Experiment number: 1

Experiment title: Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

1. Aim:
i. To determine the rate of heat transfer, log mean temperature difference (LMTD) and
overall heat transfer coefficient in the shell and tube heat exchanger.
ii. Compute the inside and outside film heat transfer coefficients.

2. Theory and Experimental Setup:

The heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat from one fluid to another, which is at
different temperatures. It is used in almost all chemical process industries. There are various
types of heat exchangers used in the process industry, such as shell–and–tube, parallel tube
with co–flow and counter–flow configurations, finned tube, plate and frame, helical and spiral
heat exchangers etc. Shell and tube heat exchanger consists of a tube bundle, which is inserted
in a shell. It is used when required heat transfer area is more than 10-20 m2. One fluid flows in
the tube and another in shell. Here the flow pattern may be either parallel flow pattern or as
counter flow pattern, but the current apparatus has counter flow pattern.

Temperatures are measured with the help of thermocouples. Readings are recorded when
steady state is reached. The shell is provided with adequate insulation to check heat loss. The
present experimental setup for shell and tube heat exchanger experiment consists of the
following components:

1. Main frame
2. Shell and tube heat exchanger
3. Temperature indicators and sensors
4. Hot water generator
5. Rotameters for hot and cold water flow rate measurements.

Hot fluid is hot water, which is heated with the help of heater fitted in the tank and circulated
with the help of magnetic drive pump. Cold water flows in the inner tube and hot water flows
in the shell. Different valves are provided in the system to regulate the flow rate of liquid.
Water tank is fitted with heater and digital temperature controller. Temperatures and flow rates
were measured at inlets and outlets for both tube and shell sides of the heat exchangers. The
schematic diagram of the apparatus is shown in Figure. 1.

3. Specifications:
Outer diameter of tube, 𝐷0 : 0.016 m
Inner diameter of tube , 𝐷𝑖 : 0.013 m
Number of tubes, 𝑁𝑇 : 24 (12 + 12)
Length of tube, 𝐿 : 0.5 m

Figure 1: Schematic diagram for shell and tube heat exchanger.

4. Experimental procedure

i. Fill water bath ¾ with clean water and switch ON pump to circulate water. Once water
flow is continuous, switch ON the heaters.
ii. Adjust the required temperature of hot water using Digital Temperature Controller
(DTC) (i.e., around 55 0C to 60 0C) in the water bath and maintain the hot water
temperature at a constant value throughout the experiment, either at 55 0C or 60 0C.
 iii. Once the temperature of the hot water has reached the required value, start the flow of
water through both hot and cold water side and maintain the constant flow rate of hot
water in the shell side and cold water flow rate may vary.
iv. Once the flow gets stabilized in both hot and cold side record the temperature and
flow rate readings.
v. Change the flow rates of cold water, wait for steady state, and note down another set
of readings. In this way, take 6-7 readings at different flow rates of cold water, while
keeping the hot water flow rate constant.
vi. Now, change the temperature or flow rate of hot water and repeat steps iii-iv.

5. Observations& calculations:

5.1 Observation Table:

Hot water side Cold water side

Flow
Sr. Inlet Outlet Inlet Outlet
Flow rate rate
No. temperature temperature temperature temperature
(Fh), LPH (Fc),
(Thi),°𝑪 (Tho),°𝑪 (Tci),°𝑪 (Tco),°𝑪
LPH
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

5.2 Properties:

Estimate the properties of water for both hot side and cold side (Reference: Perry’s
Handbook of Chemical Engineering) at average temperature as follows:

𝑇ℎ𝑜 + 𝑇ℎ𝑖
𝑇ℎ =
2
𝑇𝑐𝑜 + 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝑇𝑐 =
2
Specific heat of cold water, cpc = _________________ J/kg.K
Specific heat of hot water, cph = _________________ J/kg.K
Density of cold water, c = _________________ kg/m3
Density of hot water, h = _________________ kg/m3

6. Calculations:

Perform calculations for all sets of readings in the report. Show detailed calculations of one
set of readings. All the students in the group will show detailed calculations of different sets
of readings in the report. Following procedure should be followed for calculations.

i. Velocity of cold water (m/s):

𝐹𝑐
𝑣= = ______________________________________ 𝑚/𝑠
NT Ac (3600 x 1000)

𝜋𝐷𝑖2
𝐴𝑐 = = __________________𝑚2
4

ii. Mass flow rate of hot water (mh) (kg/s):

𝐹ℎ 𝜌ℎ
𝑚ℎ = = ______________________________________ 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600 x 1000

iii. Heat transferred from hot water (Qh) (W):

𝑄ℎ = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝ℎ × (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 ) = ______________________________ 𝑊
iv. Mass flow rate of cold water (mc) (kg/s):
𝐹𝑐 . 𝜌𝑐
𝑚𝑐 = = ______________________________________ 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600 x 1000
v. Heat transferred to cold water (Qc) (W)

𝑄𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 × 𝐶𝑝𝑐 × (𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 ) = ______________________________ 𝑊

vi. Heat loss from the exchanger = 𝑄ℎ − 𝑄𝑐 W = _______________ W

𝑄
vii. Efficiency of the heat exchanger = 𝑄𝑐 ∗ 100 = _______________
ℎ

viii. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (∆Tm), in °C

∆T1 = Thi – Tci = ________________ oC

∆T2 = Tho – Tco = ________________ oC

 Δ𝑇2 − Δ𝑇1
Δ𝑇𝑚 = _______.𝑜 𝐶
Δ𝑇2
𝑙𝑛 (Δ𝑇 )
1

As it is a U–tube heat exchanger, multiply the LMTD with the correction factor (FT) to get
the modified LMTD (Figure 2).

Figure 2: LMTD correction factor: one shell pass and two tube passes (Reference: Coulson
and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page number – 657, Figure 12.19)

ix. Outer surface area for the inner tube:

Ao= NDoL = __________________ m2
x. Overall heat transfer coefficient (U), W/m2℃

𝑄𝑐
𝑈= = _____________________𝑊/𝑚2 .𝑜 𝐶
𝐴𝑜 × ΔT𝑚

xi. Use Seider-Tate equation to compute the inside film heat transfer coefficient ℎ𝑖 by
assuming viscosity correction factor as unity.
ℎ𝑖 𝐷𝑖
= 𝑗𝐻 𝑃𝑟 1/3
𝑘
where 𝑗𝐻 (jh.Re) is obtained from Figure 3, where 𝑅𝑒 = 𝐷𝑖 𝑣𝜌/𝜇 is the Reynolds
number and 𝑃𝑟 = 𝐶𝑝 𝜇⁄𝑘.
Figure 3: Heat transfer factor for flow inside tubes (Reference: Coulson and Richardson’s
Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page number – 665, Figure 12.23)

xii. Compute the outside film heat transfer coefficient ℎ0 using the relation
1 1 𝐷0 1
= −
ℎ0 𝑈 𝐷𝑖 ℎ𝑖
xiii. Repeat steps i-xii for all set of readings

7. Results & Discussions:

i. Make a plot of 𝑈, ℎ𝑖 , and ℎ0 against 𝑅𝑒 and provide a physical interpretation of
the results obtained.
ii. Explain the possible reasons of heat loss or low efficiency of the heat exchanger.

8. Precautions:
i. Do not put on heater unless water flow is continuous.
ii. Once the flow is fixed, do not change it until you note down the readings for that
flow.
iii. Thermocouple should be kept in pockets.
iv. Once the experiment is completed, drain out the water from both the tubes.

