Chebyshev polynomials

The Chebyshev polynomials are two sequences of polynomials

related to the cosine and sine functions, notated as and
. They can be defined in several equivalent ways, one of
which starts with trigonometric functions:

The Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are defined by

Similarly, the Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind are

defined by
Plot of the Chebyshev polynomial of
the first kind T n(x) with n=5 in the
complex plane from -2-2i to 2+2i with
colors created with Mathematica
That these expressions define polynomials in may not be
13.1 function ComplexPlot3D
obvious at first sight, but follows by rewriting and
using de Moivre's formula or by using the angle
sum formulas for and repeatedly. For example, the double angle formulas, which follow directly
from the angle sum formulas, may be used to obtain and
, which are respectively a polynomial in and a polynomial
in multiplied by . Hence and .

An important and convenient property of the T n(x) is that they are orthogonal with respect to the inner
product:

and Un(x) are orthogonal with respect to another, analogous inner product, given below.

The Chebyshev polynomials T n are polynomials with the largest possible leading coefficient whose
absolute value on the interval [−1, 1] is bounded by 1. They are also the "extremal" polynomials for many
other properties.[1]

In 1952, Cornelius Lanczos showed that the Chebyshev polynomials are important in approximation theory
for the solution of linear systems;[2] the roots of T n(x), which are also called Chebyshev nodes, are used as
matching points for optimizing polynomial interpolation. The resulting interpolation polynomial minimizes
the problem of Runge's phenomenon and provides an approximation that is close to the best polynomial
approximation to a continuous function under the maximum norm, also called the "minimax" criterion. This
approximation leads directly to the method of Clenshaw–Curtis quadrature.
These polynomials were named after Pafnuty Chebyshev.[3] The letter T is used because of the alternative
transliterations of the name Chebyshev as Tchebycheff, Tchebyshev (French) or Tschebyschow (German).

Definitions

Recurrence definition

The Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind are obtained from

the recurrence relation

The recurrence also allows to represent them explicitly as the Plot of the first five Tn Chebyshev
determinant of a tridiagonal matrix of size : polynomials (first kind)

The ordinary generating function for T n is

There are several other generating functions for the Chebyshev polynomials; the exponential generating
function is

The generating function relevant for 2-dimensional potential theory and multipole expansion is

The Chebyshev polynomials of the second kind are defined by the recurrence relation
Notice that the two sets of recurrence relations are identical, except
for vs. . The ordinary generating function
for Un is

and the exponential generating function is

Plot of the first five U n Chebyshev
polynomials (second kind)

Trigonometric definition

As described in the introduction, the Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind can be defined as the unique
polynomials satisfying

or, in other words, as the unique polynomials satisfying

for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ….

The polynomials of the second kind satisfy:

or

which is structurally quite similar to the Dirichlet kernel Dn(x):

(The Dirichlet kernel, in fact, coincides with what is now known as the Chebyshev polynomial of the fourth
kind.)

An equivalent way to state this is via exponentiation of a complex number: given a complex number
z = a + bi with absolute value of one,
Chebyshev polynomials can be defined in this form when studying trigonometric polynomials.[4]

That cos nx is an n th-degree polynomial in cos x can be seen by observing that cos nx is the real part of
one side of de Moivre's formula,

The real part of the other side is a polynomial in cos x and sin x, in which all powers of sin x are even
and thus replaceable through the identity cos2 x + sin 2 x = 1 . By the same reasoning, sin nx is the
imaginary part of the polynomial, in which all powers of sin x are odd and thus, if one factor of sin x is
factored out, the remaining factors can be replaced to create a (n−1)st-degree polynomial in cos x.

Commuting polynomials definition

Chebyshev polynomials can also be characterized by the following theorem:[5]

If is a family of monic polynomials with coefficients in a field of characteristic such that

and for all and , then, up to a simple change of
variables, either for all or for all .

