COMPUTER NETWORKING &DATA COMMUNICATION(CND: 22634)

Unit No.1: Fundamental of Data communication & network topology (16 M)

Data Communication Definition: Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a

source and a receiver using a transmission media such as a wire cable.

Components of Data Communication:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,

sound or video or any combination of these.

2. Sender: - It is the device/ computer that generates or sends that message.

3. Receiver:-It is the device/computer that receives the message.

4. Medium: - It is the physical path through which the message is carried from transmitter to receiver.

The medium can be wired or wireless. Wired medium i.e. cable. Wireless means radio waves, laser

5. Protocol: - It is set of rules that govern communication between the devices.

Both sender and receiver follow the same protocols to communicate with each other.
Block Diagram Of data communication system:
 Define Protocol. State key elements of Protocol.

A protocol is defined as “a set of rules that governs the communication between computers on a

network”. The key elements of protocol are as follows: 1.Syntax 2.Semantics 3.Timing

Standards:

• A common set of rules. Data communication standards are classified into two categories.

1. De facto standards 2.De jure standards

• The meaning of De facto is “by fact” or “by convention”.

• These standards are established by the manufacturers and adopted as standards but they are

not aDe jure means “By Law “or “By Regulation”.

• De jure standards have been approved by standard organizations.

Advantages of standards: 1.Many computers from all the world can connect together for

communicating ,because they are using the international standard.

2.Easier maintenance and installation because you get used on the standard.

3.Upgradation and adoptions of standard becomes easy.

Disadvantages of standards: 1.Problems occur in standards ,it takes time to solve as it

involves all international regulating bodies.

2.All companies and manufactures must compulsorily follow standards to communicate.

3.The standards can not be modified as per the need by individuals.

Need of Standard Organizations:

1.They provide guidelines to manufacturers.

2.They create and maintain an open and competitive market for manufacturers.

3.They guarantee national and international interoperability of data and telecommunication

technology and processes.

Standard Creation committees:

1. IEEE: - Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

2. EIA: - Electronic Industries Association

3. ANSI:- American National Standards Institute

4. ISO: - International Organization for Standardization

5. International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication standards.

Enlist various IEEE standards for wireless communication. (any four)

The various IEEE standards for wireless communication are as follows: 802.11• 802.11a•

802.11b• 802.11n• 802.11ac•

Transmission characteristics:

1) Bit Rate: Bit rate is defined as the number of bits transmitted in one second. It is

expressed in bits per second (bps).

2) Baud Rate: It indicates the rate at which a signal level changes over a given period of

time.

3) Data rate: It is data transmitted by sender per second & it is measured in bits per second.

Data Transmission:

Transmission mode:

Parallel Transmission:
 Advantages of parallel transmission:

1) All data bits will be transmitted simultaneously. Therefore time required for transmission of N bit

word is only one clock cycle.

2) it can send N bits at the same time. A parallel interface can operate N times faster than an

equivalent serial interface.

Disadvantages: 1) to transmit n bit word we need N number of wires & it becomes impossible to

handle them.

Serial Transmission:
• Advantages:

1) one wire is require. 2)Cost is less

Disadvantages:

1)speed is low 2)To increase speed of data ,it is necessary to increase clock frequency.

Types of Serial transmission:

Asynchronous Transmission:

In Asynchronous Transmission, data is sent in form of byte or character. This transmission is

the half duplex type transmission. In this transmission start bits and stop bits are added with

data. It does not require synchronization.

Synchronous Transmission:
, Synchronous Transmission data is sent in form of blocks or frames. This transmission is the full
duplex type. Between sender and receiver the synchronization is compulsory. In Synchronous
transmission, There is no gap present between data. It is more efficient and more reliable than
asynchronous transmission to transfer the large amount of data.

• Isochronous Transmission: Isochronous transmission is designed to provide steady bit flow

for multimedia applications
• Delivering such data at a steady rate is essential because variations in delay known as jitter
can disrupt reception (cause pops or clicks in audio/make video freeze for a short time)
• Isochronous network is designed to accept and send data at a fixed rate, R.
 A computer network: is interconnection of two or more computers connected to each other so

that they can exchange information such as e-mail, messages or documents, or share resources such

as disk storage or printer.

