applied

sciences
Editorial
Sensors and Measurement Systems for Marine Engineering
Applications
Dimitrios Nikolaos Pagonis

Naval Architecture Department, School of Engineering, University of West Attica, 12243 Athens, Greece;
[email protected]

1. Introduction
In recent years, vast developments and applications of sensor technologies have been
recorded in various industries, including shipbuilding. Therefore, the employment of novel
sensors in marine environments has significantly progressed, as illustrated by some key
examples. For example, wireless sensor networks (WSNs) have emerged as an efficient
and cost-effective alternative for the real-time monitoring of the marine environment, used
for oil spill detection and localization [1], offering significant advantages such as ease
of deployment [2]. Optical-fiber-based sensors have attracted considerable attention for
environmental applications such as the in situ measurement of seawater salinity [3] and
structural health monitoring in marine applications [4,5] due to their durability under
extreme temperature and pressure conditions, high sensitivity, and flexibility. In addition,
piezoelectric energy harvesters have been proposed to eliminate batteries from future
sensing devices [6,7], while piezoelectric sensors have already been employed to determine
ocean wave height and period, as well as underwater objects [8]. Furthermore, nanofi-
brous grids utilizing piezoelectric fibers demonstrate high-resolution, self-powered tactile
sensing capabilities, suggesting their use in real-time motion tracking and spatial sens-
ing in marine environments [9], whereas monolithic printed sensors pave the way for
on-demand, on-site fabrication [10]. These examples underscore the vast technological de-
velopments that have been pivotal in addressing the challenges related to marine research
and environmental protection.
Moreover, over the past three decades, the miniaturization of sensors has led to
the newly developed field of “microsensors”—an emerging field that has grown rapidly,
building on the significant advancements of the semiconductor industry. Consequently, the
Citation: Pagonis, D.N. Sensors and
sensors deployed on ships have followed the same trend, taking their role one step further
Measurement Systems for Marine
Engineering Applications. Appl. Sci.
by incorporating semiconductor-based technology into standard marine equipment and
2024, 14, 3761. https://doi.org/
measuring systems. Typical types of sensors employed aboard are gas detection sensors,
10.3390/app14093761 gas/air flow sensors, humidity sensors, temperature/pressure sensors, speed/acceleration
sensors, strain sensors, IMUs, etc., which are all essential with regard to vessel safety since
Received: 23 April 2024
the proper operation of all modern vessels relies heavily on the information provided
Accepted: 26 April 2024
by the onboard measuring devices that quantify critical performance parameters. As a
Published: 28 April 2024
common example, a typical Ro-Ro vessel has four medium-power 4-stroke engines installed
onboard, which are required for the operation of the corresponding generator sets [11].
Failure to detect a possible malfunction by the appropriate sensing system in any of the
Copyright: © 2024 by the author.
installed engines, even one, can lead to immediate safety compromises, as outlined by
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. the corresponding safety regulations [12], with severe consequences. In addition, modern
This article is an open access article sensing devices play a vital role in advancing marine technology by enabling the integration
distributed under the terms and of new technologies, such as the Internet of Things (IoT), big data, and cloud computing [13].
conditions of the Creative Commons These technologies rely heavily on sensing devices for functionality and also contribute to
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// their rapid development.
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ This Special Issue encompasses the diversity of nine relevant studies, spanning from
4.0/). the design of novel sensors and energy-harvesting solutions for the maritime industry

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3761. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14093761 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3761 2 of 5

to advanced engine-monitoring systems. Specifically, it comprises eight articles and one

review, which are briefly outlined in the next section. It is important to note that the
purpose of this editorial is not to elaborate on each of the papers presented but rather to
encourage readers to explore them further.

