 6 5 1 − −2 1 1
2 0 2 2 4 3

2. Given that:

2 −3 −2 1 4 2
= , = and =
1 4 −1 7 5 3

Find: ( ) + ( ) − ( )( + )+

1.7 Multiplication of Matrices

Two matrices can be multiplied if and only if the number of columns in matrix A equals
the number of rows in matrix B. In other words, if A is a × matrix and B is a × matrix,
then A and B can be multiplied and we say that A and B are conformable in the order AB.

Examples

1 −1
−1 2 2
Given that = 3 4 , = , = , and
3 1 3
−1 5

1 2 3
=
6 0 4

Find:
() ( ) ( ) B

Solutions
()
1 −1
−1 2
3 4
3 1
−1 5

You may observe that A is a 3 × 2 matrix and B is a 2 × 2 matrix. Now, since the number of
columns in matrix A is equal to the number of rows in matrix B, the two matrices can be multiplied

12 | P a g e
in the order AB and they are conformable. The product of the two matrices is a 3 × 2 matrix (3 ×
, × 2 = 3 × 2). To find the product of the two matrices, we always multiply rows of matrix
A by columns of matrix B and add.

1 −1
−1 2
3 4
3 1
−1 5
(1 × −1) + (−1 × 3) (1 × 2) + (−1 × 1)
= (3 × −1) + (4 × 3) (3 × 2) + (4 × 1)
(−1 × −1) + (5 × 3) (−1 × 2) + (5 × 1)
−1 + (−3) 2 + (−1)
= −3 + 12 6+4
1 + 15 −2 + 5
−4 1
= 9 10
16 3
( )
−1 2 2
3 1 3

2 × ×1

The product of BC is a 2 × 1 matrix.

−1 2 2
3 1 3

(−1 × 2) + (2 × 3)
=
(3 × 2) + (1 × 3)

2+6
=
3+3

8
=
6

( )

1 2 3 −1 2
6 0 4 3 1

2×3 2×2

13 | P a g e
In (iii) above, you may observe that D is a 2 × 3 matrix and B is a 2 × 2 matrix. Now, since the
number of columns in matrix D is not equal to the number of rows in matrix B, the two matrices
cannot be multiplied in the order DB because they are not conformable. But check if they can be
multiplied (or if they are conformable) in the order BD.

1.8 Scalar multiplication of a Matrix

If you multiply a constant (also called as a scalar) with a matrix, then you will obtain another
matrix where each element has been multiplied by .

Examples

2 −3 6 11
If = and = .
4 5 5 4

Find:

( ) 3 ( )2 +5 ( ) −5 ( ) +3

Solutions

(a) 3 ( )2 +5

2 −3 2 −3 6 11
=3 =2 +5
4 5 4 5 5 4

6 −9 4 −6 30 55
= = +
12 15 8 10 25 20

34 49
=
33 30

(c) −5
2 −3 6 11
= −5
4 5 5 4
2 −3 30 55
= −
4 5 25 20

14 | P a g e
 −28 −58
=
−21 −15

( ) +3
2 −3 2 −3 2 −3
= +3
4 5 4 5 4 5

(2 × 2) + (−3 × 4) (2 × −3) + (−3 × 5) 6 −9

= +
(4 × 2) + (5 × 4) (4 × −3) + (5 × 5) 12 15

4 + (−12) −6 + (−15) 6 −9
= +
8 + 20 −12 + 25 12 15

−8 −21 6 −9
= +
28 13 12 15

−2 −30
=
40 28

ACTIVITY

1. Evaluate:

() 2 1 −1 4 −1 4 2 1
( )
−3 2 0 2 0 2 −3 2
1 5 −4 5
( ) 4 −1 3 1
0 0 −2 3
2 −1 6 8 1 7
( ) 3 5 −2 2 −3 1
−4 6 −2 1 1 −2
2. Given that:

1 −2 3 2
= and =
3 4 0 5

Find: ( ) ( ) + (iii) 4 + 3

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1.9 The Identity Matrix
A square matrix with ones along the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere is called the identity (unit)
matrix and is denoted by I.
1 0
(i) The matrix is called the 2 × 2 identity matrix.
0 1

1 0 0
(ii) The matrix 0 1 0 is called the 3 × 3 identity matrix.
0 0 1

The identity matrix plays the same role in matrices as the number 1 does in the multiplication of
numbers.
In the case of the identity matrix, multiplication is commutative, = = .
Examples
1 2 −1
2 4
If = and = 3 1 −4
−3 2
−6 1 2
Find: ( ) ( )
Solutions

()

1 0 2 4
=
0 1 −3 2

(1 × 2) + (0 × −3) (1 × 4) + (0 × 2)
=
(0 × 2) + (1 × −3) (0 × 4) + (1 × 2)

2+0 4+0
=
0 + (−3) 0+2

2 4
=
−3 2

(ii)

1 0 0 1 2 −1
= 0 1 0 3 1 −4
0 0 1 −6 1 2

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 1+0+0 2+0+0 −1 + 0 + 0
= 0+3+0 0+1+0 0 + (−4) + 0
0 + 0 + (−6) 0+0+1 0+0+2

1 2 −1
= 3 1 −4
−6 1 2

Now, with your colleagues, find and and verify that = and = .

1.10 Transpose of a Matrix

If you have a matrix A and take its first row and write this as the first column, then take its second
row and write this as the second column and so on, the resulting matrix is called the transpose of
matrix A. In short, we find the transpose of a matrix by interchanging its rows and columns. The
transpose of a matrix A is denoted by .
Examples
2 −1 1
1 2
If = and = 1 4 −1 , find
3 −4
3 6 2
() ( )
Solutions
() ( )
2 1 3
1 3
= −1 4 6
2 −4
1 −1 2

ACITIVITY
1. Work out each of the following:

() 1 0 −3 1
0 1 6 −2

4 8 3 1 0 0
( ) −1 6 −5 0 1 0
2 −4 6 0 0 1

2. Find the transpose of each of the following

matrices:
17 | P a g e
 3 2 −3
() 8 3
= ( ) = 0 4 7
−1 1
−1 5 9

1.11 Algebra of Matrices

In this section, we are going to look at how we can solve simple matrix equations:

Let us look at the work below:

Example

Find that satisfy the following matrix equation:

3 0 5 3
−4 −5
−2 = 2
0 2
0 1

Solutions

0 3 5 3
−4 −5
−2 = 2
0 2
0 1
y(3) + (−4)(x) + (−5)(0) y(0) + (−4)(−2) + (−5)(1) 5 3
=
x(3) + (0)(x) + (2)(0) x(0) + (0)(−2) + (2)(1) y 2

3y − 4x + 0 0 + 8 − 5 5 3
=
3x + 0 + 0 0 + 0 + 2 y 2

3 −4 3 5 3
=
3 2 2

3 − 4 = 5 .....................i

3 = ........................... ii

Taking equation (ii) and substitute it in equation (i), we have,

= 3 ................. (ii)

18 | P a g e
 3 − 4 = 5 .......... (i)

3(3 ) − 4 = 5

9 −4 =5

5 =5

=1

Now solving for , we have;

=3

= 3(1)

= 3

∴ = 1, =3

Activity

Find the values of that satisfy each of the

following matrix equations:

−1 2 − 1
( ) −4 −3 =
0 5 −1 − 1 −5 5

− 2 0 1 0 −3 0
( ) − =
2 3 −1 0 −3 0

3 −2 3 3
( ) 3 0 = 3 3
2 4 10 10

19 | P a g e
1.12 Determinant of a × matrix
The determinant of a square matrix A is a real number. It is denoted by det or | |. We can find
the determinants of a 2 × 2 matrix and a 3 × 3 matrix. But, in this unit we are only considering
the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix.