Pell equation definition

The Chebyshev polynomials can also be defined as the solutions to the Pell equation

in a ring R[x].[6] Thus, they can be generated by the standard technique for Pell equations of taking powers
of a fundamental solution:

Relations between the two kinds of Chebyshev polynomials

The Chebyshev polynomials of the first and second kinds correspond to a complementary pair of Lucas
sequences Ṽn(P, Q) and Ũn(P, Q) with parameters P = 2x and Q = 1 :

It follows that they also satisfy a pair of mutual recurrence equations:[7]

The second of these may be rearranged using the recurrence definition for the Chebyshev polynomials of
the second kind to give
Using this formula iteratively gives the sum formula

while replacing and using the derivative formula for gives the recurrence
relationship for the derivative of :

This relationship is used in the Chebyshev spectral method of solving differential equations.

Turán's inequalities for the Chebyshev polynomials are[8]

The integral relations are[7]: 187(47)(48) [9]

where integrals are considered as principal value.

Explicit expressions
Different approaches to defining Chebyshev polynomials lead to different explicit expressions. The
trigonometric definition gives an explicit formula as follows.

From this trigonometric form, the recurrence definition can be recovered by computing directly that the
bases cases hold,

and

and that the product-to-sum identity holds,

Using the complex number exponentiation definition of the Chebyshev polynomial, one can derive the
following expression.

The two are equivalent because .

An explicit form of the Chebyshev polynomial in terms of monomials xk follows from de Moivre's formula,

where Re denotes the real part of a complex number. Expanding the formula, one gets

The real part of the expression is obtained from summands corresponding to even indices. Noting
and , one gets the explicit formula

which in turn means that

This can be written as a hypergeometric function.

with inverse[10][11]

where the prime at the summation symbol indicates that the contribution of j = 0 needs to be halved if it
appears.
where 2F1 is a hypergeometric function.

Properties

Symmetry

That is, Chebyshev polynomials of even order have even symmetry and therefore contain only even powers
of x. Chebyshev polynomials of odd order have odd symmetry and therefore contain only odd powers of x.

Roots and extrema

A Chebyshev polynomial of either kind with degree n has n different simple roots, called Chebyshev
roots, in the interval [−1, 1]. The roots of the Chebyshev polynomial of the first kind are sometimes called
Chebyshev nodes because they are used as nodes in polynomial interpolation. Using the trigonometric
definition and the fact that

one can show that the roots of T n are

Similarly, the roots of Un are

The extrema of T n on the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 are located at

One unique property of the Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind is that on the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 all
of the extrema have values that are either −1 or 1. Thus these polynomials have only two finite critical
values, the defining property of Shabat polynomials. Both the first and second kinds of Chebyshev
polynomial have extrema at the endpoints, given by:
The extrema of on the interval where are located at values of . They

are , or where , , and , i.e., and are relatively

prime numbers.

Specifically,[12][13] when is even,

if , or and is even. There are such values of .

if and is odd. There are such values of .

When is odd,

if , or and is even. There are such values of .

if , or and is odd. There are such values of .

This result has been generalized to solutions of ,[13] and to and

for Chebyshev polynomials of the third and fourth kinds, respectively.[14]

Differentiation and integration

The derivatives of the polynomials can be less than straightforward. By differentiating the polynomials in
their trigonometric forms, it can be shown that:

The last two formulas can be numerically troublesome due to the division by zero ( 00 indeterminate form,
specifically) at x = 1 and x = −1 . By L'Hôpital's rule,

More generally,

which is of great use in the numerical solution of eigenvalue problems.

Also, we have

where the prime at the summation symbols means that the term contributed by k = 0 is to be halved, if it
appears.