2. An Overview of the Published Articles

In the first article, Bardakas et al. (contribution 1) present a novel rotational–linear
triboelectric nanogenerator (RL-TENG) that converts rotational motion to linear motion to
harvest rotational energy. The device employs ZnO nanoparticles as a triboelectric material,
demonstrating a modular design for various applications. The RL-TENG design offers
several advantages, including reduced wear and increased temperature during operation,
compared to traditional rotational tribogenerators. This technology has significant impli-
cations for maritime applications, particularly in wind energy harvesting for powering
remote monitoring systems or other low-power devices.
In the second article, Pagonis et al. (contribution 2) introduce a mass air flow sensor
designed for low- and medium-power internal combustion engines in the marine industry.
The sensor fabrication process is based on additive manufacturing and PCB technology. The
complex design of the sensing element housing geometry, which is manufactured through
3D printing, is based on standard airfoil geometry, while it is derived through suitable
CFD simulations. The key features of the proposed device are its low cost, fast on-site
manufacturing, robustness, and simplicity, suggesting numerous potential applications in
marine engineering.
In the third article, Yu et al. (contribution 3) present a case study of super-long steel
pipelines floating offshore, focusing on controlling deformation and avoiding resonance
for safety. Their study employs wireless communication equipment and aerial photog-
raphy technology to monitor strain and vibration during construction. This monitoring
method prevents excessive deformation, resonance, and the destruction of anticorrosive
coatings during floating transportation. The obtained results provide a detailed strain
and modal analysis as well as effective monitoring technology for offshore steel pipeline
transportation safety.
In the fourth article (contribution 4), Jiao et al. elaborate on a novel MEMS piezore-
sistive pressure sensor designed to operate under harsh environmental conditions. The
specific sensor demonstrates adequate linearity and sensitivity over a wide operating range,
while a digital temperature compensation system impedes linearity drift due to temperature
variation. The specific technology has significant implications for maritime applications,
particularly in harsh environments, where robust and accurate pressure sensing is required.
In the fifth article, Yang et al. (contribution 5) propose a novel Principal Compo-
nent Analysis integrating a Long Short-Term Memory Network (PCA-LSTM) model for
predicting the productivity of cutter suction dredgers. The developed model involves
operational parameters that are based on mechanism analysis, while it is considered a
deep learning-based approach capable of dealing with operation series data with a spe-
cial memory mechanism. The specific methodology has the potential to improve the
efficiency and productivity of dredging operations, leading to cost savings and reduced
environmental impacts.
In the sixth article, Li et al. (contribution 6) present a novel method for measuring ocean
surface currents in the Kuroshio region using Gaofen-3 SAR data. The developed method,
which combines sub-aperture processing and least-squares (LS) technology to measure
current vectors, demonstrates the capability of the Gaofen-3 SAR to accurately retrieve the
ocean surface current field in the Kuroshio region. The specific methodology has significant
implications for climate studies and maritime navigation in dynamic oceanic environments.
In the seventh article, Tsitsilonis et al. (contribution 7) present a method for identify-
ing engine malfunctioning through instantaneous crankshaft torque (ICT) measurement
analysis. Briefly, this study demonstrates the usefulness of engine ICT as a nonintrusive
diagnostic measurement, allowing for quick and less resource-intensive identification of
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3761 3 of 5

engine malfunctions. The developed methodology has significant implications for maritime
applications, particularly for maintaining the reliability and safety of marine engines.
In the eighth article, Daud et al. (contribution 8) propose a novel Gaussian-process-
based inversion methodology for Seabed Logging (SBL) for detecting potential hydrocarbon-
saturated reservoirs underneath the seabed by employing electromagnetic waves (EM).
The specific method allows for greater flexibility in modeling a variety of EM responses,
while the obtained results indicate that it can efficiently predict the hydrocarbon depth
in seabed logging, having significant implications for offshore oil and gas exploration
and production.
The last article in this Special Issue, a review by Prabowo et al. (contribution 9),
provides a comprehensive survey of the developed sensor technology for maritime appli-
cations, covering various aspects, such as logistics, shipping activities, the hydrodynamic
characterization of new design hulls, advanced machinery performance, arctic-based field
observations, vibration-based damage detection, corrosion control and monitoring, and
the measurement of explosions on critical maritime infrastructures. The specific review
highlights the importance of sensors in maritime-based industries and research, as well as
the potential for further advancements in the field.

