UNIT 9:

PARAMETRICS,
POLARS & VECTORS
 9.1 Parametric Equations and Calculus
Topic 9.1-Defining and Differentiating Parametric Equations

Now that we know how to represent the motion of a particle in the xy-plane using parametric
equations and the parameter of time, t, let’s explore some of the calculus operations needed to
analyze motion. We also know the equation x=f(t), tells us the motion of an object in a right-left
direction, while the equation y=g(t) defines the up-down motion of some object (particle). But, how
could we know when the object reaches a maximum height? Since it is often difficult to eliminate a
parameter, we need to find a formula that could be used to find the instantaneous rate of change from
the parametric equations. Let’s give this new stuff a try!

Parametric Motion

A watermelon is placed on a catapult 5 feet above the ground

and is launched at a 30° angle with an initial velocity of 40
meters per second. Using 𝑔𝑔 ≈ −10 m/s 2 the path of the
watermelon travels along a parabolic path modeled
by the equation and graph:
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥
𝑦𝑦 = − + +5
240 3

By using parameters, we can show where the watermelon

is located at a specific time using the equations:
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 20 𝑡𝑡 3 and 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = −5𝑡𝑡 2 + 20𝑡𝑡 + 5
EX #1: Describe the direction and motion of the watermelon at time 𝑡𝑡 = 2.5

EX #2: For 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0, a particle is moving in the x-y plane is modeled by the parametric equations
15 2
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡 2 − 9𝑡𝑡 and 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 2
𝑡𝑡 + 18𝑡𝑡 . At what time(s), 𝑡𝑡 is the particle at rest?

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 557

 Parametric Form of the Derivative

If a smooth curve C is given by the equations 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡), then the slope of C at (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) is:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

= , ≠ 0.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Topic 9.2: Second Derivatives of Parametric Equations

Higher-Order Derivatives

Second derivative: Third derivative:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
𝑑𝑑 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑3 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
2
= = = =
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 3 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Parametric Form of the Derivative

EX #3: A curve C is defined by the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 2 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

A. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
B. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
C. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
given that
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 558

 D. The curve, C, has two tangent lines at the point 3, 0 , where the curve crosses itself.
Find the equations.

EX #4: Given the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑦𝑦 = 3 sin 𝜃𝜃.

A. Write the rectangular form by eliminating the parameter.

B. Graph the curve on the grid at right.

C. What shape did you get?

𝜋𝜋
D. Find the slope of the curve at 𝜃𝜃 = 3

E. Write the equation of the tangent line through this point (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦).

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 559

 EX #5: Find all points, if any, of horizontal and vertical tangency to the curve.
Use a graphing utility to confirm your results.
Given: 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 + 4 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡

EX #6: Determine the t intervals on which the curve is concave up or concave down.
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡 , 0 < 𝑡𝑡 < 𝜋𝜋

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 560

 Parametric Equations and
9.1 Calculus Homework

𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝒚𝒚
In each of the following parametric equations, find 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 and 𝒅𝒅𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 and find the slope and concavity
at the indicated value of the parameter.
1. 𝑥𝑥 = 5𝑡𝑡 2 , 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑡𝑡 − 4, 𝑡𝑡 = 3

2. 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑡 − 3, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 2 − 6𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡 = 1

3. 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 + 3 , 𝑡𝑡 = 1

𝜋𝜋
4. 𝑥𝑥 = 3 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 , 𝑦𝑦 = 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 , 𝜃𝜃 = 6

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 561

5. Given the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑡𝑡 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 3 + 4.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
A. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2

B. Write the equation of the tangent line when 𝑡𝑡 = 1

C. Determine whether the tangent line lies above or below the curve. Justify.

6. Given the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑦𝑦 = 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 2 𝑦𝑦
A. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
and 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
3𝜋𝜋
B. Write the equation of the tangent line when 𝜃𝜃 = 4

C. Determine whether the tangent line lies above or below the curve. Justify.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 562

7. Use a calculator to graph the curve represented by the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2𝜃𝜃 and
𝑦𝑦 = 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃. Find equations of the tangent lines at the point where the curve crosses itself.

Without using a calculator, find all points at which each curve has horizontal and vertical
tangents.

8. 𝑥𝑥 = 3𝑡𝑡 + 1, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 2 9. 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 3𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 2 − 3

10. 𝑥𝑥 = 2 + cos 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = −1 + sin 𝑡𝑡 11. 𝑥𝑥 = 4 cos 𝜃𝜃 , 𝑦𝑦 = 4 sin 𝜃𝜃

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 563

 9.2 Parametric Equations and Arc Length

Topic 9.3: Finding Arc Lengths of Curves Given by Parametric Equations

Speed, Velocity, Distance and Arc Length

We know that parametric equations can be used to describe the path of an object moving in a
plane. This leads to asking the question, “How far has the object traveled?” A particle moving
along a curve in the plane with parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 , where t is time, has
speed given by:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 2 2 2
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
+ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
or 𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑡𝑡

We can find the distance traveled by the object moving along the curve between two
points 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎 and 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑏𝑏 by integrating its speed. Such that, the distance traveled is
𝑏𝑏
� 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎

Assuming the object never stops or reverses its direction as it moves along the curve, the
distance traveled is the length of the curve.

EX #1: An equation of the form 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) where 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ b has an arc length L of such a curve is
given by the definite integral below. Use the formula below to find the arc length from
𝑥𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥𝑥 = 3 for the function
3
4𝑥𝑥 2
𝑦𝑦 =
3
𝑏𝑏

𝐿𝐿 = � 1 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎

564
 Arc Length in Parametric Form

If a smooth curve C, is given parametrically, such that C does not intersect itself on the interval
𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝑏𝑏, except possibly at the endpoints, then the arc length of C, over the interval is:

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 2 2 𝑏𝑏
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝑡𝑡) 2 + 𝑔𝑔′ (𝑡𝑡) 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑎𝑎

EX #2: Randy the Roach is moving in the xy-plane. At time 𝑡𝑡, his position is given by the parametric
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
equations 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 , where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 3𝑡𝑡 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑡𝑡 2 . Find the distance Randy traveled from
𝑡𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡𝑡 = 15

EX #3: Find the length of one arch of the cycloid with parametric equations:
𝑥𝑥 = 𝜃𝜃 − sin 𝜃𝜃
�
𝑦𝑦 = 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 565

EX #4: For 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0, a particle is moving along a curve so that its
position at time 𝑡𝑡 is 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 , where 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) is shown
in the graph at right. For the particle, 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡 2 ).
Find the speed of the particle at time 𝑡𝑡 = 1.