Concerning integration, the first derivative of the T n implies that

and the recurrence relation for the first kind polynomials involving derivatives establishes that for n ≥ 2

The last formula can be further manipulated to express the integral of T n as a function of Chebyshev
polynomials of the first kind only:

Furthermore, we have

Products of Chebyshev polynomials

The Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind satisfy the relation

which is easily proved from the product-to-sum formula for the cosine,

For n = 1 this results in the already known recurrence formula, just arranged differently, and with n = 2 it
forms the recurrence relation for all even or all odd indexed Chebyshev polynomials (depending on the
parity of the lowest m) which implies the evenness or oddness of these polynomials. Three more useful
formulas for evaluating Chebyshev polynomials can be concluded from this product expansion:
The polynomials of the second kind satisfy the similar relation

(with the definition U−1 ≡ 0 by convention ). They also satisfy

for m ≥ n . For n = 2 this recurrence reduces to

which establishes the evenness or oddness of the even or odd indexed Chebyshev polynomials of the
second kind depending on whether m starts with 2 or 3.

Composition and divisibility properties

The trigonometric definitions of T n and Un imply the composition or nesting properties[15]

For T mn the order of composition may be reversed, making the family of polynomial functions T n a
commutative semigroup under composition.

Since T m(x) is divisible by x if m is odd, it follows that T mn(x) is divisible by T n(x) if m is odd.
Furthermore, Umn−1(x) is divisible by Un−1(x), and in the case that m is even, divisible by
Tn(x)Un−1(x).

Orthogonality

Both T n and Un form a sequence of orthogonal polynomials. The polynomials of the first kind T n are
orthogonal with respect to the weight

on the interval [−1, 1], i.e. we have:

This can be proven by letting x = cos θ and using the defining identity T n(cos θ) = cos(nθ).

Similarly, the polynomials of the second kind Un are orthogonal with respect to the weight

on the interval [−1, 1], i.e. we have:

(The measure √1 − x2 dx is, to within a normalizing constant, the Wigner semicircle distribution.)

These orthogonality properties follow from the fact that the Chebyshev polynomials solve the Chebyshev
differential equations

which are Sturm–Liouville differential equations. It is a general feature of such differential equations that
there is a distinguished orthonormal set of solutions. (Another way to define the Chebyshev polynomials is
as the solutions to those equations.)

The T n also satisfy a discrete orthogonality condition:

where N is any integer greater than max(i, j),[9] and the xk are the N Chebyshev nodes (see above) of
TN (x):

For the polynomials of the second kind and any integer N > i + j with the same Chebyshev nodes xk,
there are similar sums:

and without the weight function:

For any integer N > i + j, based on the N zeros of UN (x):

one can get the sum:

and again without the weight function:

Minimal ∞-norm

For any given n ≥ 1 , among the polynomials of degree n with leading coefficient 1 (monic polynomials),

is the one of which the maximal absolute value on the interval [−1, 1] is minimal.

This maximal absolute value is

and | f(x)| reaches this maximum exactly n + 1 times at

Proof

Let's assume that wn(x) is a polynomial of degree n with leading coefficient 1 with
maximal absolute value on the interval [−1, 1] less than 1 / 2 n − 1.

Define

Because at extreme points of T n we have

 From the intermediate value theorem, fn(x) has at least n roots. However, this is impossible,
as fn(x) is a polynomial of degree n − 1 , so the fundamental theorem of algebra implies it
has at most n − 1 roots.

Remark

By the equioscillation theorem, among all the polynomials of degree ≤ n , the polynomial f minimizes
‖ f ‖∞ on [−1, 1] if and only if there are n + 2 points −1 ≤ x0 < x1 < ⋯ < xn + 1 ≤ 1 such that
| f(xi)| = ‖ f ‖∞.

Of course, the null polynomial on the interval [−1, 1] can be approximated by itself and minimizes the ∞ -
norm.

Above, however, | f | reaches its maximum only n + 1 times because we are searching for the best
polynomial of degree n ≥ 1 (therefore the theorem evoked previously cannot be used).