If =

det =

det = −

Examples
Find the determinants of each of the following matrices:
5 4 2 1
() = ( ) =
2 3 −3 2
Solutions

() 5 4 ( ) −2 1
= =
2 3 −3 2
= (5 × 3) − (2 × 4) det = (−2 × 2) − (−3 × 1)
= 15 − 8 = −4 − (−3)
=7 = −4 + 3
= −1
Take note that parentheses [ ] or brackets ( ) are used for a matrix and parallel lines | | are
used for determinants.
Example

Evaluate the determinants of:

1 2 1 −1
() = ( ) =
1 3 2 −4

Solutions

() 1 2 ( ) 1 −1
= =
1 3 2 −4

det = (3 × 1) − (1 × 2) det = (1 × −4) − (2 × −1)

20 | P a g e
 =3−2 = −4 − (−2)

=1 = −4 + 2

= −2

A matrix whose determinant is zero is called a singular matrix.

Let us look at the following examples:

Examples

3 6
1. If = , find det
1 2

−2 −1
2. Evaluate: =
8 4

2 3
3. Find , given that = 24
4 1

3
4. Find , given that = is singular.
1 +2

Solutions

3 6
1. =
1 2

det =6−6

= 0

−2 −1 2 3
2. = 3. = 24
8 4 4 1

det = − 8 − (−8) (2 × 1) − (4 × 3) = 24

= −8 + 8 2 − 12 = 24

= 0 2 = 24 + 12

2 = 36

21 | P a g e
 =

= 18

3
4. is singular
1 +2

3
=0
1 +2

( + 2) − (1 × 3 ) = 0

+ 2 −3=0

+ 3 − −3=0

( + 3) − 1( + 3) = 0
( − 1)( + 3) = 0
− 1 = 0 or +3=0
= 0 + 1 or =0−3
=1 or = −3

ACTIVITY

1. Find the determinants of each of the

following:

() 2 5 ( ) 0 1
= =
−1 4 −3 2
( ) 8 −4
=
4 −2

2. Evaluate:

() 0 −2 ( ) 5 10
= =
1 −4 2 4

+1 3
3. Find the value of : = 12
1 +1

−3 1
4. Find , given that = is singular.
4
22 | P a g e
1.13 Inverse of a × matrix
The inverse of matrix denoted by is a matrix which has the property that = =
(identity matrix). Therefore, we can say that matrix is invertible and matrix is non-singular,

| | ≠ 0. If matrix = , then the inverse

−
matrix of A is denoted by = | | − or

= ( ), where | | = − .
| |

Let us now consider the following:

Examples
Find the inverse of:

() 2 −3 ( ) 2 −3
= =
4 −7 −2 4

Solutions

() 2 −3 ( ) 2 −3
= , =
4 −7 −2 4
det = −14 − (−12) det = 8 − 6)
= −14 + 12 =2
= −2 = | |
( . )

4 3
= ( . ) =
| | 2 2

−7 3
= =
−4 2

− 2
= =
− 1 1

−
=
2 −1

23 | P a g e
 (i) As a check, calculating =
2 −3 −
4 −7 2 −1
2× + (−3 × 2) 2×− + (−3 × −1)
=
4× + (−7 × 2) 4×− + (−7 × −1)

7 + (−6) −3 + 3
=
14 + (−14) −6 + 7

7−6 0
=
14 − 14 1
1 0
=
0 1

=
(ii) As a check, calculating =

2 −3 2
−2 4 1 1
(2 × 2) + (−3 × 1) 2× + (−3 × 1)
=
(−2 × 2) + (4 × 1) −2 × + (4 × 1)

4 + (−3) 3 + (−3)
=
−4 + 4 −3 + 4

4−3 3−3
=
−4 + 4 −3 + 4

1 0
=
0 1

24 | P a g e
Activity 7
Find the inverse of each of the following:

() 2 5 ( ) 0 1
= =
−1 4 −3 2

( ) −2 1 ( ) 3 5
= =
−2 3 1 −2

1.14 Solving systems of Equations in two variables using Matrices

Did you know that simultaneous equations could be solved using matrices? In this section, we are
going to look at how we can solve simultaneous equations in two variables using the inverse matrix
method and Cramer’s rule. So, relax and observe what happens!
Solving systems of equations in two variables using the inverse matrix. We have already looked
at how to find the inverse matrix. Therefore, we are now going to use it to solve the simultaneous
equations.
Examples
Solve the following systems of equations using the inverse matrix:
( ) 3 + =7 ( ) 6 −5 = 9
+ =3 4 −3 =7
Solutions
( ) 3 + =7
+ =3
In matrix form, we express the above systems of equations by taking out the coefficients of
as ∶
3 1 7
=
1 1 3
3 1 7
We have two matrices; and .
1 1 3
7
In , 7 and 3 are called constants.
3
3 1
We let = , then det = 3 − 1 = 2
1 1
Now, we find the inverse of matrix A as follows:
= | |
( . )

25 | P a g e
 1 −1
=
−1 3
−
=
−

− 7
= .
− 3

× 7 + (− × 3)
=
− × 7 + ( × 3)

+ (− )
=
− +( )

−
=
− +

2
=
1
∴ =2 = 1
( ) 6 −5 =9
4 −3 =7

6 −5 9
=
4 −3 7
6 −5
Let = , ℎ det = −18 − (−20)
4 −3

det = −18 + 20
det =2
−3 5
=
−4 6

26 | P a g e
 −
=
−

−
=
−2 3

− 9
=
−2 3 7

− × 9 + ( × 7)
=
−18 + 21

+
=
3

=
3
4
=
3

∴ =4 =3

Solving systems of equations in two variables using Cramer’s rule (determinant method)
To use Cramer’s rule, we should find the determinants and find the values of x and y.
Let us consider the following system of equations given by:

+ =
+ =
Where , , , , and and real numbers.
In matrix form, the above system of equations can be written as:

We let = , then det = | |= −

27 | P a g e
Let = , then det =| |= −

Let = , then = −

Using Cramer’s rule, we have

| |
= | |
, = | |

Now, let us consider each of the following examples:

Examples
Solve the following systems of equations using Cramer’ rule:
( ) 4 + 16 = 32 ( ) 3 +5 = 8
4 + = 17 4 − =3
Solutions
( ) 4 + 16 = 32 4 + = 17
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

In matrix form, we have:

4 16 32
=
4 1 17
4 16
Let = , then det = | | = 4 − 64 = −60
4 1
32 16
= , then | | = 32 − 272 = −240
17 1

4 32
= , then = 68 − 128 = −60
4 17

Hence,
| |
= | |
= = 4, = | |
= =1

∴ =4, =1

( ) 3 +5 = 8 4 − =3
↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑

28 | P a g e
 | |
= | |
=

( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )

= 1

= | |
=

( ) ( )
= ( ) ( )

=1

∴ = 1, =1

Activity 8
1. Solve the following systems of equations by
inverse method:
( ) 3 +2 =7 ( ) + 2 = 23
2 −2 = 3 3 + =4
2. Solve the following systems of equations by

Cramer’s rule:

29 | P a g e
 ( )5 +2 =4 ( ) 3 +2 = 1

2 − 3 = 13 3 − 2 = −5

Unit Summary
In this unit, we have dealt with matrices. In particular, we have looked at a square matrix, transpose
of a matrix, the identity matrix of a 2 x 2 matrix and a 3 x 3 matrix. Additionally, we have dealt
with addition, subtraction and multiplication of matrices. Finally, we have also learnt about how
to solve systems of equations in two variables using the inverse matrix and Cramer’s rule.

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UNIT 2: VECTORS
2.0 Introduction
Scalar and vector quantities: There are two types of quantities. A scalar is a quantity that has
magnitude only. A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.
Notation: A vector can be drawn as a directed line. The length of a line represents the magnitude
of the vector and the arrow indicates its direction.