9. References:
 i. Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., "Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering”
Volume 6, 6th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996, Page 655–668.
ii. Holman, J.P., “Heat transfer”, 9th Edition, McGraw Hill, NY, 2008, Page 525-526,
528-531.
iii. Kern, D. Q., “Process Heat Transfer” 8th ed.,McGraw Hill,1997,Page No:127-172.
iv. Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th ed.,1997,Page 11-33 -11-45
 Experiment number: 2

Experiment title: Double Pipe Heat exchanger with Parallel/Counter Flow Configuration

1. Aim:
i. To calculate rate of heat transfer, log mean temperature difference (LMTD) and overall
heat transfer coefficient for parallel and counter flow heat exchangers.
ii. To compare the performance of parallel and counter flow heat exchanger using
effectiveness–NTU method.
iii. Compute the individual film coefficients.

2. Theory:
Heat exchanger is a device used to transfer heat from one fluid to another fluid which are at
different temperatures. It is used in almost all industries. Simplest example of heat exchanger is
the double pipe heat exchanger. Double pipe heat exchanger consists of two cocentric pipes in
pipes, in which one fluid flows through the inner pipe and the other fluid flows through the annulus.
Heat transfer takes place across the wall of inner tube. The experiment is conducted by keeping
the flow rates same (approximately) while running the apparatus as parallel flow (when fluid
moves in the same direction) or as counter flow (when fluids move in opposite directions).
Temperatures are measured with the help of thermocouples. Readings are recorded when steady
state is reached. The outer tube is provided with adequate insulation to check heat loss. The present
experimental setup for parallel/counter flow heat exchanger consist of following components:

1. Main Frame
2. Heat exchanger
3. Temperature Indicator
4. Hot water generator
5. Rotameter for hot and cold water flow rate measurement.
6. Temperature Sensors
Hot fluid is hot water which is heated with the help of heater fitted in the tank and circulated with
the help of pump. Cold water flows in the annular tube. Different valves are provided in the
apparatus to regulate the flow rate of liquid and make the system to run in parallel− or counter−
flow mode. The schematic diagram of the double pipe heat exchanger experiment is given in Figure
1 below:

Figure 1: Schematic diagram for double pipe counter and parallel flow heat exchangers.

3. Specifications:
Inner tube material : Copper
Inner diameter of inner tube, 𝑑𝑖 : 9.5 mm
Outer diameter of inner tube, 𝑑0 : 12.7 mm
Outer tube material : G.I. (GALVANIZED IRON)
Inner diameter of outer tube, 𝐷𝑖 : 28 mm
Outer diameter of outer tube, 𝐷0 : 34 mm
 Length of tube : 1.6m
Heater power : 3 kW
Thermostat : 1 (range 100-1000 C)
MCB : 16 Amp Heater, 6 Amp for Pump
Type of Pump : magnetic drive pump, power ¼ HP

4. Experimental procedure
i. Fill water bath ¾ with clean water and switch ON pump to circulate water. Once water
flow is continuous, switch ON the heaters.
ii. Adjust the required temperature of hot water using Digital Temperature Controller
(DTC) (i.e., around 55 0C to 60 0C) in the water bath and maintain the hot water
temperature at a constant value throughout the experiment, either at 55 0C or 60 0C.
iii. For parallel flow, the flow of hot and cold water should be on the same end of the heat
exchanger and for counter flow, the flow of hot and cold water should be from the
opposite ends. Make this arrangement as per the instructions below:
A. For Parallel Flow:
i. Open the valves V1, V2, V5 and V6 and close the valves V4 and V3.
ii. Once the temperature of the hot water has reached the required value, start the
flow of water through both hot and cold water side and maintain the constant
flow rate of hot water in the annulus and cold water flow rate in the inside pipe
may vary.
iii. Wait for the temperature to stabilize on the indicator.
iv. Record the flow rate of hot and cold water from the rotameter attached to the
instrument.
v. As the temperature gets steady, record the temperature for different four
channels, i.e. T1, T2, T6 and T5 using switch on the panel.
vi. Take 6-7 readings for different cold water flow rates at constant hot water flow
rare in the annulus.
B. For Counter-current flow:
i. Open the valves V1, V4, V3, and V6 and close the valves V5 and V2.
 ii. Once the temperature of the hot water has reached the required value, start the
flow of water through both hot and cold water side and maintain the constant
flow rate of hot water in the annulus and cold water flow rate in the inside pipe
may vary.
iii. Wait for the temperature to stabilize on the indicator.
iv. Record the flow rate of hot and cold water from the 12otameter attached to the
instrument
v. As the temperature gets steady, record the temperature for different four
channels, i.e. T1, T2, T3 and T4 using switch on the panel.
vi. Take 6-7 readings for different cold water flow rates at constant hot water flow
rare in the annulus.

5. Observations& calculations:
5.1 Observation Tables:

5.1.1 Parallel flow:

Hot water side Cold water side

Outlet
Sr. Inlet temp. Inlet temp. Outlet
Flow rate temp. Flow rate
No. (Thi or T1), (Tci or T6), temp. (Tco
(Fh), LPH (Tho or T2), (Fc), LPH
°𝑪 °𝑪 or T5), °𝑪
°𝑪
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.
5.1.2 Counter flow:

Sr. Hot water side Cold water side

No. Flow rate Inlet Outlet Flow rate Inlet Outlet

(Fh), temperature temperature (Fc), LPH temperature temperature
LPH (Thi or T1), (Tho or T2), (Tci or T4), °𝑪 (Tco or
°𝑪 °𝑪 T3),°𝑪
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

5.2 Properties:

Estimate the properties of water for both hot side and cold side, from the data book, at average
temperature as follows:

𝑇ℎ0 + 𝑇ℎ𝑖
𝑇ℎ =
2
𝑇𝑐0 + 𝑇𝑐𝑖
𝑇𝑐 =
2
Property Parallel flow Counter flow
Specific heat of cold water, cpc,
kJ/kg.K
Specific heat of hot water, cph, kJ/kg.K

Density of cold water, c, kg/m3

Density of hot water, h, kg/m3

5.3 Calculations for parallel/counter flow:

i. Velocity of cold water, in m/s

𝐹𝑐
𝑣𝑐 = = ______________________________________ 𝑚/𝑠
Ac (3600 x1000)

𝜋𝑑𝑖2
𝐴𝑐 = = __________________ 𝑚2
4

ii. Velocity of hot water in the annulus, in m/s

𝐹ℎ
𝑣ℎ = = ______________________________________ 𝑚/𝑠
Ah (3600 x1000)

𝜋
𝐴ℎ = 4 (𝐷𝑖2 − 𝑑02 ) = __________________ 𝑚2

iii. Mass flow rate of hot water (mh), in kg/s

𝐹ℎ 𝜌ℎ
𝑚ℎ = = ______________________________________ 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600 x 1000

iv. Heat transferred from hot water (Qh), in W

𝑄ℎ = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝ℎ × (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 ) = ______________________________ 𝑊

v. Mass flow rate of cold water (mc), in kg/s

𝐹𝑐 . 𝜌𝑐
𝑚𝑐 = = ______________________________________ 𝑘𝑔/𝑠
3600 x 1000

vi. Heat transferred to cold water (Qc), in W

𝑄𝑐 = 𝑚𝑐 × 𝐶𝑝𝑐 × (𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 ) = ______________________________ 𝑊

vii. Heat loss from the exchanger= 𝑄ℎ − 𝑄𝑐 W

𝑄
viii. Efficiency of the heat exchanger = 𝑄𝑐 ∗ 100
ℎ

ix. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (∆Tm), in °C

 For parallel flow,

∆T1 = Thi – Tci = ________________ oC

∆T2 = Tho – Tco = ________________ oC

For counter flow,

∆T1 = Thi – Tco = ________________ oC

∆T2 = Tho – Tci = ________________ oC

Δ𝑇2 − Δ𝑇1
Δ𝑇𝑚 = _______.𝑜 𝐶
Δ𝑇2
𝑙𝑛 (Δ𝑇 )
1

x. Outer surface area for the inner tube:

Ao= doL = __________________ m2
xi. Overall heat transfer coefficient (U), W/m2℃

𝑄𝑐
𝑈𝑜 = = _____________________𝑊/𝑚2 .𝑜 𝐶
𝐴𝑜 × ΔT𝑚

xii. Use Seider-Tate equation to compute the inside and outside film heat transfer
coefficient ℎ𝑖 and ℎ0 by assuming viscosity correction factor as unity.