Chebyshev polynomials as special cases of more general polynomial

families

The Chebyshev polynomials are a special case of the ultraspherical or Gegenbauer polynomials ,
which themselves are a special case of the Jacobi polynomials :

Chebyshev polynomials are also a special case of Dickson polynomials:

In particular, when , they are related by and .

Other properties

The curves given by y = T n(x), or equivalently, by the parametric equations y = T n(cos θ) = cos nθ,
x = cos θ, are a special case of Lissajous curves with frequency ratio equal to n.
Similar to the formula

we have the analogous formula

For x ≠ 0 ,

and

which follows from the fact that this holds by definition for x = eiθ.

Examples

First kind

The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the first kind

are OEIS: A028297

The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the first

kind in the domain −1 < x < 1: The flat T0 , T1 ,
T2 , T3 , T4 and T5 .
Second kind

The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the second

kind are OEIS: A053117

The first few Chebyshev polynomials of the

second kind in the domain −1 < x < 1: The flat
U 0 , U 1 , U 2 , U 3 , U 4 and U 5 . Although not
visible in the image, U n (1) = n + 1 and
U n (−1) = (n + 1)(−1)n .

As a basis set
In the appropriate Sobolev space, the set of Chebyshev
polynomials form an orthonormal basis, so that a function in the
same space can, on −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 , be expressed via the
expansion:[16]

Furthermore, as mentioned previously, the Chebyshev

polynomials form an orthogonal basis which (among other
things) implies that the coefficients a n can be determined easily
through the application of an inner product. This sum is called a
Chebyshev series or a Chebyshev expansion.

Since a Chebyshev series is related to a Fourier cosine series

through a change of variables, all of the theorems, identities, etc.
that apply to Fourier series have a Chebyshev counterpart.[16]
These attributes include:

The Chebyshev polynomials form a complete

orthogonal system.
The Chebyshev series converges to f(x) if the function
is piecewise smooth and continuous. The smoothness
requirement can be relaxed in most cases – as long as The non-smooth function (top)
there are a finite number of discontinuities in f(x) and
y = −x3 H(−x), where H is the
its derivatives.
Heaviside step function, and (bottom)
At a discontinuity, the series will converge to the the 5th partial sum of its Chebyshev
average of the right and left limits. expansion. The 7th sum is
indistinguishable from the original
The abundance of the theorems and identities inherited from
function at the resolution of the graph.
Fourier series make the Chebyshev polynomials important tools
in numeric analysis; for example they are the most popular
general purpose basis functions used in the spectral method,[16] often in favor of trigonometric series due to
generally faster convergence for continuous functions (Gibbs' phenomenon is still a problem).

Example 1

Consider the Chebyshev expansion of log(1 + x). One can express

One can find the coefficients a n either through the application of an inner product or by the discrete
orthogonality condition. For the inner product,

which gives,
Alternatively, when the inner product of the function being approximated cannot be evaluated, the discrete
orthogonality condition gives an often useful result for approximate coefficients,

where δij is the Kronecker delta function and the xk are the N Gauss–Chebyshev zeros of T N (x):

For any N, these approximate coefficients provide an exact approximation to the function at xk with a
controlled error between those points. The exact coefficients are obtained with N = ∞ , thus representing
the function exactly at all points in [−1,1]. The rate of convergence depends on the function and its
smoothness.

This allows us to compute the approximate coefficients a n very efficiently through the discrete cosine
transform

Example 2

To provide another example:

Partial sums

The partial sums of

are very useful in the approximation of various functions and in the solution of differential equations (see
spectral method). Two common methods for determining the coefficients a n are through the use of the inner
product as in Galerkin's method and through the use of collocation which is related to interpolation.
As an interpolant, the N coefficients of the (N − 1)st partial sum are usually obtained on the Chebyshev–
Gauss–Lobatto[17] points (or Lobatto grid), which results in minimum error and avoids Runge's
phenomenon associated with a uniform grid. This collection of points corresponds to the extrema of the
highest order polynomial in the sum, plus the endpoints and is given by:

Polynomial in Chebyshev form

An arbitrary polynomial of degree N can be written in terms of the Chebyshev polynomials of the first
kind.[9] Such a polynomial p(x) is of the form

Polynomials in Chebyshev form can be evaluated using the Clenshaw algorithm.