3. Conclusions
This Special Issue aims to contribute to the exploration of significant advancements in
sensor and measurement system technologies. Through a brief overview of the selected
research papers, this editorial highlights the innovative approaches and potential impacts
of sensor-driven solutions in addressing the challenges faced by the maritime sector. The
articles presented in this Special Issue provide valuable insights into the implications for
future research in the maritime industry, which can be summarized as follows.
The transformative impact of sensor technologies on maritime engineering is under-
scored by the convergence of innovation, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the continuous
pursuit of safety, efficiency, robustness, and low costs. For instance, additive manufacturing
has emerged as a potential enabler that offers flexibility, speed, cost-effectiveness, and
adaptability to diverse operational environments for sensor fabrication; the work by Pago-
nis et al. illustrates this paradigm shift, showcasing the seamless integration of additive
manufacturing and standard airfoil geometry in the design of mass airflow sensors for
marine engineering applications. In addition, the development of micro-pressure sensors
tailored to harsh environments by Jiao et al. showed the need for robust sensor technolo-
gies in marine applications; most probably, future research will explore the integration of
advanced materials to improve sensor performance and longevity in challenging marine
conditions. Furthermore, the selected research papers highlighted the multifaceted roles of
sensor/measurement system technologies in enhancing safety, efficiency, and predictive
capabilities across various maritime domains. From the development of rotational–linear
triboelectric nanogenerators by Bardakas et al., offering renewable energy solutions for
maritime applications, to the advanced monitoring of offshore steel pipelines by Yu et al.,
leveraging wireless communication and aerial photography to mitigate transportation risks,
each study underscores the transformative potential of sensor-driven solutions.
Additionally, the deployment of novel analytic techniques, as demonstrated by Yang
et al., Tsitsilonis, and Theotokatos, empowers maritime stakeholders with predictive in-
sights, real-time diagnostic capabilities, and better productivity prediction, thereby optimiz-
ing resource utilization and mitigating operational risks. Future research could explore the
application of advanced radar technologies for precise ocean current measurements, aiding
climate studies and maritime navigation in dynamic ocean environments, the potential of
non-intrusive diagnostic measurements for quick and less resource-intensive identification
of engine malfunctions (e.g., employing engine Instantaneous Crankshaft Torque), and
de-risking hydrocarbon exploration in deep marine environments by accurately predicting
hydrocarbon depths, leading to more cost-effective exploration campaigns.
Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 3761 4 of 5

The future trajectory of sensor technologies in the maritime industry is promising,

focusing on novel sensors and measuring systems that can enhance safety, efficiency,
sustainability, and technological advancements to meet the continuously evolving needs
of marine applications. Thus, the current studies presented in this Special Issue should
be seen not only as the research results of investigations carried out by the respective
researchers but also as key starting points, inviting readers to continue with new studies
on the themes explored.
In light of the aforementioned considerations, it is the editor’s belief that future marine
sensing devices will increasingly incorporate advances from other scientific disciplines,
revolutionizing their manufacturing and operation, similar to the miniaturization that
occurred due to the vast advances in the semiconductor industry in the past. Consequently,
many of the current drawbacks associated with employing almost solely semiconductor
technology as the foundation for modern sensing devices, such as complicated manufac-
turing processes, expensive sensor packaging, indirect electrical communication between
the sensing integrated circuit and the necessary readout circuitry, and high prototype
fabrication cost, will generally be overcome.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
List of Contributions:
1. Bardakas, A.; Segkos, A.; Tsamis, C. Zinc Oxide-Based Rotational–Linear Triboelectric Nano-
generator. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2396. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062396.
2. Pagonis, D.; Benaki, V.; Kaltsas, G.; Pagonis, A. Design of a Mass Air Flow Sensor Employing
Additive Manufacturing and Standard Airfoil Geometry. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11579. https:
//doi.org/10.3390/app112411579.
3. Yu, J.; Ren, C.; Cai, Y.; Chen, J.; Wang, Y.; Chen, W. A Case Study of Floating Offshore Super-
Long Steel Pipeline Combing with Field Monitoring. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 10186. https://doi.org/
10.3390/app112110186.
4. Jiao, M.; Wang, M.; Fan, Y.; Guo, B.; Ji, B.; Cheng, Y.; Wang, G. Temperature Compensated Wide-
Range Micro Pressure Sensor with Polyimide Anticorrosive Coating for Harsh Environment
Applications. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9012. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11199012.
5. Yang, K.; Yuan, J.; Xiong, T.; Wang, B.; Fan, S. A Novel Principal Component Analysis Integrating
Long Short-Term Memory Network and Its Application in Productivity Prediction of Cutter
Suction Dredgers. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 8159. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11178159.
6. Li, Y.; Chong, J.; Sun, K.; Zhao, Y.; Yang, X. Measuring Ocean Surface Current in the Kuroshio
Region Using Gaofen-3 SAR Data. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 7656. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11167656.
7. Tsitsilonis, K.; Theotokatos, G. Engine Malfunctioning Conditions Identification through Instanta-
neous Crankshaft Torque Measurement Analysis. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3522. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app11083522.
8. Daud, H.; Mohd Aris, M.; Mohd Noh, K.; Dass, S. A Novel Methodology for Hydrocarbon Depth
Prediction in Seabed Logging: Gaussian Process-Based Inverse Modeling of Electromagnetic
Data. Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 1492. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11041492.
9. Prabowo, A.; Tuswan, T.; Ridwan, R. Advanced Development of Sensors’ Roles in Maritime-
Based Industry and Research: From Field Monitoring to High-Risk Phenomenon Measurement.
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 3954. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11093954.

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