ℎ𝑑𝑒𝑞
= 𝑗ℎ 𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 1/3
𝑘

where 𝑑𝑒𝑞 = 𝑑𝑖 for inside film coefficient and 𝑑𝑒𝑞 = 4𝑟𝐻 for outside film coefficient. Here,
𝑟𝐻 is the hydraulic radius defined as

𝐷𝑖 − 𝑑0
𝑟𝐻 =
4

𝑗ℎ (jH/Re) is obtained from Figure 2, where 𝑅𝑒 = 𝑑𝑒𝑞 𝑣𝜌/𝜇 is the Reynolds number and 𝑃𝑟 =
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
.
𝑘
Figure 2: Heat transfer factor for flow inside tubes (Reference: Coulson and Richardson’s
Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page number – 665, Figure 12.23)

Heat transfer coefficient (h) for tube side can also be estimated using the correlation
proposed by Eagle and Ferguson (1930):

ℎ = 4280(0.00488𝑇 − 1)𝑢0.8 /𝑑 0.2

xiii. Compute the theoretical value of overall heat transfer coefficient by neglecting wall
resistance.

1 1 𝑑0 1
= +
𝑈𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖 ℎ0

xiv. Capacity ratio, C

𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚ℎ . 𝑐𝑝ℎ = _______________________ 𝑘𝑗/𝑠. 𝐾

𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚𝑐 . 𝑐𝑝𝑐 = _______________________ 𝑘𝑗/𝑠. 𝐾

𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝐶= = _______________________
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
xv. Effectiveness of heat exchanger, 

mc cpc (Tco − Tci ) mh cph (Thi − Tho )

𝜖= =
(m. cp )min (Thi − Tci ) (mcp )min (Thi − Tci )

When, (m. cp )min = mh cph < mc cpc

(Thi − Tho )
𝜀= = ______________
(Thi − Tci )

When, (mcp )min = mc cpc < mh cph

(Tco − Tci )
𝜖= = ______________
(Thi − Tci )

xvi. Number of transfer unit for inner surface, NTU

𝑈𝑜 Ao
𝑁𝑇𝑈 = = __________________
Cmin

xvii. Repeat steps i-xvi for all set of readings

6. Results & Discussions:

(i) Make a plot of 𝑈, 𝑈𝑡ℎ , 𝑁𝑇𝑈against 𝑅𝑒 of inside fluid for both parallel and counter flow
arrangement and give a physical interpretation of obtained results.
(ii) Report and discuss the findings for  and NTU values obtained in the present experiment.

7. Precautions:
(i) Do not put on heater unless water flow is continuous.
(ii) Once the flow is fixed, do not change it until note down the readings for that flow.
(iii) Thermocouple should be kept in pockets.
(iv) Once the experiment is completed drain out the water from in both the tubes.
8. References:
(i) Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., "Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering”
Volume 6, 6th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996, Page 655–668.
(ii) Holman, J.P., “Heat transfer”, 9th Edition, McGraw Hill, NY, 2008, Page 525-526, 528-
531.
(iii) Kern, D. Q., “Process Heat Transfer” ” 8th ed., McGraw Hill,1997, Page 102-126.
(iv) Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook, 7th ed., 1997, Page 11-46 -11-47.
 Experiment number: 3

Experiment title: Finned Tube Heat Exchanger

1. Aim:
(i) to calculate rate of heat transfer, LMTD (Log Mean Temperature Difference) and
overall heat transfer coefficient for parallel/counter flow type of heat exchanger, and
(ii) to obtain the effectiveness of the given heat exchanger.

2. Theory:

Extended surfaces of fins are used to increase the heat transfer rate from a surface to a fluid
wherever it is not possible to increase the value of the surface heat transfer coefficient or the
temperature difference between the surface and the fluid. The fins are attached to the primary heat
transfer surface to increase the heat transfer coefficient for low thermal conductivity fluids. The
temperature difference with surrounding fluid will steadily diminish as one moves out along the
fin. Some of the applications of the fins are: circumferential fins around the cylinder of a motor
cycle engine, fins attached to condenser tubes of a refrigerator, etc. The finned tube heat
exchangers, depending on fins, are categorized as follows:
i. An individually finned tube exchanger or simply a finned tube exchanger, having normal
fins on individual tubes;
ii. a tube-fin exchanger having flat (continuous) fins; the fins can be plain, wavy,or
interrupted, and the array of tubes can have tubes of circular, oval, rectangular, or other
shapes; and
ii. longitudinal fins on individual tubes (a) continuous plain; (b) cut and twisted; (c) perforated;
(d) internal and external longitudinal fins.
The finned parallel/counter-flow heat exchanger consists of following components:

i. Main frame
ii. Tube attached with circumferential fins
iii. Temperature sensors and indicators
iv. Hot water generator (geyser)
v. Flow rate sensors and indicators
Hot fluid is hot water, which is heated with the help of heater fitted in the tank and circulated with
the help of a pump. Cold fluid is air and pumped in the inner tube with the help of a blower.
Different valves are provided in the system to regulate the flow rate of liquid and make the system
to run in parallel mode or counter-flow mode.

3. Experimental setup schematic and description:

The apparatus consists of a tube in tube type concentric tube heat exchanger. The hot fluid is hot
water which is obtained from geyser fitted in the tank. It flow through the inner tube while cold
fluid is air flowing through annulus. The hot water flows in one direction while direction of air can
be reversed with the help of valves to run the apparatus in parallel flow mode or counter-flow
mode. Air is passed using blower which passes through orifice meter attached with manometer.
Manometric fluid is water.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram for finned tube heat exchangers.

4. Specifications:
Inner tube material : Copper
Outer diameter : 15 mm
Inner diameter : 19 mm
Outer tube material : G.I. (GALVANIZED IRON)
Inner diameter : 65.3 mm
No. of longitudinal fins : 41
Length of tube : 1000 mm
Heater : 3 kW (3 nos.)
Digital Temp. Indicator : 0–300 0C
Orifice diameter : 0.025 m
Area of the orifice (A = 𝜋𝑑 2 ⁄4): 4.9 x 10-4 m2
Diameter of fin : 50 mm
Width of fin : 2 mm

5. Experimental procedure
i. Start the flow of water, by adjusting the valve.
ii. Switch on the heaters (geysers).
iii. Run the unit either in parallel flow or counter flow arrangement.
iv. For parallel flow, the flow of hot and cold water should be from the same end and for
counter flow the flow of hot and cold water should be from opposite end. Make this
arrangement as per requirement.
v. The description for parallel and counter flow arrangement, as per the Figure 1, is as
follows:
1. For Parallel Flow:
i. Open the valves V1, V2, V3 and V4 and close the valve V5.
ii. Wait for the temperature to stabilize on the indicator.
iii. As the temperatures become steady, note down the air and water flow rates.
iv. Record the temperature for the four channels, i.e. T1, T2, T3 and T4, using switch
on the panel.
 2. For Counter-current flow:
i. Open the valves V1, V2 and V5 and close the valves V3 and V4.
ii. Wait for the temperature to stabilize on the indicator.
iii. As the temperatures become steady, note down the air and water flow rates.
iv. Record the temperature for the four channels, i.e. T1, T2, T4 and T3, using switch
on the panel.
vi. Switch on the blower to have air flow in the annulus section.
vii. Adjust the air flow rate with the help of gate valve and manometer.
viii. Leave the system for 15 minutes to get stabilized.
ix. Once the temperature of the hot water gets stabilized, note down the temperatures
and flow rates.
x. Record the readings by varying flow rates for both hot and cold sides.