B
This vector can be written as AB .
a
A It can also be written as a .

A vector can be written as a column vector, in the form  x .

 
 y

The top number (x) in a column vector represents movement parallel to the x-axis and the bottom
number (y) represents movement parallel to the y-axis.

Movement to the right and up is positive, and movement to the left and down is negative.

B –4 B
 4
AB   
 3 3 –3
 4 
BA   
A 4 A
  3

C 4 C
 4 
–3 3 DC   
 4  3
CD   
  3 D –4 D

AB  BA CD   DC

2.1 Magnitude of a vector:

This is the length of the vector. The magnitude of vector AB is written as AB .

B
 x
AB   
 y y

A x

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In general, if x
AB    , AB  x2  y2 (∵Pythagoras theorem)
 y

2.2 Equal vectors:

are vectors whose magnitudes and directions are the same. As vectors are usually independent of
position, they can start at any point.
ab

ac
a c
b d
ad a   d 

2.3 Scalar multiplication:

This is done by expressing a vector as a column vector and multiplying each number by the
scalar.
e.g. 4  2  4 8
2     
2  2  2 4
a 2a
 1a
2

 1  4
 4      2
 1  2  
2  2   1  2    1 
 2 

2.3 Addition and subtraction of vectors:

Vectors can be added or subtracted. To add vectors a and b, draw the second vector (b) at the end
of the first vector (a) and draw a new vector from the beginning of a to the end of b.

ab
a b
a
a
b
b b a

ab  b a
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To subtract vectors (a – b), let a + (–b). So the addition above can be applied.

a b
a
ab a
ba
b b
b a

a  b  b  a 

To add or subtract column vectors, add or subtract the top number in each vector, then add or
subtract the bottom number in each vector.

e.g.  2  4
a  b 
  3 2

 2  4  2  4   6  4  2   4  2   6 
ab        ba      
  3   2    3  2    1  2    3   2  3    1
 2   4  2  4    2  4  2   4  2  2
ab        ba        
  3  2    3  2    5   2    3   2   3   5 

2.4 Vector Geometry

Position vectors: are vectors which start at a known point (usually origin), and its finishing point
gives a position relative to that starting point.
e.g. y

A(3 ,2) If the coordinates of A are (3, 2),

 3
OA   
 2
then  3
OA   
 2
O x

33 | P a g e
Vector geometry: Vectors can be used to solve geometrical problems.
D
Example 1 In the figure, find directed line equal to Athe
E
following: (a) AE EC (b) BD DE (c) AB BD DC
B C
(a) AE EC AC (b) BD DE BE

(c) AB BD DC AD DC AC

Example 2 The coordinates of P are (3, –1) and the coordinates of Q are (1, 3). Find the vector

PQ .

 3   1   2 
PQ  PO  OQ   OP  OQ          
  1  3   4 

Example 3 OACB is a parallelogram in which B M C

N
b

O A
a

OA a and OB b . M is the mid-point of BC and N is a point on AC such that AN : NC = 2 : 1.

Express the following in terms of a and / or b.

(a)BC (b)BM (c)OM (d)ON (e)MN

34 | P a g e
 (a) BC  OA  a
(b) BM  1 BC  1 a
2 2
(c) OM  OB  BM  b  1 a
2
(d) ON  OA  AN  OA  2 AC  a  2 b
3 3
(e) MN  MO  ON  OM  ON   b  1 a   a  2 b

 2  3
1 2
 a a bb  a b 1 1
2 3 2 3

Example 4 In the diagram, OP  p , OQ  q , OM  1 OQP

3

and PN : NQ = 3 : 2.
N
p
(a) Express in terms of p and / or q. (i)PQ (ii)ON (iii)PM
X
Q
q
(b) Given that OX hON, express OX in terms of p, q and h.O M

(c) Given also that PX kPM, express OX in terms of p, q and k.

(d) Find the values of h and k.

(a)
(i) PQ  PO  OQ  OP  OQ   p  q

(ii) ON  OP  PN  OP  3 PQ  p  3  p  q   2 p  3 q
5 5 5 5
1
(iii) PM  PO  OM  OP  OQ   p  q 1
3 3

(b) OX  h ON  h  2 p  3 q 
5 5 

(c) OX  OP  OX  OP  k PM  p  k   p  1 q   1  k  p  k q
 3  3

(d) From (b) and (c), h  2 p  3 q   1  k  p  k q .

5 5  3

Compare the coefficients of p and q.

35 | P a g e
 2 h  1 k
5 (i)
3h k
5 3 (ii)

(ii) → k  9h Substitute this for k into (i) 2 h  1 9 h h  5 , k  9

5 5 5 11 11

ACTIVITY
3 1
If a    and b    , find: (a) a + b (b) a – b (c) 3a + 2b (d) a (e) b (f) a  b (g) a  b
2  4 

OA  a andOB b
In △OAB, .
B
(a) Given that M is a point on AB such that AB 3AM,

b
express in terms of a and / or b. (i)AB (ii)OM N
P M

(b) Given that N is the midpoint of OB, express AN

O a A
in terms of a and b.

(c) Given that OMmeets AN at P and AP  hAN,

express OP in terms of a, b and h.

B C

OACB is a parallelogram in which OA aandOB b . b

F
The point E on OA is such that OE : EA = 1 : 2.
O E a A

(a) Express in terms of a and / or b. (i)OE (ii)BE

(b) OC and BE meet at F. Given that BF  k BE,

express in terms of a, b and k. (i)BF (ii)OF

(c) Given also that OF  hOC, express OF in terms of a, b and h.

36 | P a g e
 ) Find the values of h and k.

(e) Find the ratio of OF : OC

OABC is parallelogram in which OA aandOC c . The point D is on AB such that AD : DB = 2

: 1. When the line OD is produced, it meets the line CB at E such that DE hODandBE kCB.
Find: C B E

(a) BE in terms of a and k D

c

(b) DE in terms of a, c and h O A

a

(c) the values of h and k

Unit Summary
A vector is a quantity or phenomenon that has two independent properties: magnitude and
direction. The term also denotes the mathematical or geometrical representation of such a quantity.
Examples of vectors in nature are velocity, momentum, force, electromagnetic fields, and weight.
Vector algebra is useful to find the component of the force in a particular direction. In kinematics
to find resultant displacement vectors and resultant velocity vectors. In mechanics to find resultant
force vectors and the resultants of many derived vector quantities.

37 | P a g e
UNIT 3: COORDINATE GEOMETRY
3.0 Introduction
Cartesian coordinates: give the position of a point in a plane (two dimensions) by reference to
two coordinates axes (the x-axis and the y-axis) at right angles.
The coordinates (x, y) describe the position of a point in terms of the distance of the point from
the origin, (0, 0). i.e. The x-coordinate is the distance of the point from the origin, parallel to the
x-axis and the y-coordinate is the distance of the point from the origin, parallel to the y-axis. The
x-coordinate is always written first.

y
e.g.
4
(2, 3)
3
2 The coordinates of
(–4, 1)
1
the origin are (0, 0)
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
–1
–2
–3
(–3, –3)
–4
(4, –4)

3.1 General Graph Terms

3.2 Gradient:
This is the rate at which y increases compared with x between any two points.
The gradient is usually written as m. (x , y ) 2 2

change in y
(x1, y1) = y2 – y1
y 2  y1 change in x = x2 – x1
gradient (m)  change in y 
change in x x 2  x1

A positive gradient slopes upward to the right.

A negative gradient slopes downward to the right.

positive negative

gradient gradient

38 | P a g e
 y
x-intercept: is the point where the line or curve cuts y-intercept y = f(x)

across the x-axis. At the x-intercept, y = 0.

0 x

y-intercept: is the point where the line or curve cuts x-intercept

across the y-axis. At the y-intercept, x = 0.