Need of computer network:

1. For sharing the resources such as printers among all the users.

2. For sharing of expensive software & d/b.

3. To facilitate communication from one computer to the other.

4. To have exchange of data & information among the users via the n/w.
5. For sharing of information over geographically wide areas.

6. For connecting the computers between various buildings of an organization.

7. For education purposes.

Advantages of Networking:

• 1. Increased speed- N/w provide very fast sharing & transfer of files.

• 2. Reduced Cost- Many popular versions of s/w usable for the entire n/w which reduces cost

compared to individual licensed copies.

• 3.Improve security- It is possible to protect the programs & files from illegal copying, by

allotting password to authorized users.

• 4. Centralized s/w management- It is not necessary to waste time & energy to installing

updates & tracking files on independent computers.

• 5.Electronic mail- Person to person communication is improved.

• 6. Flexible Access- It is possible for authorised users to access their files from any computer

connected on the n/w.

Explain the various components of computer network

• Computer networks share common devices, functions, and features including servers, clients,

transmission media, shared data, shared printers and other hardware and software resources,

network interface card(NIC), local operating system(LOS), and the network operating system

(NOS).

• Servers - Servers are computers that hold shared files, programs, and the network operating

system. Servers provide access to network resources to all the users of the network. There are

many different kinds of servers, and one server can provide several functions. For example,
there are file servers, print servers, mail servers, communication servers, database servers, fax

servers and web servers, to name a few.

● Clients - Clients are computers that access and use the network and shared network

resources. Client computers are basically the customers (users) of the network, as they request

and receive services from the servers.

● Transmission Media - Transmission media are the facilities used to interconnect computers

in a network, such as twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, and optical fiber cable. Transmission

media are sometimes called channels, links or lines.

● Shared data - Shared data are data that file servers provide to clients such as data files,

printer access programs and e-mail.

● Shared printers and other peripherals - Shared printers and peripherals are hardware

resources provided to the users of the network by servers. Resources provided include data

files, printers, software, or any other items used by clients on the network.

● Network Interface Card - Each computer in a network has a special expansion card called a

network interface card (NIC). The NIC prepares (formats) and sends data, receives data, and

controls data flow between the computer and the network. On the transmit side, the NIC

passes frames of data on to the physical layer, which transmits the data to the physical link.

On the receiver's side, the NIC processes bits received from the physical layer and processes

the message based on its contents.

● Local Operating System - A local operating system allows personal computers to access

files, print to a local printer, and have and use one or more disk and CD drives that are located

on the computer. Examples are MS-DOS, UNIX, Linux, Windows 2000, Windows 98,

Windows XP etc.
● Network Operating System - The network operating system is a program that runs on

computers and servers that allows the computers to communicate over the network.

● Hub - Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a

distribution center. When a computer requests information from a network or a specific

computer, it sends the request to the hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request and

transmit it to the entire network. Each computer in the network should then figure out whether

the broadcast data is for them or not.

● Switch - Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network

components. Switch is like a Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device

addresses in each incoming messages so that it can deliver the message to the right destination

or port. Unlike a hub, switch doesn't broadcast the received message to entire network; rather

before sending it checks to which system or port should the message be sent. In other words,

switch connects the source and destination directly which increases the speed of the network.

Both switch and hub have common features: Multiple RJ-45 ports, power supply and

connection lights.

● Router - When we talk about computer network components, the other device that used to

connect a LAN with an internet connection is called Router. When you have two distinct

networks (LANs) or want to share a single internet connection to multiple computers, we use

a Router. In most cases, recent routers also include a switch which in other words can be used

as a switch. You don’t need to buy both switch and router, particularly if you are installing

small business and home networks. There are two types of Router: wired and wireless. The

choice depends on your physical office/home setting, speed and cost.

 ● LAN Cable A local area Network cable is also known as data cable or Ethernet cable which

is a wired cable used to connect a device to the internet or to other devices like other

computer, printers, etc

Network Topologies:

Definition--Network topology is used to explain the manner in which a n/w is physically

connected.The geometric representation of such a relationship of links & nodes is known as topology

of n/w.