6. Observations & calculations:

6.1 Observation Table:

Hot water Air

Sr. Flow Inlet Outlet Flow Inlet Outlet Flow
configuration temperature temperature rate, temperature temperature rate
no.
℃ ℃ (lph) ℃ ℃ (kg/h)

1. Parallel Flow
2. Counter Flow

3. Parallel Flow
4. Counter Flow

6.2 Calculations:

i. Air flow rate (Qa)

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 A√2gH × 3600 𝑚3 ⁄h𝑟

where
 Cd is the discharge coefficient of orifice (0.64),
g is the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2), and
H is the air head over the orifice and is estimated using the following equation:

ρw
𝐻=h
ρa

where h is the manometer difference, anda is the density of air at STP (kg/m3) and
estimated using the following equation

𝑀×𝑃
ρa = = _________________ 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
R(273 + Ta )

where M is the molecular weight of air, P is the pressure (Pa) and Ta is the air temperature at
the inlet (ᵒC)
ii. Mass flow rate of air (ma), kg/hr

𝑚𝑎 = 𝑄𝑎 × 𝜌𝑎 = __________________ 𝑘𝑔⁄ℎ𝑟

iii. Heat transfer rate from the hot water (qh), (assume cph = 1.0 kcal/kg.0C)

𝑞ℎ = 𝑚ℎ × 𝑐𝑝ℎ × (𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜 ) = ______________________________________

iv. Heat transfer rate to the air (qa), (assume cpa = 0.24 kcal/kg.0C)

𝑞𝑎 = 𝑚𝑎 × 𝑐𝑝𝑎 × (𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖 ) = ______________________________________

v. Average heat transfer rate (q), in kcal/hr

𝑞ℎ + 𝑞𝑎
𝑞= = ________________________________________𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/ℎ𝑟
2

vi. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (∆Tm), in °K

Δ𝑇𝑖 − Δ𝑇𝑜 ______ − ______

Δ𝑇𝑚 = = = _______.𝑜 𝐶
Δ𝑇𝑖
𝑙𝑛 (Δ𝑇 ) 𝑙𝑛 (______)
𝑜

vii. Inner and outer surface area for the inner tube:
Ai= diL = __________________ m2
 Ao= doL + area of fins = __________________ m2
viii. Inner overall heat transfer coefficient (Ui), W/m2℃

𝑄
𝑈𝑖 = = _____________________𝑊/𝑚2 .𝑜 𝐶
𝐴𝑖 × ΔT𝑚

ix. Outside heat transfer coefficient (Uo), W/m2℃

𝑄
𝑈𝑜 = = _____________________𝑊/𝑚2 .𝑜 𝐶
𝐴𝑜 × ΔT𝑚

x. Capacity ratio, C

𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚ℎ . 𝑐𝑝ℎ = _______________________ 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑠.𝑜 𝐶

𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎 . 𝑐𝑝𝑎 = _______________________ 𝑘𝐶𝑎𝑙/𝑠.𝑜 𝐶

xi. Effectiveness of heat exchanger, 

ma cpa (Tco − Tci ) mh cph (Thi − Tho )

𝜖= =
(m. cp )min (Thi − Tci ) (mcp )min (Thi − Tci )

When, (m. cp )min = mh cph < ma cac

(Thi − Tho )
𝜀= = ______________
(Thi − Tci )

When, (mcp )min = ma cac < mh cph

(Tco − Tci )
𝜖= = ______________
(Thi − Tci )

xii. Predict the overall heat transfer coefficient value using the forced convection heat transfer
correlations for flow through tube and annulus, i.e.

1 1 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜 𝑟𝑖 1
= + 𝑙𝑛 [ ] + ( × ) = __________________
𝑈𝑖 ℎ𝑖 𝑘 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑜 ℎ𝑜

where ri is di /2, ro is do/2, k is the thermal conductivity of tube material (330 W/m.0C), and
hi is the inner heat transfer coefficient, and it estimated as
 ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023. 𝑅𝑒 0.8 . 𝑃𝑟 0.3 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒 > 3000
𝑘

The equivalent properties have to be calculated at an average temperature:

𝑇ℎ𝑖 + 𝑇ℎ𝑜
𝑇ℎ,𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

ho is the annulus side heat transfer coefficient, and it estimated as

ℎ𝑜 (𝐷𝑖 − 𝑑𝑜 )
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023(𝑅𝑒 0.8 )𝑃𝑟 0.4 =
𝑘

The characteristic length in Nu and Re is (Di – do), which is the equivqlent diameter for flow
through annulus.The equivalent properties have to be calculated at average temperature:

𝑇𝑎𝑖 + 𝑇𝑎𝑜
𝑇𝑎,𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

7. Results & Discussions:

i. The overall heat transfer coefficients, effectiveness and number of transfer units in
finned tube heat exchanger for both parallel and counter flow configurations are as
follows:
Flow Ui Uo  NTUi NTUo
configuration
Parallel flow
Counter
flow

ii. Compare the values of , Uo, Ui for both cases and discuss its physical significance.

8. Nomenclature:
Ai Area of inner tube, m2
Ao Area of outer surface of inner tubeand the fins, m2
Cd Coefficient of discharge= 0.64
di Inner diameter of inner tube , m
 do Outer diameter of inner tube, m
Di Inner diameter of outer tube, m
g Acceleration due to gravity.
H Air head over the orifice.
qh Heat transfer rate from hot water,
qa Heat transfer rate from air,
q Average heat transfer rate, kcal/hr
Tm Logarithmic mean temperature difference, °K
Uo Overall heat transfer coefficient based on outer area including fins, kcal/m2.s.0C
Ui Overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner area, kcal/m2.s.0C
C Capacity ratio
Cmin Minimum heat capacity
Cmax Maximum heat capacity
 Effectiveness of heat exchanger
A Area of orifice, m2

9. Precautions:
i. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180V and above 230V.
ii. Never switch ON mains supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given on
the panel are at OFF position.
iii. Do not put on heater unless water flow is continuous.
iv. Equipment should be earthed properly.
v. Once the experiment is complete, drain out the water from both the tubes.

10. References:
i. Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., "Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering”
Volume 6, 6th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996, Page 655–668.
ii. McCabe, Smith ,J.C., Hariott, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”,
Seventh Edition. McGraw Hill, NY, 2005, Page 327-329,331-333.
iii. Cengel Yunus A," Heat and Mass Transfer" 2nd Edition, Mc Graw Hill, Chapter 13,
Page 667–705.
 Experiment number: 4

Experiment title: Heat Transfer in Natural Convection

1. Aim:
i. to study the heat transfer phenomena in natural convection, and
ii. to determine heat transfer coefficientfor vertical cylinder in natural convection.