3.3 Straight Line Graphs

3.4 Constant graphs
Graphs in which the value of a variable is constant.

e.g. x = h → The line is parallel to y-axis. y x=h

y=k
At any point on the line, x-coordinate is h. k
0 h x
y = k → The line is parallel to x-axis.

At any point on the line, y-coordinate is k.

3.5 Linear Graphs

Graphs in which the relationship between variables is given by a linear equation. In the diagram,
gradient:m
the line has gradient m and cuts the y-axis at (0, c). y
P(x, y)
c is the y-intercept. P(x, y) is any point on the line. y–c
(0, c)
x
Then yc ∴ y = mx + c
m  0 x
x

This is the general equation of a straight line which has a

gradient m and the y-intercept c.

Example 1 State the gradient and y-intercept of the line x + 2y = 2 and draw the line.

Rearrange for y. 2y = –x +2  y   1 x 1
2

Then gradient  1 and y-intercept = 1.

2

39 | P a g e
 To draw a straight line, the coordinates of any two points on the line must be found.

(In most cases, x-intercept and y-intercept are useful.)

Find the x-intercept. At the x-intercept, y = 0. x + 2 × 0 = 2 ∴x = 2

The coordinates of the two points are (0, 1) and (2, 0).
y
Then join them.
1 y   1 x 1
2
O 2 x

Example 2 Find the equation of the line through A(1, 7) and B(–2, –2).

7  2  9 y
The gradient m   3
1   2  3 (1, 7)

The equation is y = 3x + c
0 x
Then find the y-intercept c by substituting
(–2, –2)

x = 1 and y = 7 into the equation.

7=3×1+c c=7–3=4

So the equation is y = 3x + 4

3.6 Curve Graphs

3.7 Quadratic graphs
Graphs in which the relationship between variables is given a quadratic equation. All quadratic
graphs can be written in the form y = ax2 + bx + c. Its shape is that of a parabola.
Example 3 The table below shows some of the values of x and the corresponding values of y for
the equation y = –2x2 – x + 8.
x –3 –2 –1 –1/2 0 1/2 1 2 3

y –7 2 7 8 8 7 5 –2 –13

40 | P a g e
(a) Draw the graph.

(b) By drawing a tangent, find the gradient of the curve at the point (1, 5).

(A tangent is the line which touches the curve at the point.)

(c) Estimate the area bounded by the curve, the x-axis, x = –1 and x = 1.
y
10
(a) Plot these coordinates and draw 8
6
4
a smooth curve through them. 2
0 x
-4 -3 -2 -2 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1
(b) Draw a tangent and find the coordinates of any point
-4
-6
on the line. Now use the x-intercept (2, 0). -8
-10
-12
-14
-16

So the gradient m  0  5  5
2 1
10

(c) Draw two trapeziums in 8

6

which each height is 1 unit. 4

①2 ②
Then find the total area 0
-2 -1 -2 0 1 2

of the trapeziums.

Area = area of ① + area of ②

 1  7  8   1  1  5  8   1  7 . 5  6 . 5  14 unit 2
2 2

If each height of a trapezium is 1/2 unit, a better estimate is obtained.

In general, completing the square

2 2 2 2
y  ax 2  bx  c  a x 2  b x   c  a x  b   a b   c  a x  b   b  4ac
 a   2a   2a   2a  4a

2
This gives the coordinates of the turning point   b ,  b  4 ac  .
 2a 4a 

41 | P a g e
 a>0 forming a ‘cup’ a<0 forming a ‘cap’
y
x b y  b

2 
,  b  4ac 
2a  2a 4a 

axis of 0 x

(0, c) symmetry (0, c)

0 x
 b 2 
,  b  4ac 

 2a 4a  x b
2a

In general, to draw a quadratic graph (y = ax2 + bx + c), find the coordinates of:

(i) the y-intercept = (0, c)

(ii) the x-intercepts = (x, 0) (if it exists and if the expression can be factorised)

(the values of x are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0)

2
(iii) the turning point (the bottom of a parabola) =   b ,  b  4ac 
 2a 4a 

Example 4 Draw the graph of the equation y = x2 + 4x – 5. y

2

First find the y-intercept. c = –5 0 x

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
-2
Find the x-intercept. At the x-intercept, y = 0 -4

-6
0 = x2 + 4x – 5 (x + 5)(x – 1) = 0 ∴x = –5, 1
-8
Find the turning point by completing the square. -10

y = (x + 2)2 – 4 – 5 = (x + 2)2 – 9

So the coordinates of the turning point are (–2, –9)

Plot these points and draw a smooth curve through them.

42 | P a g e
3.8 Other Graphs
Example 5 The variables x and y are connected by the equation y  20  12  x 2 .
x

The table below shows some corresponding values of x and y. The values of y are given correct
to one decimal place where appropriate.
x 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 6 7

y 7 9.8 10 7 1 –7.4 –18 a

(a) Calculate the value of a.

(b) Draw the graph of y  20  12  x 2 for the range of 1 ≤ x ≤ 7.

x

(c) By drawing a tangent, find the gradient of the curve at the point where x = 3.

(d) Using your graph, solve the equation 20  12  x 2  x

x

(a) Substitute 7 for x into the equation. a  20  12  7 2   30 . 7 (to 1dp)

7

(b) Plot the points and draw a smooth curve.

y
15
10 y=x
5
0 x
-5 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
-10
tangent
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35

(c) Draw a tangent and then find the coordinates of the x-intercept. x ≈ 4.5

∴the gradient m  0  7   14
4 .5  3 3

43 | P a g e
 (d) The solution is obtained by solving the simultaneous equations y = 20  12  x 2 and y = x.
x

Draw the line y = x. The point where two lines intersect is the solution. ∴x ≈ 3.6

Unity Summary
 Two lines are parallel if and only if their slopes are equal or both undefined
 Two lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their slopes is –1. That is, one
slope is the opposite sign and reciprocal of the other slope
 Slope – the slope of a non-vertical line that passes through the points
is given by: (x1, y1) and (x2, y2)

44 | P a g e
 UNIT 4: STATISTICS
4.0 Introduction
You will notice that reporters on various media have used numbers in many ways to give
information on wide range of topics, such as population of a given area, sports results, weather
conditions, number of road accidents within a specified period, pass percentages in academic
circles and many other sectors where numbers are used to report on something. These figures
reported are collected from the source and are presented using statistical diagrams for further
analysis by experts in order to make informed decisions. In this unit, you will be introduced to
definition of statistics, statistical instruments used to present collected data and methods of data
analysis.

4.1 Definition of statistics

Statistics deals with the collecting, recording, interpreting, illustrating and analysing of data.
Statistics are used to make decisions and predict what may happen in the future.

Range: Range is the difference between the highest and lowest measure.
Mean: Mean is the sum of all the measures divided by the number of measures.
Mode: Mode is the most frequent measure.
Median: Median is the number in the middle of a set of ordered data.
Variance: Variance measures the distance or spread of data about the mean.
Population: The collection of all individuals, items or data under consideration in a
statistical study.
Sample: This is a set of data collected from a population.

4.2 Two kinds of Statistics

There are basically two kinds of statistics namely descriptive and inferential.

4.3 Descriptive Statistics

This type of statistics consists of methods of organizing, summarizing and presenting information
in a convenient and informative way. Among other things, descriptive statistics include the
construction of graphs, charts, tables and the calculation of various descriptive measures such as
averages and percentiles.

45 | P a g e
4.4 Inferential Statistics
This type of statistics consists of methods of drawing conclusions or inferences about
characteristics of population based on information obtained from a sample of population. It is a
process of making an estimate, prediction or decisions about a population based on a sample.