EX #5: At time 𝑡𝑡, the position of a particle moving in the xy-plane is given by the parametric functions
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 , where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 2𝑓𝑓 ′ (2𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 3 𝑓𝑓(2𝑡𝑡). The function 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 is continuous and
differentiable with selected values shown in the table below. Find the distance traveled by
the particle from 𝑡𝑡 = 1 to 𝑡𝑡 = 5.

t 1 2 3 4 5 10
𝒇𝒇(𝒕𝒕) 0 3 −1 2 6 9
𝒇𝒇′ (𝒕𝒕) −1 1 2 −1 3 −4

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 566

EX #6: At time 𝑡𝑡, the position of a particle moving in the xy-plane
is given by the parametric functions 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 , where
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑡𝑡 2 + sin 𝑡𝑡 2 . The graph of 𝑦𝑦, consisting of 4 line
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
segments is shown at right. When 𝑡𝑡 = 0, the particle is at
the point (4, 0).

A. Find the slope of the line tangent to the path of the

particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 3.

B. Find the speed of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 3.

C. Find the position of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 3.

D. Find the equation of the line tangent to the path of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 3.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 567

 Parametric Equations and
9.2 Arc Length Homework

Show an integral set up and find the length of each arc on the given interval.

2𝑒𝑒 3𝑡𝑡/2 1 1
1. 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = ln 2 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ ln 3 2. 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 2 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 3 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 3
3 2 3

3. 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = cos 2𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = ln 𝑡𝑡 1 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 4 4. 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑡𝑡 − 1 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 1

Show an integral set up and find the speed of the particle on the given interval.

5. 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = cos(2𝑡𝑡 ) , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = sin 2𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 = 2.5 6. 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 + 1, 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 = 2

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Solve each scenario for the given parametric equations.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
7. For time 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0 a particle moves along a curve so that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 12𝑡𝑡 + t
and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= sin 𝑡𝑡 + 3 .
At time 𝑡𝑡 = 3 the particle is at position (55,4), find
A. The speed of the particle when 𝑡𝑡 = 3.

B. The distance traveled by the particle from 𝑡𝑡 = 3 to 𝑡𝑡 = 6.

C. Find the time 𝑡𝑡, 3 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 6, when the line tangent to the path of the particle is
horizontal. Is the direction of the motion of the particle toward the left or the
right at this time? Justify.

D. Find the particle’s position at time, 𝑡𝑡 = 6.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 569

8. For 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0, a particle is moving along a curve so that its position at any time t is 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 .
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑡𝑡+2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
At time 𝑡𝑡 = 2, the particle is at position 3, 7 . Given that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= sin2 𝑡𝑡.

A. Find the slope of the path of the particle at time 𝑡𝑡 = 2. Is the horizontal movement
of the particle to the left or the right at 𝑡𝑡 = 2. Justify.

B. Find the x-coordinate of the particle’s position at 𝑡𝑡 = 5.

C. Determine the speed of the particle at time, 𝑡𝑡 = 5.

D. Find the distance traveled by the particle on the interval 2 ≤ t ≤ 5.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 570

9. A particle moving along a curve in the xy-plane has position 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 at time 𝑡𝑡 with
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= sin 𝑡𝑡 2 and 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡. At time 𝑡𝑡 = 2 the particle is at the position (6, 4).

A. Write the equation of the tangent line to the curve at the point where 𝑡𝑡 = 2.

B. Find the speed of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 2.

C. Find the position of the particle at time 𝑡𝑡 = 4.

D. For what value of 𝑡𝑡, 0 < 𝑡𝑡 < 1 does the tangent line to the curve have a slope of 3?
Find the components of the particle’s acceleration at this time.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 571

 9.3 Vector-Valued Functions
Topic 9.4: Defining and Differentiating Vector-Valued Functions

In this lesson and the next, we will explore the vector form of the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) and
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 , where f and g are continuous functions of t on an interval I. At this point, we have only
considered functions where the domain and range are sets of real numbers, or real-valued functions.
Recall that plane curves were defined by coordinates at time t as 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 . Now we want to
represent motion along a curve by giving a definition to a vector-valued function where the domain
consists of reals numbers and maps the range to a set of vectors.

Definition of a Vector-Valued Function

In two-dimensions, a vector-valued function can be represented in the form

𝐫𝐫 t = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡)
or
𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + g t 𝐣𝐣
Where the component functions f and g are real-valued functions of the parameter t. That is, the
domain of a vector function is the set of all t for which both component functions,
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡) are defined. The domain of a vector function is the intersection of the
domains of the component functions, f and g.

Graphs of Vector-Valued Function

To geometrically represent a vector-valued function in 2- 𝐫𝐫 = 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) (𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡

D, place the vector r = r(t) with its initial position at the y
origin. Then, as t varies, the tip of the “radius vector” r will
trace out the curve C. Since the vector equation 𝐫𝐫 t =
𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡) is a set of parametric equations, C can also be 𝐫𝐫
called the graph of the parametric equations. Arrowheads
𝐶𝐶
along the curve indicate the orientation of the curve at
increasing values of t.
x

EX #1: Express the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡, 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 + sin 𝑡𝑡 as a vector-valued function.

EX #2: Given the vector equation 𝐫𝐫 = t 2 + 1 𝐢𝐢 + ln(2 − 𝑡𝑡) 𝐣𝐣 , find the following:

A. 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡) B. The domain of r

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 Sketching the Plane Curve of a Vector-Valued Function

EX #3: Sketch the plane curve represented by

𝐫𝐫 = 3 cos 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 4 sin 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 , 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋. Use arrows
to indicate the direction. Write the rectangular
equation.