2. Theory:
Convectionis the mechanism of heat transfer through a fluid in the presence of bulk fluid
motion. Convection is classified as natural(or free) and forcedconvection, depending on
how the fluid motion is initiated. In forced convection, the fluid is forced to flow over a
surface or in a pipe by external means such as a pump or a fan. In natural convection, fluid
motion is caused by natural means such as the buoyancy effect, which manifests itself as
the rise of warmer fluid and the fall of the cooler fluid. Convection is also classified as
externaland internal, depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a
channel.
The natural convection phenomenon is due to the temperature difference between surface
and the fluid by natural means, i.e without any external agency. The setup is designed and
fabricated to study the natural convection phenomenon from a vertical cylinder in terms of
average heat transfer coefficient. The heat transfer coefficient is given by:

𝑄𝑎
ℎ=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 )

where h is the heat transfer coefficient, A is the surface area for heat transfer, Qa is the heat
rate, and Ts and Ta are the temperature of surface and air, respectively.

3. Experimental setup schematic and description:

The apparatus consists of a brass tube fitted in rectangular duct in a vertical fashion. The
duct is open from the top and the bottom and forms an enclosure and serves the purpose of
undisturbed surrounding. One side of it is made of glass/acrylic for visualization. A heating
element is kept in vertical tube, which heats the tube surface. The heat is lost from the tube
surface to the surrounding air by natural convection. Digital temperature indicator measure
the temperature at different points with the help of seven temperature sensors. The heat input
to the heater is measured by Digital Ammeter and Digital Voltmeter and can be varied by
dimmerstat.
 Figure 1 Schematic diagram for natural convection experimental setup.

4. Experimental procedure
i. First clean the apparatus and make it free from dust.
ii. Ensure that all ON/OFF Switch given in the panel are inthe OFF position.
iii. Ensure that variac Knob position is at zero position given on the panel.
iv. Switch on the panel to the heater with the help of ON/OFF switch given on the panel.
v. Fix the power input to the heater with the help of variac, Voltmeter and Ammeter
provided.
vi. After 30 minutes record the temperature of the test section at various points in each 5
minutes interval.
vii. If temperature readings are same for three times assume that steady state is achieved.
viii. Record the final temperature.

5. Observations& calculations:

Data:
d = 0.038 m
L = 0.5 m

Observation table:
 Sr.N V I T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8
o. volt amp ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃

1.

2.

Calculations:

i. Amount of heat transfer (Q), in W

Q = V*I = ________________ W

ii. Heat transfer area of cylindrical column (A), in m2

A =dL= _______________m2

iii. Average temperature of the cylindrical column

T1 + T2 + T3 + T4 + T5 + T6 + T7 ____________________________________________________
𝑇𝑠 = = ℃
7 7
Q
ℎ= = ____________________ 𝑊 ⁄𝑚2 𝑜 𝐶
A(Ts − Ta )

where Ta = T8

6. Results and discussions:

The heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tube losing heat by natural convection is
___________ W/m2.oC

7. Nomenclature:
A Heat transfer area of cylindrical column (A), in m2
d Diameter of cylinder, m
W
h Heat transfer coefficient,m2℃
L Length of cylinder, m
Q Amount of heat transfer, W
I Ampere reading, amp
V Voltmeter reading, volts
 Ts Average surface temperature, ℃
Ta Temperature of air,℃
T1 to T7 Surface temperature of test section at different points, ℃.

8. Precautions:
i. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and above than 230
volts.
ii. Never switch ON main power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches given
in the panel are inthe OFF position.
iii. Operate selector switch of temperature indicator gently.
iv. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
v. Do not flockthe passage of air on top.
9. References:
i. Holman, J.P., “Heat transfer”, 9th Edition, McGraw Hill, NY, 2008
ii. McCabe, Smith ,J.C., Hariott, P., “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering”, Seventh
Edition. McGraw Hill, NY, 2005, Page 459-464
 Experiment number: 5

Experiment title: Dropwise and Filmwise Condensation

1. Aim:
i. to have a visual observation of filmwise and dropwise condensation, and
ii. to determine overall heat transfer coefficients in both filmwise and dropwise
condensation both experimentally as well as theoretically.

2. Theory:
In all process, the steam must condense as it transfers heat to a cooling medium, e.g. cold
water in condenser of a generating station, hot water in a heating calorimeter etc. during
condensation very high heat fluxes are possible and provided the heat can quickly be
transferred from the condensing surface to cooling medium, heat exchangers using steam
can be compact and effective.
Steam condenses on surface by two types: 'filmwise' and 'dropwise'. For the same
temperature difference between steam and surface dropwise condensation is more effective
than filmwise condensation.

(i) Filmwise condensation:

Most materials are wettable and as condensation occurs a film condensate spreads over the
surface. The thickness of film depends upon a number of factors like rate of condensation,
the viscosity of condensate and whether surface is horizontal or vertical. Fresh vapor
condenses on outside of film and heat is transferred by conduction through the film to the
metal surface beneath. As the film thickness increases, it flows downwards and dips from
lowest point, leaving the film intact. The film of liquid is a barrier to the transfer of heat and
its resistance accounts for most of the difference between the effectiveness of filmwise and
dropwise condensation.

(ii) Dropwise condensation:

By specialy treating the condenser surface, the contact angle can be changed and surface
become non- wettable. As steam condenses, a large number of beads cover the surface. As
condensation proceeds the beads become larger, coalesces and strikes downward over the
surface. The moving beads gather all static beads along with it in its downwardspath in its
trail. The bare surface offers very little resistance to the transfer of heat and very high heat
fluxes are possible. Unfortunately, due to the nature of material used in the construction of
condenses, filmwise condensation is normal.
3. Experimental setup schematic and description:
The apparatus consists of a vertical frame. Condensation tubes are fitted inside compact glass
cylinder. The steam is provided in the cylinder from a steam generator. Two valves are fitted
to control flow rate of water in individual tubes. Digital temperature indicators are used to
monitor the temperatures at different locations in the experimental setup. A Digital
Temperature Controller is provided for controlling temperature of steam. Pressure gauge is
used to observe steam pressure and a rotameter is used to measure the cold water flow rate.
Water Level Indicator(not shown) is provided to safeguard the heater. Condensate is
measured using a measuring cylinder after the completion of the experiment.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram for filmwise and dropwise condensation experimental setup.

4. Experimental procedure
i. Ensure that ON/OFF switches given on the panel are at OFF positions.
ii. Close all drain valves.
iii. Open the funnel valve and air vent valve provided at the top of the steam generator.
 iv. Fill water in the steam generator up to ¾th of its capacity by observing the level of water
in level indicator.
v. Switch ON the main supply.
vi. Set the required steam temperature with the help of DTC, above 100 ℃.
vii. Switch ON the heater and wait until the steam temperature reaches to the required value.
viii. Ensure that wet steam vent valve(V1)and gate valve(V2)provided at the front are closed.
ix. Allow steam to pass through the pipe and slowly open wet steam vent valve(V1)to
release wet steam from the pipe.
x. Close the vent valve(V1).
xi. Connect cooling water supply.
xii. Open the valve (V3) or (V4) to allow cooling water to flow through the desired condenser
(Ensure that during experiment, water is flowing only through the condenser under test
and the second valve is closed).
xiii. Set the flow rate of cooling water by Rotameter.
xiv. Open the gate valve(V2) to allow steam to enter in the test section and start the stop
watch to measure mass of steam condensed.
xv. Observe the steam that gets condensed on the tubes, and falls down in the glass cylinder
(Depending upon the type of condenser under test i.e. Dropwise or Filmwise
condensation).
xvi. After reaching the steady state, record the temperature, flow rate of cooling water and
steam pressure.
xvii. Stop the steam supply to the column with the help of gate valve(V2) and stop the stop
watch and open the drain valve(V5) of the glass chamber to measure the condensate in
a particular time.