4.5 Types of Data

In general, data can be classified in two ways namely: quantitative or qualitative.
Quantitative data are observations that are measured on a
numerical scale for example;
a) The number of traffic accidents recorded during a
given period of time.
b) Death rate related to malaria in the country in a year.
Qualitative data are observation that is categorical rather than numerical rather than numerical.
Examples of qualitative data are gender, eye colour, blood etc.

4.6 Characteristics and Importance of Statistics

Some of the characteristics and importance of statistics are discussed below:
Characteristics
 Statistics are aggregates of facts
 Statistics are numerically expressed.
 Statistics are affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes.
 Statistics are enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standard of accuracy.
 Statistics are collected for a predetermined purpose.
 Statistics are collected in a systematic manner.
 Statistics must be comparable to each other.

4.7 Importance of Statistics

a. Statistics is essential for a country. Different policies of the Government are based on statistics.
b. In Astronomy; Astronomy is one of the oldest branches of statistical study. it deals with the
measurement of distance ,sizes, masses and densities of heavenly bodies by means of
observation .

46 | P a g e
c. In Banking; Statistics play an important role in Banking. The Bank makes use of statistics for
a number of purposes. The Bank works on the principle that all the people who deposit their
money with the Bank do not withdraw at the same time.
d. In Business; A successful businessmen must be very quick and accurate in decision making
.Statistics helps businessmen to plan production according to the taste of the consumers, the
quality of the products can be checked using statistical methods.

4.8 Collection and Presentation of Data

When data is collected, it can be presented in many ways such as frequency tables, bar charts,
pictographs, pie charts, histograms, e.t.c. This makes statistical data easy to read and understand.
Frequency table
Frequency table is one of the instruments used to present the collected data. The simplest form of
a frequency table for ungrouped data has basically three columns. The first column is for the
measure under consideration, the second column is for the tally and the third column is for the
frequency.

Ungrouped data.
Example
The following are marks obtained by students in a mathematics quiz which was marked out of 10.
4372748694
6355468227
2433584521
5444741189
Construct a frequency table, and from the table, answer the following;
a. How many students wrote the test?
b. What was the most common mark?
c. How many students obtained more than 5 marks?
d. If the pass mark was 6, how many students would pass?
Solution
Frequency Table

47 | P a g e
 MARKS TALLY FREQUENCY
1 III 3

2 IIII 5

3 IIII 4

4 IIII IIII 10

5 IIII 5

6 III 3

7 IIII 4

8 IIII 4

9 II 2
TOTAL = 40
a. 40 students wrote the quiz
b. The most common mark was 4
c. 13 students obtained more than 5 marks.
d. 13 students would have passed.

Grouped data
Example 2
Given the following set of data, we want to organise data into groups. We have decided that we
want to have 5 intervals.
26 18 21 34 18
38 22 27 22 30
25 25 38 29 20
24 28 32 33 18

48 | P a g e
Since we want to group the data, we will need to find out the size of each interval. To do this, we
must first identify the highest and the lowest data point. From the data above the highest point is
38 and the lowest point is 18. Since we want 5 classes, we must make the computations as follows:

= 4.
Since we need to include all points, we take the next highest integer from that which was computed
to get the length of our interval. Since we computed 4, the length of our interval will be 5. We can
now set the first interval as;
≤ < + 5 which result into 18 ≤ < 23
The next interval is obtained by adding 5 to each end of the first one as follows:
18 + 5 ≤ < 23 + 5 ℎ ℎ 23 ≤ < 28
We continue in this manner to get all of our intervals
18 ≤ < 23
23 ≤ < 28
28 ≤ < 33
33 ≤ < 38
38 ≤ < 43
Now we are ready to make a frequency distribution and it is as follows:

4.9 Frequency Distribution for Grouped Data

Class Interval Tally Frequency
18 ≤ < 23 IIII II 7

23 ≤ < 28 IIII 5

28 ≤ < 33 IIII 4

33 ≤ < 38 II 2

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 38 ≤ < 43 II 2

= 20
TOTAL

Activity

The following marks were obtained by 30 pupils in a mathematics test:

34 34 23 25 28 11 40 22 40
46 25 25 12 32 23 15 28 40

28 32 15 46 40 15 28 32 12

28 12

(a) Construct a frequency table.

(b) Find: (i) mean (ii) median (iii) mode
2. The marks obtained by a class in mathematics
test at the end of the first term are as follows:
83 65 49 42 40 65 65 53 44
62 40 63 49 51 76 74 44 53
46 82 60 70 78 48 78 60 71
44 47 46 49 53 64 53 53 53
Illustrate the above information in a frequency table.

4.10 Histogram
Now that we have the data organized, we want a way to display the data. One such display is a
histogram which is a bar chart that shows how the data are distributed among each data point
(ungrouped) or in each interval (grouped)
Histogram for ungrouped data.
Given the following frequency distribution:

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 N0. TV Sets Frequency

0 2
1 13
2 15
3 3
4 10
5 5

The Histogram would look as follows:

Histogram
16

14

12
FREQUENCY

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of Television Sets

Histogram for grouped data

Using the data given in example 2 above, we can present the grouped data using a histogram as
shown below.

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Histogram
Class interval

5
FREQUENCY

0
< 18 <23 <28 <33 <38

Activity
The grades scored by 30 grades 12 pupils in
mathematics final examination at a particular
school is as recorded below:
6573984434
2821894251
5323787797
Present the data above on histogram.
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4.11 Measures of central tendency
A measure of central tendency is a single value that attempts to describe a set of data by identify
the central position within that set of data. As such, measures of central tendency are sometimes
called measures of central location. The measures of central tendency include; the mean, mode
and median.
Mode.
The mode is the data point which occurs most frequently. It is possible to have more than one
mode, if there are two modes the data is said to be bimodal. It is also possible for a set of data to
not have any mode; this situation occurs if the number of modes gets to be “too large". It is not
really possible to define “too large" but one should exercise good judgment. A rule of thumb is
that if the number of data points accounted for in the list of modes is half or more of the data points,
and then there is no mode.

A data set with a single mode.

Example
The sizes of shoes taken by 30 students in primary diploma class at Malcolm Moffat College of
Education are given below;
5 7 9 4 8 8 10 11 6 7
7 5 10 8 9 11 5 7 9 4
5 10 9 9 9 6 11 7 8 5
What is the mode of the shoe size?
Frequency table
Shoe Size Frequency
4 2
5 5
6 2
7 5
8 4
9 6
10 3

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 11 3
Total = 30
The mode shoe size is 9 because it has the highest frequency of all shoe sizes.
A data set with two modes.
Consider the data below in a frequency table.
You can see from the table that the data points 2 and 3.5 both occur with the highest frequency of
13. So the modes are 2 and 3.5.

Measure Frequency
0 1
0.5 4
1 8
1.5 9
2 13
2.5 10
3 11
3.5 13
4 5
4.5 3

A data set with no mode.

Consider the data below in the frequency table.

Age Frequency
22 12
23 5
24 3
25 9
26 1
27 8

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 28 12
29 12
30 5
31 3
Total 71
You can see from the table above that the data points 18, 24 and 25 all occur with the highest
frequency of 12. Since this would account for 36 of the 71 data points, this would qualify as ‘too
large” a number of data points taken accounted for. In this case, we would say there is no mode.
Median
The median is the data point in the middle when all of the data points are arranged in order (high
to low or low to high). To find where it is, we take into account the number of data points. If the
number of data points is odd, divide the number of data points by 2 and then round up to the next
integer; the resulting integer is the location of the median.
If the number of data points is even, there are two middle values. We take the number of data
points and divide by 2, this integer is the first of the two middles and the next one is also middle.
Now we average these two middle values to get the median.
Example
An odd number of data points with no frequency distribution.
3; 4:5; 7; 8:5; 9; 10; 15
There are 7 data points and = 3.5, so the median is the 4th number, 8.5.

Example
An odd number of data points with a frequency distribution.