Selection Criteria for Topologies-

1. Size of network: Size of network varies according to the company requirement and budget.

2. 2. Configuration & Installation: This process should be simple & easy.

3. Adding new devices: Adding new nodes to the network topology should be easy & it

should not affect the other nodes.

4. Fault identification: Fault should be easily recognizable and proper remedy should be

Available.

5. Type of network: for instance hybrid topology is more applicable to larger network like

Internet while duo ring topology can be applied in Wide Area Network (WAN)

6. Reliability of the topology: hybrid topology seems to be more reliable compared to ring,

because in ring topology failure in any of the host leads to stoppage of the whole network

topology.

7. Geographical span: point to point topology can be applied to network spanning smaller

areas like the LAN and PAN while ring topology can be applied to WANs.

Types of Topology:
1) Bus topology 2) Ring topology 3) Star topology 4) Mesh topology 5) Tree topology

6) Hybrid topology

1) Bus topology:

Working:- 1. Bus topology is a network setup in which each computer and network device

are connected to a single cable or backbone by the help of interface connectors. 2. This

central cable is the backbone of the network and is known as Bus. 3. Every workstation

communicates with the other device through this Bus. 4. A signal from the source is

broadcasted and it travels to all workstations connected to bus cable. 5. Although the

message is broadcasted but only the intended recipient, whose MAC address or IP address

matches, accepts it. 6. If the MAC /IP address of machine doesn’t match with the intended

address, machine discards the signal. 7. A terminator is added at ends of the central cable, to

prevent bouncing of signals. 8. A barrel connector can be used to extend it.

Advantages of Bus Topology-

1) Is is easy to understand, install & use for small n/ws.

2) The cabling cost is less as it requires a small length of cable to connect the computers.

3) It is easy to expand by joining two cables with a BNC connector.

4) In the expansion of bus topology repeaters can be used to boost the signal & increase the

distance.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology-

 1) Heavy n/w traffic slows down the bus speed.In bus topology only one computer can

transmit & other have to wait till their turn comes & there is no co-ordination between

computers for reservation of transmitting time slot.

2) A cable break or loose BNC connector will cause reflections & bring down the whole

n/w causing all n/w activity to stop.

2) Ring Topology:

In a ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer with last one connected to

the first.Rings are used in high performance n/ws.Every computer is connected to the next computer

in the ring & each retrasmits what it receives from the previous computer hence the ring is an active

n/w.The message flow around the ring in one direction . There is no termination because their is no

end to the ring. Some ring n/w's do token passing. A short message called token is passed around the

ring. Each token is sent around the ring until it reaches its final destination. Ring is flow of

information is only in one direction, is not used if a large no. of nodes are connected.

Advantages of Ring Topology-

 --Every computer gets an equal access.

--Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus

topology.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology—

Failure of one component on the ring can affect the whole n/w-Difficult to troubleshoot-Each

packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. This makes it

slower than Star topology. Adding or remove computer is difiicult.It disturb n/w.

3) STAR TOPOLOGY:

In star topology all computers are connected via cables to a central location where they are all

connected by a device called Hub.--There is no direct connections among computers.--star are used in

concentrated n/w where the endpoints are directly reachable from a central location, when n/w

expansion is expected & when the greater reliability is needed. The telephone system uses star

topology.
 Advantages of Star Topology 1) As compared to Bus topology it gives far much better

performance, signals don’t necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. A sent signal reaches

the intended destination after passing through no more than 3-4 devices and 2-3 links. Performance of

the network is dependent on the capacity of central hub. 2) Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In

star topology new nodes can be added easily without affecting rest of the network. Similarly

components can also be removed easily. 3) Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the

network. 4) Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network. At the same time, it is easy

to detect the failure and troubleshoot it.

Disadvantages of Star Topology 1) Too much dependency on central device has its own

drawbacks. If it fails whole network goes down. 2) The use of hub, a router or a switch as central

device increases the overall cost of the network. 3) Performance and as well number of nodes which

can be added in such topology is depended on capacity of central device.