5. Observations& calculations:

Data:
Do = 0.019 m
Di = 0.016 m
L = 0.175 m
Fluid Properties: From physical property data at experimental condition from literature.
k (at 40 ℃) = 0.628 W/m.℃
(at 100 ℃) = 0.6775 W/m.℃

Observation table:

Sr. Fw, Time, T1 T2 T3 T4 T5

V, ml
No. lph T(s) ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃ ℃
 Calculations:

i. Density of steam at T,P noted 𝜌𝑆 =____________________________

ii. Steam mass flow rate (Ms), in

V
𝑀𝑠 = . . 𝜌𝑆 = ______________________________________
t
iii. Mass flow rate of water (Mw), in kg/s
𝐹𝑊 . 𝜌𝑊
𝑀𝑊 = = ______________________________________
iv. Heat loss from steam (Qs), in W
𝑄𝑆 = 𝑀𝑆 × 𝜆 = ______________________________________
v. Heat transferred to cold water (Qw), in W
𝑄𝑊 = 𝑀𝑊 × 𝐶𝑃 × (𝑇4 − 𝑇5 ) = ______________________________________
vi. Average heat transfer (Q), in W

𝑄𝑊 + 𝑄𝑆
𝑄= = ________________________________________
2
vii. Inside heat transfer coefficient (hi), W/m2℃
𝑄
ℎ𝑖 = = ________________________________________
𝐴𝑖 × ΔT𝑚
viii. Outside heat transfer coefficient (ho), W/m2℃

𝑄
ℎ𝑜 = = ________________________________________
𝐴𝑜 × ΔT𝑚

ix. Logarithmic mean temperature difference (∆Tm), in °K

Δ𝑇2 − Δ𝑇1 ______ − ______
Δ𝑇𝑚 = = = _______
Δ𝑇2
𝑙𝑛 (Δ𝑇 ) 𝑙𝑛 (______)
1
∆T1= T3 – T1 For Plated condenser
∆T1 = T3 – T2 For Plain condenser
∆T2= T4 – T5 (Water outlet – Water inlet)
x. Experimental overall heat transfer coefficient (Uex),in W/m2℃

1 1 𝐷𝑖 1
= + [ × ] = _______________________
𝑈𝑒𝑥 ℎ𝑖 𝐷𝑂 ℎ𝑜

xi. Calculation of Theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient (Uth), in W/m2℃

 𝑅𝑒𝑑 = ____________________________

𝑁𝑢𝑙 = 0.023(𝑅𝑒𝑑 )0.8 (𝑃𝑟)0.4 = _________________

𝑁𝑢𝑙 𝑘
ℎ𝑖 = =
𝐿
0.25
𝜆𝜌22 𝑔𝑘23
ℎ𝑜 = 0.943 [ ] = ________
(𝑇𝑆 − 𝑇𝑊 )𝜇𝐿

1 1 𝐷𝑖 1
= + [ × ] = _______________________
𝑈𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑖 𝐷𝑂 ℎ𝑜

6. Results & Discussions:

The overall heat transfer coefficients from both experimental and theoretical calculations
for filmwise and dropwise condensation processes is as follows:

Condensation process Experimental overall heat Theoretical overall heat

transfer coefficient (Uex) transfer coefficient (Uth)
Filmwise condensation
Dropwise condensation

7. Nomenclature:

Ai Inside heat transfer area, m2

Ao Outside het transfer area, m2
Di Inner diameter of plated and plain cylinder, m
Do Outside diameter of plated and plain cylinder, m
Fw Flow rate of cooling water, LPH
hi Inside heat transfer coefficient, W/m2℃
ho Outside heat transfer coefficient, W/m2℃
Ms Rate of steam condensation, kg/s
Mw Cold Water Flow rate, kg/s
Nul Nusselt number
Pr Prandtl number
Q Average heat transfer, W
Qs Heat losses from steam, W
Qw Heat taken by water, W
Red Reynolds number
TS Temperature of steam, ᵒC
Tw Temperature of condenser wall, ᵒC
 T1 Surface Temperature of Plated Condenser, ᵒC
T2 Surface Temperature of Plain Condenser, ᵒC
T3 Temperature of steam in column, ᵒC
T4 Water inlet Temperature, ᵒC
T5 Water outlet Temperature, ᵒC
ΔTm Log mean temp difference, ᵒC
t Time taken to collect V ml of condensed steam, in s
Uex Experimental overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝑊/𝑚2 ℃
Uth Theoretical overall heat transfer coefficient, W/𝑚2 ℃
V Volume of condensed steam collected in measuring cylinder, in ml
Cp Specific heat of water, kJ/kg K
L Length of condenser, m
ρw Density of water, kg/𝑚3
ν Kinematic Viscosity, 𝑚2 /𝑠
k Thermal conductivity, W/m ᵒC
λ Latent heat of steam, J/kg

8. Precautions:
i. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230 volts.
ii. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
iii. Operator should switch OFF the temperature indicator gently.
iv. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.
9. References:
1. Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., "Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering Volume
2", 5th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996, Page 623-624.
2. Jutz-Scharkus, "Westarmann Tables", 3"1 ed., New Age International Publishers., ND,
2008, Page 32.
3. Arora, D., “A Course in Heat & Mass Transfer”, 6thed., Dhanpat Rai & CO.(P)
LTD.,NY,2003, page A.6.
 Experiment number: 6

Experiment title: Open Pan Evaporator

1. Aim:
To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient, capacity, steam consumption, and
economy of an open pan evaporator.

2. Theory:
Evaporation is a process of concentrating the solution of a non-volatile solute and volatile
solvent (water). The concentrated solution is produced by the removal of required amount
of volatile solvent. The heat is supplied to the solution to increase the temperature of the
solution to its boiling point and to evaporate the solvent from the solution. The heat transfer
coefficient of an open pan evaporator reduces due to the deposition of solids from the
evaporating solution into the evaporator heat transfer surface, which gives rise to an
additional heat transfer resistance. Also, the heat transfer area may reduce with time with a
decrease in the liquid level, resulting in an additional decrease in the heat transfer coefficient.

Figure 1 Schematic diagram for open pan evaporator experimental setup.

3. Experimental procedure
i. Prepare 10 wt. % solution of sodium carbonate and fill evaporator up to hemispherical
level.
ii. Record the level of solution.
iii. Fill the steam generator about 3/4th of its capacity with water and set the temperature
of steam with the help of a digital temperature controller.
iv. Open the valve of steam when the set temperature of steam is achieved.
 v. Record the temperature of solution.
vi. When this temperature becomes almost constant, note the height of solution with the
help of scale and start the stop watch.
vii. Record the height of solution at different instants of time, e.g., every three minutes for
around ~90 min.

4. Observations:

Radius of sphere, R = 0.145 m

Solution temperature, 𝑇𝑆 =
Entering steam temperature, 𝑇𝐶 =
Amount of condensate collected, 𝑊𝑐 =

S. No. Time, θ Solution level (ℎθ )

5. Calculations:
a) Show that the volume of liquid at a time 𝜃 is given by
𝐻
𝑉𝜃 = 𝜋 𝐻 2 [𝑅 − 3 ] where 𝐻 is the height of solution at time 𝜃

Also, show that the heat transfer area can be approximated by

𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑅𝐻

b) Find the total amount of water evaporated after time 𝜃 using the formula

𝑊𝜃 = (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝜃 ) × 𝜌
 Here, ρ is the density of water (at the solution temperature 𝑇𝑆 found from literature)

c) Assuming the density of the solution ρ is nearly constant and the solute is not
vaporized, estimate the final weight % of solute by the solute material balance,

Solute Material Balance: 𝑉0 𝑋𝑓 = 𝑉𝑃 𝑋𝑃 , where 𝑋𝑓 and 𝑋𝑃 are weight fraction of solute in the
initial and final solution, respectively, and 𝑉𝑃 is the final solution volume.