Operations of Vector-Valued Function

Since vector-valued functions are the sum of the parametric components, x(t)+y(t), we can perform
the following algebraic operations. Likewise, limits, continuity and derivatives are also defined.

Sum and Difference 𝐫𝐫1 𝑡𝑡 ± 𝒓𝒓2 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 ± 𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣

𝑘𝑘𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑘𝑘 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣
Scalar Multiplication
ℎ 𝑡𝑡 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = ℎ 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 = ℎ 𝑡𝑡 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + ℎ 𝑡𝑡 𝑔𝑔 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣

Dot Product 𝐫𝐫1 𝑡𝑡 � 𝒓𝒓2 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑔𝑔1 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 � 𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣

(is a scalar) = 𝑓𝑓1 𝑡𝑡 � 𝑓𝑓2 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑔𝑔1 (𝑡𝑡) � 𝑔𝑔2 𝑡𝑡

Limits, Derivatives and Continuity

Limits lim 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) 𝐢𝐢 + lim 𝑔𝑔(𝑡𝑡) 𝐣𝐣

𝑡𝑡→𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡→𝑎𝑎 𝑡𝑡→𝑎𝑎

Derivatives 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑔𝑔′ 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣

A vector-valued function is continuous at a point 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑎𝑎 if

lim 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐫𝐫(𝑎𝑎).
𝑡𝑡→𝑎𝑎
Continuity
A vector-valued function is continuous on an interval
provided r(t) is continuous at every point in the interval.

573
 2
EX #4: Given 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 2 , 3𝑡𝑡 − 2 , 𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐 (𝒕𝒕) = 3𝑡𝑡 2 − 1 , 4𝑡𝑡 , and ℎ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡
. Find the following:

A. 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 (𝑡𝑡) + 𝐫𝐫𝟐𝟐 (𝑡𝑡) B. 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 (𝑡𝑡) � 𝐫𝐫𝟐𝟐 (𝑡𝑡)

C. ℎ(𝑡𝑡) � 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 (𝑡𝑡) D. 𝐫𝐫𝟏𝟏 𝑡𝑡 − 𝐫𝐫𝟐𝟐 (𝑡𝑡)

EX #5: Find the limits, if they exist.

2 𝑡𝑡
A. lim 4𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡 2 −1
B. lim cos 𝑡𝑡 , − sin 2
𝑡𝑡→2 𝑡𝑡→𝜋𝜋

3 sin 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡
C. lim 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 D. lim 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 , 𝑡𝑡 2 +1
𝑡𝑡→0 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡→∞

EX #6: State the interval(s) on which the vector-valued function is continuous.

1 1
A. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 − 1 , − 𝑡𝑡
B. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = ln 𝑡𝑡 + 2 , 𝑡𝑡 2 −4

574
EX #7: Find each of the following.

A. Given 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 3𝑡𝑡 2 , −5𝑡𝑡 ; find 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) B. Given 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑡𝑡 3 𝐣𝐣 ; find 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡)

C. Given 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 3 , 3𝑡𝑡 2 ; find 𝐫𝐫 ′′ (𝑡𝑡) D. Given 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 , 𝑡𝑡 2 ; find 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑡𝑡 � 𝐫𝐫 ′′ (𝑡𝑡)

Derivative Rules

The rules for differentiation of single-variable calculus can be applied to vector functions. There is
also a Product Rule for the dot product. Assume that u and v are differentiable vector-valued
functions of t, and k is a scalar. Then, the following properties are given:

𝑑𝑑
Constant Multiple (Scalar) Rule 𝑘𝑘 𝐮𝐮 t = 𝑘𝑘 𝐮𝐮′ 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
Sum and Difference 𝐮𝐮 t ± 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐮𝐮′ 𝑡𝑡 ± 𝐯𝐯 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Function and Vector 𝑑𝑑

Multiplication 𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 𝐮𝐮(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 𝐮𝐮′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐮𝐮 𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
Product Rule for Vectors 𝐮𝐮 t 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐮𝐮 𝑡𝑡 𝐯𝐯 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡) 𝐮𝐮′ 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
Product Rule for Dot Product 𝐮𝐮 t � 𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐮𝐮 𝑡𝑡 � 𝐯𝐯 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝐯𝐯 𝑡𝑡 � 𝐮𝐮′ 𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑
Chain-Rule 𝐮𝐮 w(t) = 𝐮𝐮′ 𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤 ′ (𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
575
Topic 9.5 Integrating Vector-Valued Functions

Integration Rules

Likewise, given that u and v are continuous on[𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏], then the following rules can be applied:

Indefinite Integral ∫ 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫ 𝐮𝐮 t 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐢𝐢 + ∫ 𝐯𝐯 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐣𝐣

𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
Definite Integral ∫𝑎𝑎 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝐮𝐮 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐢𝐢 + ∫𝑎𝑎 𝐯𝐯 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝐣𝐣

EX #8: Given the functions: 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 2 , 1 ; 𝐮𝐮 𝑡𝑡 = ln 𝑡𝑡, − 𝑡𝑡 , and 𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 , find each of the
following:
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
A. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 � 𝐮𝐮(t) B. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡 𝐮𝐮(t)

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
C. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡) D. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐫𝐫 𝑤𝑤(𝑡𝑡)

EX #9: Find the indefinite integral.

1
A. ∫ 2 𝑡𝑡 − 1 , sin 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. ∫ 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝒕𝒕𝟐𝟐 −1

576
EX #10: Evaluate the definite integral.
3 𝜋𝜋/2
A. ∫0 3𝑡𝑡 2 − 𝑡𝑡 , 4𝑡𝑡 3 + 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 B. ∫0 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + sin 2𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Solving Vector-Valued Differential Equations

EX #11: Find 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = ∫ cos 𝑡𝑡, sin 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 given that 𝐫𝐫 0 = 1, −1

EX #12: If the path of a particle satisfies 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑡𝑡 = 3𝑡𝑡 2 , 6 𝑡𝑡 and 𝐫𝐫 0 = 1, 4 , what is the

particle’s position at 𝑡𝑡 = 4?