5) TREE TOPOLOGY:

Working:- 1. A tree topology is cascading of star. 2. As in a star, nodes in a tree are linked to a central

hub head end that controls the traffic to a network. However, not every computer plugs into the

central hub, majority of them are connected to a secondary hub which in turn is connected to the

central hub as shown in fig. 3. The central hub head is either a switch or a router. 4. The central hub

contains a repeater, which looks at the incoming bits and 99 regenerates them afresh as full blown

signals for 0 or 1 as per case. 5. This allows the digital signals to traverse over longer distances. 6.

Therefore, the central hub is also called active hub. 7. The tree topology also contains many

secondary hubs, which may be active hubs or passive hubs.

 Advantages-

It allows the n/w to isolate & attach priorities to the communication.

It can allow more devices to be attached to single hub.

Disadvantage-

If central hub fails the system breaks down.

The cabling cost more.

6)MESH TOPOLOGY:

In Mesh Topology every device is physically connected to every other devices with a point

to point dedicated link.

--Dedicated means link carries data only between 2 devices.

--Complete Topology

--It don’t have traffic congestion problem.

 Advantages-

1) Robust because the failure of ny one computer doesn’t bring down entire n/w.

2) Provides security & Privacy.

3) Point to Point links make fault diagnosis easy

4) Each connection can carry data reliably.

5) MAC Address need not be used.

Disadvantage-

1) Since every computer connected to every computer installation & reconfiguration is difficult.

2) Cabling cost more.

3) Suitable for smaller n/w.

4) The h/w required to connect each link I/O & cable is expensive

7) HYBRID TOPOLOGY:
 Explanation:- 1. Hybrid topology is one that uses two or more basic topologies together the above

figure depict this. 2. In this case, the bus, star & ring topologies are used to create this hybrid

topology. There are multiple ways in which this can be created. 3. The hybrid topology which is to be

used for a particular application depends on the requirements of that application. 4. In practice, many

networks are quite complex but they can be reduced to some form of hybrid topology.

Network Classification:

Classification of network based on:

• 1) Based on transmission technologies

• 2)Based on Physical size

• 3) Based on Architecture
Based on Architecture:

1) Client Server Network: In this network, a centralized computer, server is used for sharing

the resources and providing services to other computers, clients. Thus the name Client Server.

The servers stores all the network's shared files and applications programs, such as word

processor documents, compilers, database applications, spreadsheets, and the network

operating system. Client will send request to access information from the server. Based on the

request, server will send the required information to the client.

 2)

Types of Transmission Technology

Transmission is actually process of sending and propagating analog or signal of

digital information. Transmission technology generally refers to physical layer

protocol duties like modulation, demodulation, line, coding, and many more. It might

also include higher-level protocol duties such as digitizing analog signal, data

compression, etc.

Types of Transmission Technology :

Transmission media is basically divided into two categories : Broadcast Networks,

Point-to-Point Networks. These are explained as following below.

1. Broadcast Networks :
Broadcast networks are also known as terrestrial networks. It is basically group of
radio stations, television stations, or any other electronic media outlets that simply
generate agreement to air, or broadcast, content generally from centralized source.
Broadcasting is simply method of transferring message to all of recipients
simultaneously.
In this network, message that is sent by node is received by all of other connected
nodes to network and share common medium of communication. Broadcast
networks also avoid procedures of complex routing of switched network by simply
confirming and ensuring that each of transmission of nodes is basically received by
all of other nodes in the network. This is reason why broadcast network has single
communications channel.
In this network, each of receiving stations just receives all signals that are sent by
transmitters. Even routing of signals is highly affected passively. These networks
generally have single communication that is shared by all machines present on
network. Short messages also are known as packets that are sent by any of
machines present are received by all of the others present over there. Some of
systems of broadcast also support transmission to subset of machines also known
as multicasting. It just links, in contrast, communication channel that is basically
shared by all of machines in network.