Can you suggest how to proceed if we also want to account for the density change with time?

d) Find the total heat transfer after time 𝜃 using

𝑄 = 𝑊𝜃 × 𝜆

where λ is the latent heat of vaporization (at the boiling point of water). We assume that
the sensible heat for heating the solution to the boiling point is negligible.

How can we account for the sensible heat in this equation?

e) Find the heat transfer coefficient at time 𝜃, 𝑈𝜃 , using the equation

𝑑𝑄
= 𝑈𝜃 𝐴Δ𝑇
𝑑𝜃
where 𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝜃 is the heat transfer rate at time 𝜃 evaluated from the slope of 𝑄 vs. 𝜃 curve,
and

Δ𝑇 = 𝑇𝑐 − 𝑇𝑠

f) Find the capacity of the evaporator as the kgs of water evaporated per hour, steam
consumption as the kgs of steam fed per hour, economy as the number of kgs of water
vapor vaporized per kg of steam fed to the unit.

6. Results and Discussions:

Overall heat transfer coefficient, U =.............................

Capacity =..................................
Steam consumption=………….
 Economy=.................................

Plot 𝑈𝜃 vs 𝜃 and explain your results.

Suggest methods to improve the economy of the evaporator.
If you have performed the single effect evaporator experiment, explain the similarities and
differences between the two evaporators.

7. Precautions:
i. Never run the apparatus if power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230 volts.
ii. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF switches
given on the panel are at OFF position.
iii. Operator switch OFF temperature indicator gently.
iv. Always keep the apparatus free from dust.

8. References:
4. Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., "Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering Volume
2", 5th ed., Asian Books ltd., ND, 1996, Page 623-624.
5. Jutz-Scharkus, "Westarmann Tables", 3"1 ed., New Age International Publishers., ND,
2008, Page 32.
6. Arora, D., “A Course in Heat & Mass Transfer”, 6𝑡ℎ ed., Dhanpat Rai & CO.(P)
LTD.,NY,2003, page A.6.
7. Geankoplis, Christie. Transport processes and separation process principles (includes unit
operations). Prentice Hall Press, 2003.
 Experiment number 7(a)
Experiment title: Stefan-Boltzmann law
1. Aim:
i. To describe the relationship between the temperature of the sample and the received
radiation qualitatively.
ii. To determine the gradient of the measured values in the double-logarithmic diagram.
iii. To derive the relationship between the gradient in the logarithmic representation and
the power function using the power laws.
iv. To understand the emission coefficient dependence on the temperature and the
material.
2. Theory and Experimental Setup:
Energy can be exchanged between two bodies in the form of radiation. The radiation must be
able to move from the one body to the other. This is almost always the case when there is a
‘line of sight’ between the bodies. The Stefan-Boltzmann equation states that every object with
a temperature over the absolute zero point emits radiation. The radiation corresponds to a heat
flux and is given by:

𝑄̇ ~ 𝜎 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑇 4 (1)
where,
σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10-8 W/m2 K4)
A = emitting surface, m2
𝑄̇ = heat flux, W
T = temperature, K

The emitted radiation increases to the fourth power of the temperature, which is the absolute
temperature in Kelvin. However, energy is not only emitted - it is also absorbed through
radiation from the surroundings. This is the only way to achieve equilibrium, which also occurs
according to the equation (1). The experiment setup for predicting radiative heat transfer
process is shown in Figure 1 below:

1. Basic housing
2. Rails
3. Thermopile
4. Thermocouples
5. Sample
6. Reflector panels
7. Lamp housing

Figure 1: The experimental setup for the radiative heat transfer

Page 1 of 6
3. Experimental procedure:
i. Start the device and software for radiation heat transfer experiment.
ii. In the software panel under Test, select the "Stefan-Boltzmann law" experiment.
iii. If necessary, calibrate the thermopile (presently not required since it is already
calibrated).
iv. The thermopile is screwed into place at a given distance, e.g. 100 mm. Other
lengths are possible.
v. Select the heavily oxidised copper sample and place onto the first sample holder.
Align the sample.
vi. In the "Modules" menu, open "Chart recorder".
vii. Switch on the lamp at power, P=50%.
viii. Once the measured values in the graph of the chart recorder have stopped
fluctuating, record the measuring point.
ix. Note down the Power, Intensity and Temperature readings.
x. Increase lamp power.
xi. Repeat steps (vii) to (ix). Five measured values are often sufficient for a
meaningful illustration.
xii. Note down the measured values.
xiii. Repeat the steps (v) to (x) for different samples.

4. Observations and Calculations:

i. Note down the Power, intensity and temperature data:
Sr. no. Sample Power (W) Intensity Temperature
(K)
1. Sample 1:
2.
3.
4.
1. Sample 2:
2.
3.
4.

ii. Draw intensity (I) vs temperature (T) in log-log plot for different samples.
iii. Evaluate the slope from the linear curve.
Compare derivation to formula
𝑦 = 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛
log 𝑦 = log 𝑎 + 𝑛 ⋅ log 𝑥
Substitution:
𝑌 = 𝐴 + 𝑛 .𝑋

The gradient "n" in the double-logarithmic representation is equal to the exponent.

Page 2 of 6
5. Discussion:

6. Precautions:
i. The signal words DANGER, WARNING or CAUTION indicate the probability
and potential severity of injury.
ii. Ambient conditions for the operating and storage location such as: Enclosed
space, Free from dirt and humidity, Level and fixed surface, Frost-free.
iii. Radiation from the halogen lamp is very intense at full power. Visual contact can
be blinding. Appropriate eye protection must be worn.
iv. Electrical connections are exposed when the device/lamp housing is open. Risk of
electrical shock.
v. The samples and lamp housing heat up to very high temperatures. Risk of burns.
Do not touch the lamp housing during operation and for a few minutes afterwards.
Only touch the samples when the temperature permits.

Page 3 of 6
 Experiment number: 7(b)
Experiment Title: Kirchhoff’s Law
1. Aim:
Prove that the coefficients of emission and absorption are equal.

2. Theory and Experimental setup:

Kirchhoff's law states that the emission and absorption of a body are equal. Kirchhoff's law
results from considerations of thermodynamics. For considerations on Kirchhoff's law, the
second law of thermodynamics is considered, which is based on everyday experience. There
are several synonymous formulations. One is: "Heat cannot automatically flow from a cooler
body to a hotter body." In this way a body could heat up by extracting heat from a cooler body.
This violates the second law. In thermal equilibrium therefore the temperatures TB and TA and
the coefficients for emission e and absorption a are equal.

Figure 3: Sketch of radiation balance with Kirchhoff's law

The Figure 3 shows that both surfaces are in thermal equilibrium because absorbed and emitted
heat flux are identical. Area (A) emits 100% radiation and area (B) absorbs 60% of it. The
non-absorbed radiation part (40%) is reflected. Since area (B) at the given temperature only
emits 60%, in sum the emitted 100% radiation arrives back at area (A). This is the necessary
condition to be able to expand on the exchange of radiation energy.