577
 Vector-Valued Functions
9.3 Homework

Write the component functions and find the domain of each vector-valued function.

1
1. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡+2 𝐢𝐢 +
2
𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 2. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 − 2 𝐢𝐢 + ln 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣
3

4. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 , ln 𝑡𝑡 + 3
3. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 2 , 9 − 𝑡𝑡 2

Evaluate the vector-valued function at each value of t , if possible.

5. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = cos 𝑡𝑡 , 2 sin 𝑡𝑡 6. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 + 1 , 𝑡𝑡 3/2

A. r
𝜋𝜋 A. r 0
3

B. r 𝜃𝜃 − 𝜋𝜋 B. r −2

C. r
𝜋𝜋
+ ∆𝑡𝑡 − r
𝜋𝜋 C. r 𝑘𝑘 − 1
4 4

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 578

Graph the vector function and give the orientation of the curve.

7. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 3 𝐢𝐢 + t 2 𝐣𝐣 ; −∞ < 𝑡𝑡 < ∞ 8. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 − 3 sin 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋

Find the limit, if it exists.

9. Let 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 , sin 𝑡𝑡 . Find lim 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 10. Let 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 2 , ln 𝑡𝑡 − 3 . Find lim 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
𝑡𝑡→ 𝜋𝜋/3 𝑡𝑡→ 3

sin 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 1
11. Let 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡
, 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 . Find lim 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) 12. Given 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 2 +1
, 𝑡𝑡
. Find lim 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡)
𝑡𝑡→ 0 𝑡𝑡→ ∞

Find 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝐭𝐭) for each vector function.

13. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 3 cos 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡 14. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = sin−1 𝑡𝑡 , sin 2𝑡𝑡

15. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 3/2 , −4 𝑡𝑡 16. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 579

Find the open interval(s) on which the curve is smooth.

𝟏𝟏 18. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = (𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡) , (1 − sin 𝑡𝑡)

17. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑡 2 , on −∞ < 𝑡𝑡 < ∞
𝒕𝒕 − 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 on 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋

Given 𝐮𝐮 𝑡𝑡 = 3𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡 2 and 𝐯𝐯 𝑡𝑡 = 4𝑡𝑡, 𝑡𝑡 3 , use properties of derivatives to find the following:

𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
19. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐮𝐮 � 𝐯𝐯 20. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐮𝐮

Evaluate the integral.

21. ∫ 𝑡𝑡 2 − 2 , −3t 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1

22. ∫ sin 2𝑡𝑡 , 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
4 − 𝑡𝑡 2

2 3 𝜋𝜋/4
23. ∫−1 𝑡𝑡 3 , 𝑡𝑡 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 24. ∫0 sec 2 𝑡𝑡 , (2 sin 𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 580

Find r(t) for the given conditions.

25. Given that 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑡𝑡 = 3𝑡𝑡 2 , 2𝑡𝑡 and 𝐫𝐫 0 = 2, −1

26. Given that 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑒𝑒 2𝑡𝑡 , 3e𝑡𝑡 and 𝐫𝐫 0 = 3, 0

27. Given that 𝐫𝐫 ′′ 𝑡𝑡 = 1, 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 ; 𝐫𝐫 ′ 0 = 0, 2 and 𝐫𝐫 0 = 2, 0

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 581

 9.4 Velocity and Acceleration of Vector Functions

Topic 9.6: Solving Motion Problems Using Parametric and Cevtor-Valued Functions

In this final lesson we can use the concepts of vector-valued functions and parametric equations to
study the motion of an object along a curve. As a particle moves along a curve in the plane, let’s define
the position vector r(t) using the horizontal movement 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) and the vertical movement 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)
as functions of time t. By doing this, we will use the derivatives of r(t) in order to describe velocity
and acceleration of the object.

Definitions of Position, Velocity, Acceleration and Distance

Given that 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) and 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 are twice-differentiable functions of t, the position vector of a particle is
𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + y 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣
The velocity vector, acceleration vector, and speed at time t are stated below:

Velocity: 𝐯𝐯 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐫𝐫 ′ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + y ′ 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣

2 2
Speed: 𝐯𝐯 = 𝐫𝐫 ′ (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑡𝑡

Acceleration: 𝐚𝐚 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐫𝐫 ′′ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑥𝑥 ′′ 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑦𝑦 ′′ (𝑡𝑡)𝐣𝐣

𝑡𝑡=𝑏𝑏
2 2
Distance: � 𝑥𝑥 ′ 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑦𝑦 ′ 𝑡𝑡
𝑡𝑡=𝑎𝑎

The Derivative as a Tangent Vector

The derivative vector 𝒓𝒓′ (𝑡𝑡) points in the

direction that is tangent to the path traced by
the position vector 𝒓𝒓(𝑡𝑡).
We know that

∆𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓 𝑡𝑡 + ∆𝑡𝑡 − 𝒓𝒓 𝑡𝑡
lim = lim
∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆𝑡𝑡 ∆𝑡𝑡→0 ∆𝑡𝑡

∆𝑟𝑟
As ∆𝑡𝑡 → 0, ∆𝑡𝑡 approaches the velocity vector
as shown in the figure at right.
NOTE: Velocity and acceleration are vectors
that have both direction and magnitude.

582
EX #1: An object moves along the plane curve C, described by r t = 3 cos t i + 2 sin t j.

A. Find a rectangular equation that describes B. Find the velocity vector, speed, and the
the object’s motion. acceleration vector.

C. Sketch a graph of the path. Use arrows to D. Sketch the velocity and acceleration
show the direction. vectors at the point (3, 0).

EX #2: Sketch the path of a particle moving along the plane curve given by r t = 4 − t 2 i + t j.
Then, find the velocity and acceleration vectors at t = 1. Sketch them on the graph.