Age Frequency
18 6
19 5
20 6
21 2
22 6
23 5

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 24 1
Total = 31

There are 31 data points and = 15.5 so the median is the

16th number. Start counting, 18 occurs 6 times, then 19 occurs 5 times, 20 occurs 6 times getting
us up to entry 17 (12+5); so the 16th entry must be a 20. This data set has a median of 20.
Example
An even number of data points with no frequency distribution.
3, 4.5, 7, 8.5, 9, 10, 15, 15.5

There are 8 data points and = 4, so the median is the average of the 4th and 5th data point,
.
= 8.75. This data set has a median of 8.75.

Mean
The mean is the average of the data points, it is denoted . There are three types of data for which
we would like to compute the mean, ungrouped of frequency 1, ungrouped with a frequency
distribution, and grouped.
Starting with the first type, ungrouped of frequency 1, is when data is given to you as a list and it
is not organized into a frequency distribution. When this happens, we compute the average as we
have always done, add up all of the data points and divide by the number of data points. To write
a formula for this, we use the capital Greek letter sigma ∑ . This just means to add up all of the
data points. We will use n to represent the number of data points.
∑
Mean: =

Example
Given the ungrouped data list below:
10 15 13 25 22 53 47
Find the mean:
∑
Mean: = = = 26.485

Example
Mean for grouped data.
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We will use the data from an example given earlier.
Age Frequency
18 ≤ < 23 7
23 ≤ < 28 5
28 ≤ < 33 4
33 ≤ < 38 2
38 ≤ < 43 2
Total = 20
Start by calculating the representative for each interval which is also known as mid-value.
= = 20.5
Since this is the midpoint of the first interval and the intervals have length 5, we find the
rest by adding 5.

Age Mi-point Frequency (f) Frequency x mid-point

Therefore, the
mean of grouped
(x)
data is given as:
18 ≤ < 23 20.5 7 20.5 × 7 = 143.5
∑
Mean = ∑ 23 ≤ < 28 25.5 5 25.5 × 5 = 127.5

= 28 ≤ < 33 30.5 4 30.5 × 4 = 122.0

= 27.25 33 ≤ < 38 35.5 2 35.5 × 2 = 71.0

38 ≤ < 43 40.5 2 40.5 × 2 = 81.0
Total = = ∑ = .

The data below shows the marks obtained by 88 students in a mathematics test.
Marks 0 ≤ < 10 10 ≤ < 20 20 ≤ < 30 30 ≤ < 40 40 ≤ < 50
Freq. 6 16 24 25 17

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Using the data above, find
a) Estimate of the mean
b) Modal class

4.12 Standard Deviation and Variance

In this section, we are going to look at the measures of dispersion: standard deviation and
variance.

4.13 Definition and Computation of Standard Deviation and Variance.

The standard deviation is a measurement of how much the data varies from the mean. It is a
measure of dispersion, the more dispersed the data, and the less consistent the data is. A lower
standard deviation means that the data is more clustered around the mean and hence the data set is
more consistent. We will denote the standard deviation with the symbol sd.
The formulae for computing the standard deviation for ungrouped data is:

∑( − )²
=

Example
Find the standard deviation for the data set:
6, 7, 10, 11, 11, 13, 16, 18, 25.
∑
First we find the mean = = = 13
It is helpful to show the calculation in a table:

( − ) ( − )²
6 -7 49
7 -6 36
10 -3 9
11 -2 4
11 -2 4
13 0 0
16 3 9

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 18 5 25
25 12 144
Total 280

∑( )²
=

= √31.111

= 5.5776

4.14 Standard deviation for grouped data:

Example

The ages of first year students at a certain college of Education is given below.

22, 18, 24, 28, 31, 21, 41, 39, 22, 27, 35, 32, 37, 36, 32, 26, 19, 20, 29, 30
Find the standard deviation for the ages of the students.
Make a frequency table as shown below:

Age Mid- Freq

Mean =
point(x
∑
(f) = =
∑ )
28. 18 ≤ < 23 20.5 6 123 420.25 2521.50
23 ≤ < 28 25.5 3 76.5 650.25 1950.75
28 ≤ < 33 30.5 6 183 930.25 5581.50
33 ≤ < 38 35.5 3 106.5 1260.25 3780.75
38 ≤ < 43 40.5 2 81 1640.25 3280.50
Total = 20 570 17115.00

Standard deviation = ∑ −

= − 28

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 = √855.75 − 784

= √71.75

= 8.47

Note that the relationship between standard deviation and variance is:

Standard deviation = √

In the example above, variance is 71.75

ACTIVITY

Find an estimate of the standard deviation and variance

of the following:
(a) Lifetime (hours) of components Frequency

300 ≤ < 400 13

400 ≤ < 500 25

500 ≤ < 600 66

600 ≤ < 700 58

700 ≤ < 800 38

(b) Income (1000’s kwacha) Frequency

10 ≤ < 15 9

15 ≤ < 20 16

20 ≤ < 25 22

25 ≤ < 30 8

30 ≤ < 35 5

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 The following set of data was recorded:
30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100
Find:
(a) Mean
(b) Standard deviation
(c) Variance

4.15 Cumulative Frequency

A cumulative frequency is the frequencies added to produce a running total. A cumulative
frequency is used to make estimates.
Cumulative frequency curves: are diagrams obtained by joining the cumulative frequencies
against the upper class boundaries with a smooth curve. (The class boundary is the border
between two class intervals. The upper class boundary divides a class interval from the one
above it.)

Example: Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the data of Example 5.

Redraw the table with two more row for the upper class boundary and the cumulative
frequency.
151– 156– 161– 166– 171– 176–
Heights
155 160 165 170 175 180
Upper
class 155.5 160.5 165.5 170.5 175.5 180.5
boundary
Frequency 2 12 13 12 10 1
Cumulativ 2 + 12 14 + 27 + 39 + 49 + 1
e 2 13 12 10
frequency = 14 = 27 = 39 = 49 = 50

(This table is called a cumulative frequency table.)

Plot the cumulative frequencies against the upper class boundaries and join them

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 50

40
Frequency

30

20

10

0
150 155 160 165 170 175 180
Height

A cumulative frequency can be used to find out further information about the data such as ‘How
many pupils scored more than 75%?’ or ‘How many pupils scored less than 25%?’
Example 8 The table below shows a test marks of 300 pupils.
11 – 21 – 31 – 41 – 51 – 61 – 71 – 81 – 91 –
Marks 1 – 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequenc
6 14 49 70 65 44 29 13 7 3
y

(a) Draw a cumulative frequency curve.

(b) Use your graph to estimate: (i) the median (ii) the interquartile range
(c) Pupils scoring 75marks or more were awarded distinctions. Estimate the number of pupils
who had distinctions.
(d) If a pupil is chosen, what is the probability that his marks will be greater than 65 marks?
(a) Construct the cumulative frequency table.
11 – 21 – 31 – 41 – 51 – 61 – 71 – 81 – 91 –
Marks 1 – 10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Frequency 6 14 49 70 65 44 29 13 7 3
Cumulativ
e 6 20 69 139 204 248 277 290 297 300
frequency

Plot the cumulative frequencies and join them with a smooth curve.

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 300
285
263
250
Upper quartile (Q3)

200
Frequency

Median (Q2)
150

100
Lower quartile (Q1)

50

0
31 42 55
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
M arks

(b) Median = 50th percentile

Upper quartile = 75th percentile Lower quartile = 25th percentile
From the graph,
(i) the median = 42
(ii) the interquartile range = upper quartile – lower quartile = 55 – 31 = 24
(c) The frequency at 75 marks is 285. So 284 pupils were not awarded.
The number of pupils who had distinctions = 300 – 284 = 16
(d) The frequency at 65 marks is 263. So 37 pupils’ marks are greater than 65 marks.