Advantages of Broadcast Networks –

• In this network, packets are generally transmitted and received by all of
computers.
• It allows multicasting in the network.
• It has no limit. Even events can also run as long as required.
• It ensures better utilization of all resources available.
Disadvantages of Broadcast Networks –
• It cannot accommodate huge number of devices.
• It doesn’t allow personalization of message.
2. Point-to-Point Networks :
Point-to-Point Networks or Point-to-Point Connection is type of private data
connection that is connecting securely two or more locations for private data
services. It might also be configured to usually carry voice, internet, and data
services together all over same point-to-point network. It simply refers to type of
communication connection among two endpoints or nodes of communication. It is
connection among pairs of machines. Transmission from point-to-point with one
sender and receiver is commonly known as unicasting.
This network is generally used for two locations that are required to securely send
data that is very sensitive and confidential among each of locations. A point-to-point
or P2P (Data Link) also gives or provides path from one point that is fixed to other
point being fixed. It is very closed network data transport service that does not
travel through public Internet. This network includes various connections among
individual pairs of machine. A packet present on these types of networks might be
needed to go through intermediate computers before they reach desired or
destination computer. The packets also need to follow multiple routes of different
length sizes.
Therefore, routing algorithms are very essential and important in point-to-point
connection. This network is generally available in range of bandwidth speeds along
with point-to-point T1, point-to-point Ethernet, or many more.
Advantages of Point-to-Point Networks –
• It increases productivity.
• It generally uses leased lines so that speeds are guaranteed.
• It provides better security so that data can be transferred securely with
confidence.
Disadvantages of Point-to-Point Networks –
• With this network, we can only connect two sites.
• It is very expensive for distant locations.
 Classification of Computer Network on

basis of Architecture

Computer networks are usually developed to fulfill needs of their clients and users.
Network architecture generally refers to design of computer network or
communications network. It simply describes allocation task between all of
computers in network. It is simply way in which all network devices and services are
organized and managed to connect clients like laptops, tablets, servers, etc. and
also how tasks are allocated to computer. It also facilitates system-level
functionality even robustness, extensibility, and evolvability. It is basically defined
and described as physical and logical design of software, hardware, protocols, and
media of data transmission.
Classification of Network based on use of computer nodes :
Network architecture is classified into following categories :

Peer-to-Peer Network :

In the P2P (Peer-to-Peer) network, “peers” generally represent computer system.

These peers are connected to each other with help of Internet. Files might be

shared directly without requirement of central server among these systems on the
network. It can be said that each of computers on P2P network usually becomes file

server even as client also. In this architecture, system is generally decomposed into

various computational nodes that contain the same and equivalent capabilities,

abilities, and responsibilities.

In this network, tasks are allocated at each and every device available on network.
This network is very essential and important for small environments, usually up to at
least 10 computers. There is also no separate division as clients and servers. Each
and every computer in this network are treated same and equally and might send
even receive message directly. This P2P network is generally useful in various
fields such as business, education, military, etc.

1. Advantages :
• Dedicated server or centralized is not very essential, so P2P network is less
costly and is very cheaper. It is affordable.
• P2P is very simple and not complex. This is because all computers that are
connected in network communication in an efficient and well-mannered with
each other.
• It is very easy and simple to set up and manage as installation and setup is
less painless and computer manages itself. This is because of built-in support
in modern operating systems.
Disadvantages :
• Security is one of major issues in this type of network. This is because
message that is sent flows freely among connected computers.
• If computer working with some of resources is down and sharing of resources
might become major problem.
• Performance, security, and access can also become major problem and
headache with an increase in number of computers on this network.
2. Client/Server Network :
CSN (Client/Server Network) is type of computer network in which one of
centralized and powerful computers (commonly called as server) is hub to
which many of personal computers that are less powerful or workstations
(commonly known as clients) are connected. It is type of system where
clients are connected to server to just share or use resources. These servers
are generally considered as heart of system.
This type of network is more stable and scalable as compared to P2P network.
In this architecture, system is generally decomposed into client and server
processor or processes. This architecture supports separation of functionality
commonly based on concept of service.