Families of polynomials related to Chebyshev polynomials

Polynomials denoted and closely related to Chebyshev polynomials are sometimes used.
They are defined by[18]

and satisfy

A. F. Horadam called the polynomials Vieta–Lucas polynomials and denoted them . He

called the polynomials Vieta–Fibonacci polynomials and denoted them . [19] Lists of both
sets of polynomials are given in Viète's Opera Mathematica, Chapter IX, Theorems VI and VII.[20] The
Vieta–Lucas and Vieta–Fibonacci polynomials of real argument are, up to a power of and a shift of index
in the case of the latter, equal to Lucas and Fibonacci polynomials L n and Fn of imaginary argument.

Shifted Chebyshev polynomials of the first and second kinds are related to the Chebyshev polynomials
by[18]

When the argument of the Chebyshev polynomial satisfies 2x − 1 ∈ [−1, 1] the argument of the shifted
Chebyshev polynomial satisfies x ∈ [0, 1]. Similarly, one can define shifted polynomials for generic
intervals [a, b].

Around 1990 the terms "third-kind" and "fourth-kind" came into use in connection with Chebyshev
polynomials, although the polynomials denoted by these terms had an earlier development under the name
airfoil polynomials. According to J. C. Mason and G. H. Elliott, the terminology "third-kind" and "fourth-
kind" is due to Walter Gautschi, "in consultation with colleagues in the field of orthogonal
polynomials."[21] The Chebyshev polynomials of the third kind are defined as
and the Chebyshev polynomials of the fourth kind are defined as

where .[21][22] In the airfoil literature and are denoted and . The
polynomial families , , , and are orthogonal with respect to the weights

and are proportional to Jacobi polynomials with

[22]

All four families satisfy the recurrence with , where

, , , or , but they differ according to whether equals , , , or .[21]

See also
Chebyshev filter
Chebyshev cube root
Dickson polynomials
Legendre polynomials
Laguerre polynomials
Hermite polynomials
Minimal polynomial of 2cos(2pi/n)
Romanovski polynomials
Chebyshev rational functions
Approximation theory
The Chebfun system
Discrete Chebyshev transform
Markov brothers' inequality
Clenshaw algorithm

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External links
Media related to Chebyshev polynomials at Wikimedia Commons
Weisstein, Eric W. "Chebyshev polynomial[s] of the first kind" (https://mathworld.wolfram.co
m/ChebyshevPolynomialoftheFirstKind.html). MathWorld.
Mathews, John H. (2003). "Module for Chebyshev polynomials" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20070529221407/http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/n2003/ChebyshevPolyMod.html).
Department of Mathematics. Course notes for Math 340 Numerical Analysis & Math 440
Advanced Numerical Analysis. Fullerton, CA: California State University. Archived from the
original (http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/n2003/ChebyshevPolyMod.html) on 29 May 2007.
Retrieved 17 August 2020.
"Chebyshev interpolation: An interactive tour" (http://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/images/
upload_library/4/vol6/Sarra/Chebyshev.html). Mathematical Association of America (MAA) –
includes illustrative Java applet.
"Numerical computing with functions" (http://www.chebfun.org). The Chebfun Project.
"Is there an intuitive explanation for an extremal property of Chebyshev polynomials?" (http
s://mathoverflow.net/q/25534). Math Overflow. Question 25534.
"Chebyshev polynomial evaluation and the Chebyshev transform" (https://www.boost.org/do
c/libs/release/libs/math/doc/html/math_toolkit/sf_poly/chebyshev.html). Boost. Math.

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