So the probabilit y  37 Sleeping

300
105˚
ACTIVITY Other

120˚
The pie chart shows how a pupil spends a day.
School
(a) What fraction of time is spent for school?
Eating
Homework
(b) How long is the time for sleeping?
(c) If the time for homework is 2hours, what is the angle of sector ‘homework’?
(d) What percentage of time is spent for eating, giving your answer correct to 1dp?
Find (a) the mean, (b) mode and (c) median of the numbers: 6, 5, 4, 6, 7, 3, 4, 8, 2, 6
The table below shows the marks obtained by a class in a mathematics test.
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 10 – 20 – 30 – 40 – 50 – 60 – 70 –
Marks 0–9
19 29 39 49 59 69 79
Frequenc
2 7 23 15 6 3 2 2
y

(a) Draw a histogram.

(b) Find: (i) the number of pupils who wrote the test (ii) the mean of marks
100 pupils were asked the time they took to travel to their school in a city. The results are
shown in the following table:
Time in min 10<x≤2 20<x≤3 30<x≤4 40<x≤5 50<x≤6 60<x≤7 70<x≤8
(x) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Number of
8 17 23 20 15 11 6
pupils

(a) Calculate an estimate of the mean of time taken to travel.

(b) Copy and complete the cumulative frequency table for the time taken to travel.
Time in min
≤20 ≤30 ≤40 ≤50 ≤60 ≤70 ≤80
(x)
Number of
8 100
pupils

(c) Draw a cumulative frequency curve to illustrate this information.

(d) Use your graph to find: (i) the median of time taken (ii) the interquartile range
(e) If a pupils are chosen at random, find the probability that he will take less than or equal to
35minutes.

Unit Summary
In this unit, we have looked at statistics and we have defined it as the collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of numerical data. The main concepts covered in this unit include;
kinds of statistics, types of data, characteristics and importance of statistics, collection and
presentation of data, measures of central tendency and standard deviation. This topic is very
important because it has many applications in real life such as in education to process pupils’
academic results, in national statistics to determine the population growth rate, in economics,
e.t.c.
64 | P a g e
UNIT 5: PROBABILITY
5.0 Introduction
This unit introduces you to Probability. Probability theory began in France in 17th century when
the two great French mathematicians, known as Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat, tried to solve
problems involving games of chance. Today, probability theory is a well-established branch of
mathematics that has many applications in every area of life such as in music, physics, and biology
and in our daily experience such as in weather prediction. This unit is designed to introduce you
to probability ideas and techniques which are necessary for a firm understanding of the topic.

5.1 Definition of probability

Probability or chance involves describing how likely something is to happen. Probability can also
be defined as the numerical measure of the likelihood of an event happening or not happening.
You should know that in any given situation the possibility of a thing that can happen is called an
outcome. An outcome of a particular interest is called an event.

Consider a situation of tossing a coin only two outcomes are possible- head or tail. In this situation
the desired outcome is called a success. Any other outcome is referred to as a failure. Therefore,
the likelihood of a success or of a failure is called the probability of the event. For example, if you

toss a coin the probability that it will land head up is .

Conditional probability: It is concerned with the probability of say event B occurring given that
event A has already taken place.
Dependent events: It is one in which the probability of en event happening affects the probability
of another ever happening.

Experimental probability: Is one in which the exact values cannot be calculated by considering
the physical nature of the given situation.

Independent events: Is one in which the probability of an event happening does not affect the
probability of another event happening.

Mutually exclusive events: These are events which cannot happen at the same time.

Probability: It is the likelihood or chance of it happening.

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Theoretical probability: Is one in which the exact values can be calculated by considering the
physical nature of the given situation.

Probability scale

Estimates of probabilities can be shown on a probability scale ranging from 0 to 1. Probabilities

of 0 means that an event is impossible while a probability of 1 means that an event is certain.
Probabilities can be written in form of a fraction a decimal or a percentage.

0 1

Impossible More likely Certain

5.2 Theoretical and experimental probability

Results of experimental probabilities are not expressed as exact or absolutely accurate events.
Example, if it rained in Gwembe in 9 out of the last 12 October months then statistically the
probability of the rain falling in Gwembe next October is ( 0.75). On the other hand,

the probability of throwing a five on a fair six – sided die is since any one of the six faces is
equally likely. This is an example of a theoretical probability. These are exact values which can
be calculated by considering the physical nature of the given situation.

Examples

1. A six- sided dice is to be thrown. Calculate the probability

that the result will be
(a) An odd number
(b) A number less than 3
(c) A multiple of 3

2. A box contains 5 red balls and 4 white balls. If one ball is

chosen at random what is the probability that it is red?

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Solutions:
1. (a) P (an old number) = =

(b) P (a number less than 3) = =

(c) P (multiple of 3) = =

NOTE: When a fair dice is rolled it means that the outcomes

1, 2,3,4,5 and 6 are equally likely.

2. P (red ball) = =

Note: At random means an outcome is chosen without any

preference.

Activity 1

1. Define the following terms

(a) Probability
(b) Event
(c) Outcome

2. A bag contains while and black shirts. If the probability of drawing a white shirt is what
is the probability of drawing a black shirt?

5.4 Laws of probability

In this section, we are going to look at two laws of probability namely: addition and multiplication
laws.

5.5 The addition law of probability

The addition law of probability is recognized by the word ‘’ or ‘’ joining the probabilities. If ( )
is the probability of event happening and ( ) is the probability of event happening, the

67 | P a g e
probability of happening is given by + . Similarly, the probability of
… happening is given by + + +⋯+

Example1.

A raffle bag contains 2 white cards, 4 red cards and 6 black cards. A card is picked at random.
What is the probability that it is either:

(a) White or red

(b) White or black
(c) White, red or black

Solutions

(a) P(white or Red)

2 4 6
= + = =
12 12 12

(b) P(White or black)

2 6 8
= + = =
12 12 12

(c) P(white, Red or Black)

2 4 6 12
= + + = =
12 12 12 12

Example 2

A bag contains 3 green pens, 5 red and 7 black. Find the probability of drawing in a single try, a
red or a black ball.

Solution

Total number of balls = 3+5+7 =15

= ,

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 =

3 7
∴ = +
15 15

= = =

Note that the probability of drawing a green pen excludes the probability of drawing a black one.
These outcomes cannot happen at the same time. They are said to be mutually exclusive. We add
their probabilities to get a combined probability.

5.6 The multiplication law of probability

The multiplication law of probability is recognized by the word ‘’ and ‘’ joining probabilities. If
is the probability of event happening and is the probability of event happening, the
probability of event happening is given by × .Similarly, the probability of
…… happening is given by × × × …×

Examples

1. A ball is drawn at random from a bag containing 2 white balls and 3 green balls. The colour
of the drawn ball is recorded and the ball is returned in the bag. A second ball is drawn
and its colour recorded. Find the probability of drawing a green ball on the second draw if
a white ball was first drawn.
2. A ball is drawn at random from a bag containing 2 white balls and 3 green balls. The colour
of the drawn ball is recorded and the ball is not returned in the bag. A second ball is drawn
and its colour recorded. Find the probability of drawing a green ball on the second draw if
a white ball was first drawn.

Solutions

1. A tree diagram can be useful in solving this question.

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 2 3
( )= × =
5 5

2. We multiply the probabilities on the required branches

because it is a compound event consisting of two
independent events.
A tree diagram can be useful in solving this question.