Advantages :
• A special Network Operating System (NOS) is provided by server to
provide resources to many users that request them.
• It is also very easy and simple to set up and manage data updates.
This is because data is generally stored in centralized manner on
server.
• The server usually controls resources and data security.
• This network also boosts speed of sharing resources.
Disadvantages :
 • If anyhow server goes down or crashes, entire will be affected by this.
• It is very expensive as compared to P2P. This is due to need for server
with greater memory as well as need for many networking devices such
as hubs, routers, switches, etc.
• Cost of NOS being provided is very high.

Types of area networks – LAN, MAN and

WAN

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers via
any medium. LAN, MAN and WAN are the three major types of the network designed to
operate over the area they cover. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between
them. One of the major differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the
smallest area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest of all.
There are other types of Computer Networks also, like :
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• SAN (Storage Area Network)
• EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
• VPN (Virtual Private Network)
Local Area Network (LAN) –
LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that
personal computer and workstations can share data, tools and programs.
The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch,
or stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the
 TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other
computers on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a
LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked are
limited. By definition, the connections must be high speed and relatively
inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet
cables). LANs cover smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few
kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building,
home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A
Communication medium used for LAN has twisted pair cables and coaxial
cables. It covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are
minimized.
Early LAN’s had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are
normally 100 or 1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The
smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on
wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless
connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is
more and there is less congestion in this network. For example : A bunch
of students playing Counter Strike in the same room (without internet).
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –
MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN
and smaller area as compared to WAN. It connects two or more
computers that are apart but resides in the same or different cities. It
covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP (Internet
Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity. Speeds of MAN ranges in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design
and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.
The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the
network. It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN is moderate.
Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are: Modem and
Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the telephone company
network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable
TV network in a city.
Wide Area Network (WAN) –
WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state
or country. A WAN could be a connection of LAN connecting to other LAN’s
via telephone lines and radio waves and may be limited to an enterprise (a
corporation or an organization) or accessible to the public. The technology is
high speed and relatively expensive.
There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN
is difficult to design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a
WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A Communication
medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed, since it involves
increased distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc.
Speeds of WAN ranges from few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per
second (Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here.
Devices used for transmission of data through WAN are: Optic wires,
Microwaves and Satellites. Example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous
transfer mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is dial-up line that
connects a home computer to the Internet.

Conclusion –
There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN’s
provide excellent reliability, high data transmission rate, they can easily be
managed, and shares peripheral devices too. Local Area Network cannot
cover cities or towns and for that Metropolitan Area Network is needed, which
can connect city or a group of cities together. Further, for connecting Country
or a group of Countries one requires Wide Area Network.
 Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via
sender and receiver is referred to as network topology. The various network
topologies are :

a) Mesh Topology :
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via the particular
channel.
Figure 1: Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These
channels are known as links.

• If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh

topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is? N-1. In
Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
ports required is 4.
• If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then a total number of dedicated links required to connect them
is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of this topology :
• It is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
Problems with this topology :
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.
b) Star Topology :
? In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node.
The hub can be passive? in nature i.e., not intelligent hub such as broadcasting
devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as active? hubs. Active
hubs have repeaters in them.
Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to single point of
connection i.e. hub.
a Advantages of this topology :
• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub.
Problems with this topology :

• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
c) Bus Topology :
? Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a
single direction. No bi-directional feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology
crashes.
Figure 3 : A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to
the channel via drop lines.
Advantages of this topology :
• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1 ?which is known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
• The cost of the cable is less as compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.
Problems with this topology :
• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted
Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.

d) Ring Topology :
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two neighboring
devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes,
because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology
with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.
Figure 4 : A ring topology comprises of 4 stations connected with each forming a
ring.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :

1. One station is known as monitor station which takes all the responsibility to
perform the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is
done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases
the token just after transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the
token after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of this topology :
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
Problems with this topology :
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.

e) Tree Topology :
? This topology is the variation of Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical
flow of data.
Figure 5 : In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater. In this data flow from top to bottom i.e from the central
hub to secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the
secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-
robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of this topology :

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it increases the
distance that is travel by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolate and also prioritize from different computers.
Problems with this topology :

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.

• The cost is high because of cabling.