583
EX #3: The position of a particle, at time t, is given by 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑡 3 + 3𝑡𝑡 2 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑡𝑡 2 − 12𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣.

A. Write an equation for the line that is tangent to the path of the particle at the point where 𝑡𝑡 = 1.

B. Find the coordinates of each point where the horizontal component of the velocity is zero.
Assume 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0.

Finding a Position Function

EX #4: Given 𝐚𝐚 𝑡𝑡 = − cos 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 − sin 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 and 𝐯𝐯 0 = 2𝐢𝐢 ; 𝐫𝐫 0 = 𝐣𝐣. Find the position vector.
Then find the position at time 𝑡𝑡 = 3.

584
 Projectile Motion

In Precalculus we solved vertical motion problems using the position function, subject to gravity;
1
𝑠𝑠 𝑡𝑡 = − 2 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑣𝑣0 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑠𝑠0 , where 𝑠𝑠0 is the initial position, 𝑣𝑣0 is the initial velocity, and 𝑔𝑔 is the
gravitational constant of acceleration due to gravity. We use either 32 feet per second per second, or
9.81 meters per second per second.
A projectile with mass m, launched from an initial position
𝐫𝐫𝟎𝟎 and having an initial velocity 𝐯𝐯𝟎𝟎 has a position vector of:

1
𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = − 2 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2 𝐣𝐣 + 𝑡𝑡𝐯𝐯𝟎𝟎 + 𝐫𝐫𝟎𝟎 .

Likewise, the path of a projectile launched from an initial

height h and an angle of elevation 𝜃𝜃, neglecting any air
resistance, is described by the vector function:

1
𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝐯𝐯0 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + − 2 𝑔𝑔𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝐯𝐯0 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑡𝑡 + ℎ 𝐣𝐣

EX #5: At a recent Civil War Reenactment, a cannon charge was fired from ground level at a
60° angle of elevation and an initial speed of 300 feet per second. Find the following:

A. Parametric equation for the cannon ball’s B. The maximum height reached by the
trajectory. cannonball.

C. The horizontal distance traveled by the D. The speed of the cannonball at impact.
cannonball.

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 Velocity & Acceleration of
9.4 Vector-Valued Functions
Homework

Problems 1 -4, The position vector, r(t) describes the path in the xy-plane of a moving object. Sketch a
graph of the path and the velocity and acceleration vectors at the given point.

1. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 4 − 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑡𝑡 + 1 𝐣𝐣 at (2, 3) 2. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 2 sin 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 at 2 , 2

3. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑡𝐢𝐢 + 3 − 𝑡𝑡 2 𝐣𝐣 at 2, 2 4. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = (4 − 𝑡𝑡 2 ) 𝐢𝐢 + 2t 𝐣𝐣 at (0, 4)

Problems 5 - , Given the acceleration vector, find the velocity, position and speed at 𝑡𝑡 = 0.

5. 𝐚𝐚 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + sin 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 where 𝐫𝐫 ′ 0 = 2𝐣𝐣 and 𝐫𝐫 0 = 𝐢𝐢

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 586

Problems 6-10: The velocity of an object in motion in the xy-plane for 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 4 is given by the
1
vector 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 𝑖𝑖 + 3𝑡𝑡 2 + 2𝑡𝑡 2 𝑗𝑗 . When 𝑡𝑡 = 1, the object was at the origin.
Find the following:

6. Find speed at 𝑡𝑡 = 4 7. Find the acceleration vector.

8. Find the position at 𝑡𝑡 = 4

9. When is the object at rest? 10. Find the total distance traveled by the object
on the interval 1 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 4.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 587

 1
Problems 11 – 12, A particle whose path satisfies 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = 2𝑡𝑡 − 𝑖𝑖 + 2𝑡𝑡 − 3 𝑗𝑗 where
𝑡𝑡+1 2
𝑟𝑟 0 = 2𝑖𝑖 + 4𝑗𝑗

11. Find the location of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 2 12. Sketch the path of the object.
Then draw the tangent vector
𝐯𝐯(2).

Problems 13 – 14, Find the minimum speed of a particle and its location when it reaches this
speed for each position vector.

13. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = sin 3𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 − 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 3𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 14. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 8 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑡𝑡 3/2 𝐣𝐣

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 588

Problems 15 – 17, Find the displacement and distance traveled over the given time interval,
show set up.

3𝜋𝜋
15. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 𝐢𝐢 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ ln 4 16. 𝐫𝐫 𝑡𝑡 = (1 − 4 sin 𝑡𝑡) 𝐢𝐢 + 4 cos 𝑡𝑡 𝐣𝐣 ; 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 2

17. A shell is fired from a .22 long rifle with a muzzle speed of 1500 feet per second. If the
rifle is fired from ground level at an elevation of 45°, find the following.

A. Parametric equations for the shell’s trajectory.

B. The maximum height reached by the shell.

C. The horizontal distance traveled by the shell.

D. The speed of the shell at impact.

© 2020 Jean Adams Flamingo Math.com 589

 9.5 Polar Coordinates and Graphs
While we commonly use the rectangular (Cartesian Coordinate
𝜋𝜋
System) coordinates as our graphing tool of choice, we can show that 𝑃𝑃 = 2,
4
some problems in mathematics are easier to analyze in a polar
coordinate system. The Cartesian plane allows us to identify any point
in the plane by a set of numbers, such as 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 or (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧). The
equations corresponding to these graphs have been in either
O 3 0
rectangular form or parametric form.
In polar coordinates a point in the plane is defined by a pair of
numbers (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃). The number 𝜃𝜃 measures the angle between the
positive x-axis, called the polar axis, and a ray that passes through the
point. The number r measures the directed distance from the pole (or
origin) O to the point P. Now you can think of the graph of the polar
equation 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) as the graph of the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 , 𝑦𝑦 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡 where
𝑡𝑡 = 𝜃𝜃 and:
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
�
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 sin 𝜃𝜃
In this lesson and the next, we will explore the polar coordinate system, conversion of equations,
graphs and focus on tangent lines, arc length, and area.