2 3 6
( )= × = =
5 4 20

Activity 3
1. A coin is tossed and a die cast, find the probability of a tail on the coin and a six on the
die.
2. Mrs. Ngwee’s hand bag contains 6 red 11white and 7 pink beads. Two beads are picked in
succession from the box and are not replaced. Using a tree diagram find the probability of
picking:
(a) two red beads
(b) two of the same colour
(c) at least one white bead

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5.7 Mutually exclusive events
Mutually exclusive events: are sets of events which cannot occur at the same time.
e.g. The outcomes of tossing a coin
∵Either heads or tails turns up. They cannot occur at the same time.
In general, if A and B are mutually exclusive events,
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B)

This rule is called the addition rule and can be applied to any number of events if they are
mutually exclusive.
Example 2 A box contains 3 red balls, 2 blue balls and 1 white ball. If a ball is picked at random
from the box, what is the probability that it is red or white?
Total number of balls is 6, 3 of these are red and 1 are white.

Pred   3 , P white   1
6 6

 Pred or white   3  1  4  2
6 6 6 3

5.8 Independent Events

Events which have no effect on each other.
e.g. When two dice are rolled, their outcomes are independent.
In general, if A and B are independent events,
P(A and B) = P(A) × P(B)
This rule is called the multiplication rule and can be applied to any number of events if they are
independent.
Example 3 A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random from the
bag and replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from the same bag. What is the
probability that both beads were red?
The two events are independent.

Pred on 1st picking   2 , Pred on 2nd picking   2

5 5

 Pboth red   2  2  4
5 5 25

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5.9 Dependent Events:
Two events are dependent if the first event affects the second event. e.g. If a bead is picked at
random from a bag of red and white beads, and it is not replaced in the bag, the colour of the
second picked bead is dependent on the first event.
The multiplication rule can also be used to find the probability of a combination of dependent
events.
Example 4 A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random from the
bag and is not replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from the same bag. What is the
probability that both beads were red?
If the first bead is not replaced, then there are 4 beads remaining in the bag.
And if the first bead was red, then there are only 1 red bead left in the bag.

So Pred on 1st picking   2 , Pred on 2nd picking   1

5 4

 Pboth red without replacing   2  1  1

5 4 10

5.10 Tree Diagrams

Diagrams on which the possible outcomes of events are written at the ends of ‘branches’.

e.g. (a) A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random

from the bag and replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from the same bag.
(b) A bag contains 2 red beads and 3 white beads. A bead is picked at random from the bag
and is not replaced in the bag. Then a second bead is picked from the same bag.
The information above can be shown below.

2 R 1 R
(a) 5
(b) 4
R R R: Red
2 3 2 3
5 5 5 4 W: White
W W
2 R 2 R
3 5 3 4
5 W 3 5 W 2
5 4
W W
first second first second

Example 5 A box contains 3 blue marbles, 4 red marbles and 5 green marbles. A marble is taken
and is not replaced, and then a second marble is taken.

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(a) Draw a tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes.
(b) Find the probability of taking: (i) two green marbles
(ii) one blue marble and one red marble (iii) two marbles of the same colour
(iv) two marbles of different colours (v) no red marble
(a) The tree diagram is shown below.
B: Blue Outcome
2 B BB There are 3 branches for the first taking of a marble and
11
R: Red
B 4 these are marked on the branches. At the end of each of
11 R BR
G: Green 5
the first branches, there are 3 further branches for the
3 11 second taking of a marble. The probabilities for these
12 G BG
3 B RB branches are different from the first 3 branches because
11
4
R 3 the first marble is not replaced.
12 11 R RR
5
11
G RG
5 3 B GB
12 11
4
11 R GR
G
4
11
G GG
first second

(b) (i) PGG   5  4  5

12 11 33

(ii) PB and R   P BR   P RB   3  4  4  3  1  1  2

12 11 12 11 11 11 11

(iii) P(two marbles of the same colour) = P(BB) + P(RR) + P(GG)

 3  2  4  3  5  4  6  12  20  38  19
12 11 12 11 12 11 132 132 66

(iv) P(two marbles of different colours) = 1 – P(two marbles of the same colour)

 1  19  47
66 66

(v) P(no R) = P(1st not red, 2nd not red)

 1  4   1  4   8  7  14
 12   11  12 11 33

OR If no R is taken, outcomes are BB, BG, GB and GG

P(no R) = P(BB) + P(BG) + P(GB) + P(GG)

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  3 2  3  5 5  3  5  4
12 11 12 11 12 11 12 11
 6  15  15  20  56  14
132 132 33

Activity
If a six-sided die is rolled, find the probability that:
(a) 1 turns up (b) an odd number turns up (c) a prime number turns up
Two fair coins are tossed. Find the probability of getting a heads and a tails.
A bag contains 1 red, 2 yellow and 3 blue beads. A bead is selected and replaced in the bag.
Then a second bead is selected What is the probability of getting:
(a) two yellow beads (b) one red bead and one blue bead (c) no red bead
(d) two beads of the same colour (e) two beads of different colours
Bag X contains 2 white and 3 black marbles. Bag Y contains 3 white and 2 black marbles. A
marble is chosen at random from Bag X and placed in Bag Y without seeing its colour. A marble
is now picked from Bag Y. What is the probability that it is white?
A box contains 2 white, 5 black and 3 red balls. Two balls are drawn from the bag in
succession without replacement.
(a) Draw a tree diagram to show all the possible outcomes.
(b) Find the possibility of getting:
(i) two red balls (ii) one white and one black ball
(iii) one black and one red ball (iv) no black ball
(v) two balls of the same colour (vi) two balls of different colours

Unit Summary
In this unit, we have learnt about probability. Precisely, we have looked at theoretical and
experimental probability, dependent and independent events, mutually exclusive events and finally
we have also looked at conditional probability.

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REFERENCES
1. Backhouse, J.K. and Houldsworth, S.P.T., (1985). Pure Mathematics1 and 2. Longman
group Limited.
2. Backhouse, J.K., Houldsworth, S.P.T., Cooper, B.E.D., Horril, P.J.F., & Wood, J.R.
(1991). Essential pure mathematics. London: Longman group limited.
3. Chandler, S. & Bostock, L. (2000). Core mathematics for advanced level. Cambridge:
Nelson Thornes.
4. Goodman, A.W. (1969). Analytic Geometry and calculus, 2 nd edition. Collier-
MacMillan.
5. Finney, R.L. & Thomas, G.B. (1983). Calculus and Analytic
6. Geometry, Addison-Wesley.
7. Stewart, J. (2003) Calculus: Early Transcendental, 6 th Edition. Tomson-Brooks/Cole
8. Stewart, J. (2003) Calculus: Early Transcendental, 6 th Edition. Tomson-Brooks/Cole
9. Dekking, F.M., Kraaikamp, C., Lupuhaar,H.P., and Meester, L.E. (2005) A Modern
Introduction to Probability and Statistics. Understanding why and how. London:
Sringer-Verlag London Limited.
10. Crawshaw, J. & Chambers, J. (1984). A concise course in A-level statistics. Tanely
Thormes.
11. Spiegel, M., Schiller, J., and Srinivasan, A. ( 2001) Probability and Statistics. Schaum’s
outlines-crash course. Mc Graw-Hill

RECOMMENDED READINGS

1. Haggard, M.G. & Farlow, S.J. (1990) Introduction to calculus with applications. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
2. Kaufman, J.E., (1987) College Algebra and Trigonometry. PWS publishers.
3. Thomas, G.B. and Finney R.L., Analytic Geometry. Addison Wesley Publishing
Company.
4. Pitman, J. (1993) Probability. New York: Springer Science + Business Media, Inc

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 5. Frank,H. & Althoen, S.C. (1994). Statistics-Concepts & applications, Cambridge
University Press.
6. McClave, J.T., Dietrich, II,F.H., & Sincich, T. (1997). Statistics, Prentice-Hall.
7. McClave, J.T. & Dietrich, F.H. (1979). Statistics, Delloen Publishing Company.
8. Walpole, R.E. (1984). Introduction to statistics, Macmillan.
9. Washington, A.J.(1995) Basic technical mathematics with calculus. Addison-Wesley
publishing company.

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