A Quick Crash Course for Polar Coordinates

The polar coordinates (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) are related to the rectangular coordinates (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦) as follows:

Polar to Rectangular Rectangular to Polar

If given (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃), then If given (𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦), then

𝑥𝑥 = 𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑟𝑟 2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
𝑦𝑦
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜃𝜃 =
𝑥𝑥

EX #1: Convert the following polar points to rectangular points:

2𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
A. 4, 3
B. 5,6

EX #2: Convert the rectangular points to polar points:

C. −2, 2 3 D. (5, −5)

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Just like converting points from one system to another, we can also convert equations.

Polar Equations

EX #3: Convert the rectangular equations to a polar equation. Then, verify with your calculator.

A. 𝑦𝑦 = 4 B. 𝑦𝑦 = 3𝑥𝑥 + 2 C. 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 2

EX #4: Convert the polar equations to a rectangular equation. Then, verify with your calculator.

4 3
A. 𝑟𝑟 = −3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 B. 𝑟𝑟 = C. 𝑟𝑟 =
1 + 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃+2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

Polar Graphs

EX #5: Describe what you know about the graph of each polar equation. Then, convert the polar
equation to a rectangular equation and sketch the curve on the grid provided.

A. 𝑟𝑟 = 3

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B. 𝑟𝑟 = −3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

5
C. 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃

Sketching polar graphs by hand can be quite tedious. You can use an “auxiliary graph” to help
guide you.

Using Auxiliary Graphs to Sketch Polar Curves

EX #6: Consider the function 𝑦𝑦 = 1 − 2 sin 𝑥𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋,

shown at right; and, its relationship to the polar graph
𝑟𝑟 = 1 − 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 . Since there will be unique y-values on
this domain, we can use the table below to assist in
graphing the polar graph. Consider the values for (𝑦𝑦, 𝑥𝑥)
as they correspond directly to the polar equation as
(𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) and can be used to sketch the graph of the polar
equation.
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
𝑥𝑥 0
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
𝑦𝑦 1 0 −0.41 −0.73 −1 −0.73 −0.41 0

7𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 4𝜋𝜋 3𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋 7𝜋𝜋 11𝜋𝜋

𝑥𝑥 2𝜋𝜋
6 4 3 2 3 4 6
𝑦𝑦 2 2.41 2.73 3 2.73 2.41 2 1

In Calculus, it is important to note for positive θ-values on the

given domain, where the r-value is negative. What happens on the
polar graph at these negative r-values?

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 Slope and Tangent Lines in Polar Coordinates
Topic 9.7: Defining Polar Coordinates and Differentiating in Polar Form
To find the slope of a tangent line in polar coordinates, we can use the parametric form for 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
along with the chain rule to establish a theorem.

Slope of Tangent Lines in Polar Form

If 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) is a differentiable function, then the slope of the tangent line at the point (𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃) on the
graph of 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) is

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 −𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
provided that 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
≠ 0 at the point 𝑟𝑟, 𝜃𝜃 .

Key Features and Facts:

NOTE: You can create the functions 𝒙𝒙(𝜽𝜽) and 𝒚𝒚(𝜽𝜽) first, find 𝒚𝒚′ (𝜽𝜽) and 𝒙𝒙′ (𝜽𝜽) then divide.

Horizontal Tangents Vertical Tangents No Conclusion

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Find where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=0 Find where 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
=0 If both
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
provided ≠0 provided ≠0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EX #7: Find the points at which the cardioid given by r = 1 + cos θ has vertical or horizontal
tangent lines. Use a graphing utility to check your findings.

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 Tangent Lines at the Pole

If 𝑓𝑓 𝛼𝛼 = 0 and 𝑓𝑓 ′ 𝛼𝛼 ≠ 0, then the line 𝜃𝜃 = 𝛼𝛼 is tangent at the pole to the graph of 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃).

NOTE: If you find the zeros of 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) they can help you find the tangent lines at the pole. In the
next example, the three-leafed rose curve has more than one tangent line at the pole.

EX #8: Given the rose curve: 𝑟𝑟 = 4 sin 3𝜃𝜃

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
A. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
B. Calculate the slopes of the three tangent lines for the curve at the pole. 𝜃𝜃 = 0, 3
, 3

C. Use a graphing utility to find the locations of all horizontal tangent lines. Discuss and
significance of these points.

Graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

594
D. Find the three points where r is a maximum. Show that the tangent line is perpendicular to the
line segment connecting the point to the origin.

π
E. Write the equation for the tangent line that passes through the point r, θ = 4, 6

595
 Polar Coordinates and
9.5 Graphs Homework

Problems 1 – 2, Find the equivalent rectangular coordinates for each pair of polar coordinates.

𝜋𝜋 5𝜋𝜋
1. 3,6 2. −5, 3

Problems 3 – 4, Find an equivalent pair of polar coordinates for each rectangular coordinate pair.

3. 4, −4 4. −3, − 3

Problems 5 - 7 , Convert the following equations to polar form.

5. 𝑥𝑥 = 2 6. 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 = 7 7. 3𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑦𝑦 = 5

Problems 8 – 10, Convert the following equations to rectangular form.

8. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 csc 𝜃𝜃 9. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 cos 𝜃𝜃 10. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 tan 𝜃𝜃 sec 𝜃𝜃

596
Problems 11 – 12, For each of the following, find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 for the given value of 𝜃𝜃.

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
11. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 sin 𝜃𝜃 , 𝜃𝜃 = 3
12. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 + 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 , 𝜃𝜃 = 2

Problems 13 – 14, For each of the following, find the polar points of horizontal and vertical
tangency, if any.

13. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 on [0, 𝜋𝜋]

14. 𝑟𝑟 = 4(1 − cos 𝜃𝜃) on [0, 2𝜋𝜋]

Graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑/𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

597
Problems 15 – 16, Sketch a graph of the polar equation and find the tangents at the pole.

15. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 cos 3𝜃𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋

16. Given: 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − 4 sin 𝜃𝜃 , 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋

A. Make a table and sketch the graph

B. For positive θ-values on the given domain, where the r-value is negative.

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 9.6 Area and Arc Length in Polar Coordinates
Topic 9.8: Find the Area of a Polar Region or the Area Bounded by a Single Polar Curve
Let’s continue our investigation of polar curves related to areas and arc length. When finding areas in
rectangular coordinates, we used rectangles to approximate the region; in polar coordinates, we will
use sectors of circles. Another small change will be in our language. In rectangular equations we
found the area “under the curve”, with polar equations we will find area “enclosed by the region” of
the polar curve.

Polar Area Concept

y 𝜃𝜃 = 𝛽𝛽

𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃

𝜃𝜃 = 𝛼𝛼

Area in Polar Coordinates

If 𝑓𝑓 is continuous and nonnegative on the interval [𝛼𝛼, 𝛽𝛽], then the area of the region bounded by the
graph of 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓(𝜃𝜃) between the radial line 𝜃𝜃 = 𝛼𝛼 and 𝜃𝜃 = 𝛽𝛽 is given by
1 𝛽𝛽
𝐴𝐴 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2 𝛼𝛼
1 𝛽𝛽
= 2 ∫𝛼𝛼 𝑟𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EX #1: Find the area inside the cardioid 𝑟𝑟 = 1 + cos 𝜃𝜃

599
EX #2: Find the area of one petal of 𝑟𝑟 = 4 sin(3𝜃𝜃)

EX #3: Find the area inside one loop of 𝑟𝑟 2 = 9 cos(2𝜃𝜃).

EX #4: Find the area of the inner loop of the graph 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − 4 cos(𝜃𝜃)

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Topic 9.9: Finding the Area of the Region Bounded by Two Polar Curves

EX #5: Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle 𝑟𝑟 = 3 sin 𝜃𝜃 and outside the
cardioid 𝑟𝑟 = 1 + sin 𝜃𝜃

EX #6: Find the area of the region that lies inside 𝑟𝑟 = 3 sin 𝜃𝜃 and outside 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − sin 𝜃𝜃.

EX #7: Find the common area of 𝑟𝑟 = 4 sin 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 2.

Using the arc length formula for a parametric curve, we can establish a formula for the arc length of a
polar curve.

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 Arc Length of a Polar Curve

Let 𝑓𝑓 be a function whose derivative is continuous on an interval 𝛼𝛼 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝛽𝛽.

The length of the graph of 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 from 𝜃𝜃 = 𝛼𝛼 to 𝜃𝜃 = 𝛽𝛽 is

𝛽𝛽 𝛽𝛽 2 2 𝛽𝛽 2
2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑠𝑠 = � 𝑓𝑓 𝜃𝜃 + 𝑓𝑓 ′ (𝜃𝜃 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = � 𝑟𝑟 2 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝛼𝛼 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝛼𝛼 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

EX #8: Find the arc length of the cardioid 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − 2 cos 𝜃𝜃

𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
EX #9: Find the length of the polar curve 𝑟𝑟 = 1 + cos 2𝜃𝜃 for − 2
≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 2

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 Area and Arc Length in
9.6 Polar Coordinates Homework

Problems 1 – 6, Find the area of each indicated region.

1. One leaf of 𝑟𝑟 = 5 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(2𝜃𝜃) 2. Inside 𝑟𝑟 = 5 + 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃)

3. Inside 𝑟𝑟 = 2 and outside 4. Interior of 𝑟𝑟 2 = 4 sin(2𝜃𝜃)

𝑟𝑟 = 2 − 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜃𝜃)

5. Inside the inner loop of 6. Inside the outer loop and

of 𝑟𝑟 = 2 + 4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 outside the inner loop of
𝑟𝑟 = 2 + 4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐(𝜃𝜃)

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 Problems 7 – 11, For each of the following, find the indicated area. Calculators permitted.

7. The outer loop of 𝑟𝑟 = 3 + 6 cos (𝜃𝜃)

8. Between the loops of 𝑟𝑟 = 3 + 6 cos (𝜃𝜃)

9. The common interior of 𝑟𝑟 = 2 + 2 cos 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − 2 cos 𝜃𝜃

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10. The common interior of 𝑟𝑟 = 3 + 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 3 − 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃

11. Inside the circle 𝑟𝑟 = 3 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 and outside the cardioid 𝑟𝑟 = 1 + 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃

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Problems 12 – 15, Find the points of intersection for the graphs of the following. Verify with
your calculator.

12. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − cos 𝜃𝜃 ; 𝑟𝑟 = 2 + sin 𝜃𝜃 13. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 + 4 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 ; 𝑟𝑟 = 8 sin 𝜃𝜃

14. 𝑟𝑟 = 3 + 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 ; 𝑟𝑟 = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 15. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝜃𝜃 ; 𝑟𝑟 =

3
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃
2

Problems 16 – 19, Find the arc length of the polar function on the indicated interval.

16. 𝑟𝑟 = 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤
𝜋𝜋 17. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋
3

18. 𝑟𝑟 = 2 − 2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝜃𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋𝜋 19. 𝑟𝑟 = 4 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2𝜃𝜃 ; 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 ≤ 𝜋𝜋

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PARAMETRICS, POLARS & VECTORS Name ______________________________________________
UNIT 9 TEST REVIEW

1. Given the parametric equations 𝑥𝑥 = −2𝑡𝑡 + 3 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 3 + 5

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
a. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
b. Find an equation of the tangent line when 𝑡𝑡 = 1
c. Use concavity to determine if the tangent line is above the curve or below the curve.

2. Find the points on 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 2 − 𝑡𝑡 + 3 ; 𝑦𝑦 = 4𝑡𝑡 3 − 12𝑡𝑡 where the tangent is vertical or horizontal.

3. [Calculator] Find the length of the arc on the curve 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡 + cos 𝑡𝑡 ; 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 − sin 𝑡𝑡 on 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝜋𝜋.
Show the set up.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
4. Find 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 and 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2 in terms of t, given 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 3 − 4 and 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒 3𝑡𝑡

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5. [Calculator] The position of an object is moving on a path where 𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = sin 4𝑡𝑡 and
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = cos 3𝑡𝑡. Find the speed of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 𝜋𝜋/4.

6. For the polar curve 𝑟𝑟 = 4 cos 𝜃𝜃, write the equation of the line tangent to the curve at the point
𝜋𝜋
�2√3, 6 �.

𝜋𝜋
7. Find the equations for each tangent at 𝜃𝜃 = 6
given 𝑟𝑟 = sin 3𝜃𝜃.

8. [Calculator] Find the area of the interior of 𝑟𝑟 = 1 − cos 𝜃𝜃. Show the set up.

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9. [Calculator] Find the area of one petal of 𝑟𝑟 = 4 cos 2𝜃𝜃. Show the set up.

10. [Calculator] Find the area inside 𝑟𝑟 = 2 and outside 𝑟𝑟 = 1 + 2 sin 𝜃𝜃

11. [Calculator] Find all points at which the two curves intersect. 𝑟𝑟 = 1 − 2 sin 𝜃𝜃 and 𝑟𝑟 = 2 cos 𝜃𝜃.

12. Find the arc length of the curve 𝑟𝑟 = 3 − 3 cos 𝜃𝜃

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Problems 13 - 15, Given that 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) is the position vector of a particle, where:
𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = 2 ln(𝑡𝑡 + 1)𝐢𝐢 + 𝑡𝑡 2 𝐣𝐣 at 𝑡𝑡 = 1

13. Find the velocity and speed of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 1

14. Find the acceleration of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 1

15. Find the equation of the tangent line at 𝑡𝑡 = 1.

16. [Calculator] A curve is drawn in the xy-plane and is described by the equation in polar
coordinates as 𝑟𝑟 = 3 + sin 3𝜃𝜃 for 0 ≤ 𝜃𝜃 < 𝜋𝜋, where r is measured in meters and 𝜃𝜃 is measured
in radians.
𝜋𝜋
A. Find the rate of change of the x-coordinate with respect to 𝜃𝜃 at the point where 𝜃𝜃 = 6 .

B. Find the angle 𝜃𝜃 that corresponds to the point on the curve where 𝑥𝑥 = −1.

C. Find the area bounded by the curve and the x-axis.

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17. Convert the polar equation to rectangular form: 6𝑟𝑟 cos 𝜃𝜃 + 5𝑟𝑟 sin 𝜃𝜃 = 1

𝜋𝜋
18. Find the slope of the polar curve 𝑟𝑟 = 6 cos(3𝜃𝜃) at the point where 𝜃𝜃 = 3

19. Write the rectangular equation in polar form. 𝑦𝑦 2 + (𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 = 4

20. [Calculator] Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + ln 𝑡𝑡 and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑡𝑡 2 + 𝑡𝑡
at the point (1, 2)

21. [Calculator] Find the area of the region inside 𝑟𝑟 = 4 + 3 sin 𝜃𝜃

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22. Find 𝐯𝐯 ∙ 𝐰𝐰 , given 𝐯𝐯 = 5𝐢𝐢 − 2𝐣𝐣 and 𝐰𝐰 = −2𝐢𝐢 + 𝐣𝐣.

23. A particle moves in the xy-plane so that at any time t, the position of the particle is given by
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = 2𝑡𝑡 3 − 4𝑡𝑡 2 ; 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 3𝑡𝑡 4 + 𝑡𝑡 3 .
A. Find the velocity vector when 𝑡𝑡 = 1.

B. Find the acceleration vector when 𝑡𝑡 = 1.

24. A particle moves in the xy-plane in such a way that its velocity vector is 〈3𝑡𝑡 2 − 6𝑡𝑡, 8𝑡𝑡 3 + 5〉. At
𝑡𝑡 = 0, the position of the particle is (5, −6). Find the position of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 1.

25. Evaluate the integral ∫[(4 − 6𝑡𝑡)𝐢𝐢 + �3√𝑡𝑡�𝐣𝐣] 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

26. Write an expression for the length of the path described by the parametric equations
𝑥𝑥(𝑡𝑡) = sin(𝑡𝑡 3 ) and 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒 4𝑡𝑡 from 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 𝜋𝜋. Do not evaluate.

612
27. Given 𝑟𝑟(𝑡𝑡) = (sec 𝑡𝑡)𝐢𝐢 + (tan 𝑡𝑡)𝐣𝐣 , models the position of an object.

𝜋𝜋
A. Find the equation for the line tangent to the path of the object at the point where 𝑡𝑡 = 6 .

𝜋𝜋
B. Write an equation for the line normal to the path of the object at the point where 𝑡𝑡 = 6
.

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
28. Find a vector function for 𝐫𝐫(𝑡𝑡) given 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (− sin 𝑡𝑡)𝐢𝐢 + (cos 𝑡𝑡)𝐣𝐣 where 𝑟𝑟(0) = 2𝐣𝐣

29. Find the velocity vector of the particle given 𝐚𝐚(𝑡𝑡) = 2𝐢𝐢 + 𝑒𝑒 −t 𝐣𝐣 ; 𝐯𝐯(0) = 2𝐢𝐢.

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30. [Calculator] A particle moving in the xy-plane has a velocity vector given by
𝐯𝐯(𝑡𝑡) = 〈cos 𝑡𝑡 2 , 𝑒𝑒 0.2𝑡𝑡 〉 for time 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0 seconds. At 𝑡𝑡 = 1, the particle is at (4, 3).

A. Determine the horizontal movement of the particle at time 𝑡𝑡 = 2 seconds. Explain your
reasoning.

B. Find the slope of the path of the particle at time 𝑡𝑡 = 2 seconds.

C. At what time t, 0 ≤ 𝑡𝑡 ≤ 5 seconds, is the speed of the object 2 units per second?

D. Find the point of the position of the particle at 𝑡𝑡 = 2.

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