3. Experimental procedure:
i. Start the device and software for the radiation heat transfer experiment .
ii. Select the "Kirchhoff's Law" experiment clicking “Test” option in the software panel.
iii. If necessary, calibrate the thermocouples (presently not required since it is already
calibrated).
iv. Select the samples II II and III II, and place them on the sample holder (see Figure 2).
Align the first sample. Place the second sample in a parallel on the second
thermocouple.

Page 4 of 6
 v. In the "Modules" menu, open "Chart recorder".

vi. Switch on the lamp to 80 %.

vii. Once the measured values in the graph of the chart recorder have stopped fluctuating,
record the measuring point.
viii. Change lamp power and repeat step (vi) until enough measured values have been
recorded. Four measurement points often result in very clear curves.
ix. Note down the measured values.
x. Repeat the process after the samples have been swapped, see Figure 2.
Figure 2:

Arrangement of the samples

4. Observations and Calculations:

i. Note down the Power, intensity and temperatures data:
Sample 1: _____________
Sample 2: _____________
Sr. no. Sample Power (W) T1 (K) T2 (K)
arrangement
1. 1 80%
2. 2 80%

ii. Draw the graphs T2 vs T1 for both cases.

iii. Compare the temperatures of both cases of the sample.
5. Discussion:

Page 5 of 6
6. Precautions:
Precautions are similar as in experiment 1(a)

Page 6 of 6
 Experiment number: 8
Experiment title: Boiling Process
1. Aim:

i. To study the different phases of boiling process i.e., Free convection boiling, Nucleate
boiling and Film boiling.
ii. To evaluate the heating surface load, heat transfer coefficient, heat transfer resistance,
cooling capacity, mean water temperature, overall heat transfer coefficient and mean
logarithmic temperature difference values.

2. Theory and Experimental Setup:

The liquid which has been heated up to boiling temperature in a heated vessel with a low
heating surface load moves upwards due to upwelling and evaporates mainly at the
surface. Hardly any vapour bubbles form at the heating surface. At the same time, heat
transfer coefficients occur, as in free convection. The heat transfer coefficient increases
with the heating surface load which in turn increases with the temperature gradient
between the heating surface and the liquid.

In the case of a marked heating surface load, more vapour bubbles occur directly at the
heating surface and these rises upwards, significantly improving the heat transfer
coefficient as a result of an agitation effect. This type of evaporation is also known as
nucleate boiling.

Following equations can be used to find different parameters:

• Heating surface load
The following heating surface load is obtained from the heating capacity used and the
surface of the heater:
𝑄̇
𝑞̇ = (1)
𝐴

• Heat transfer coefficient

The heat transfer coefficient α is calculated with the following formula:
𝑄̇
𝛼= (2)
𝐴 ⋅ (𝑡𝜔 − 𝑡𝑓 )

• Heat transfer resistance

The value below is obtained for the heat transfer resistance Rü:

(𝑡𝑤 − 𝑡𝑓 ) 1
𝑅𝑢̈ = =
𝑄̇ 𝛼𝐴 (3)
From a critical heating surface load onwards, the heat transfer coefficients become smaller,
because a film of vapour forms between the heating surface and the liquid and acts as an
additional thermal resistor. α is reduced very noticeably in the area of unstable film boiling
as the temperature gradient between the surface and liquid increases, and again reaches
approximately the value it was at during free convection.

After the film boiling stabilizes, α continues to increase only insignificantly as the
temperature gradient increases. The heating surface load falls in the area of unstable film
evaporation as the temperature gradient increases, and rises again when the stable film
boiling is reached.

Different Boiling phases (in Figure 1):

1. Free convection- Region 1
2. Nucleate boiling- Region 2
3. Unstable film boiling- Region 3
4. Stable film boiling- Region 4

Figure 1: Different regimes of the boiling process.

The Experimental setup used for the present study is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The illustration shows the layout of the components seen from the front

where, 17. Water condenser

1. Connection temperature sensor T4 18. Temperature sensor
2. Connection temperature sensor heater surface 19. Safety valve
T5 20. Fill valve
3. Electrical connection Heater H
21. Heating power display P
4. Glass cylinder
22. Vapour temperature display
5. Thermocouple
6. Drain valve T3
7. Temperature sensor 23. Inlet temperature cooling
8. Heater waterT1
9. USB port (rear) 24. Temperature sensor
10. Power supply port (rear) 25. Fluid temperature T4
11. Water inlet 26. Outlet temperature cooling
12. Water outlet water T2
13. Regulating valve 27. Volumetric flow display F1
14. Heater power adjuster 28. Vapour pressure display P1
15. Volumetric flow sensor (water) 29. Surface temperature heater
16. On/Off switch heater T5
30. Main switch
Pressure switch, pressure
transmitter (not visible)
❖ System Diagram
The arrangement of the sensors in the system can most easily be illustrated using a
schematic diagram of the system.

Where,

Cooling water
Evaporating liquid

FI1: Flow rate

PC1: Pressure switch
H1: Electrical heater
PI1: Vapour pressure
K1: Condenser
TI1: Inlet temperature cooling water
V1: Flow control valve
TI2: Outlet temperature cooling water
V2: Drain valve
TI3: Vapour temperature
V3: Safety valve
TI4: Liquid temperature
V4: Fill valve
TI5: Surface temperature heater

Figure 3: Schematic diagram

Condensation
At wall temperatures tw below the saturation temperature ts of a vapour in contact with the
wall, the vapour begins to condense, even if the mean vapour temperature is still above the
saturation temperature. The condensation can run down the wall as a liquid film or in drops.

Following equations are used to find the different parameters:

• Cooling capacity
These values give a Cooling capacity of:
𝑄̇𝑘 = 𝑚̇𝑤 ⋅ 𝑐𝑃𝑤 ⋅ (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) (4)

• Mean water temperature

With a mean water temperature of:
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
̅ = 𝑡1 +
𝑡𝑤 (5)
2

• Overall heat transfer coefficient

 With the given cooler surface AK, we then obtain an overall heat transfer coefficient
of:
𝑄̇𝑘
𝑘= (6)
̅ )
𝐴𝑘 ⋅ (𝑡𝐷 − 𝑡𝑊

• Mean logarithmic temperature difference

Between the vapour chamber and the water, there also results a mean logarithmic
temperature difference of:
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝛥𝑇𝑚 =
(𝑡 − 𝑡1 ) (7)
𝑙𝑛 𝐷
(𝑡𝐷 − 𝑡2 )

3. Experimental Procedure:

A. Evaporation - free convection boiling

i. A heating capacity of 10W is set at the start of the experiment.
ii. If the pressure in the container before the start of the experiment was 0.58bar abs., this
now rises slowly. No bubbles form on the surface of the heater. However, the pressure
rise indicates evaporation. If you carefully observe the surface of the liquid, the
formation of small bubbles can be seen. This is free convection. The surface
temperature of the heater rises to approx. 31.4°C.

Tw -Tf < 5 K
q < 2 kW/m2
Tw is wall temperature.
Tf is fluid temperature.

Figure 4: Free convection boiling

B. Nucleate boiling
 i. After the heating capacity is increased to 60W, the surface
temperature initially rises to approx. 40°C. Small bubbles
then form on the heater surface. At the same time, the
surface temperature falls to 36.4°C due to improved
circulation. This temperature corresponds to a vapour
pressure of approx. 0.72bar abs.
ii. When the heating capacity is increased to 100W, the
following operating values are set after a period of more
pronounced bubble formation:

Absolute pressure: p = 0.93 bar abs. Figure 5: Nucleate boiling

Surface temperature: tw = 43.7°C
Liquid temperature: tf = 33.9 °C Tw -Tf = 5-10 K
Vapour temperature: tD = 35.8°C q = 20-1000 kW/m2

Equations (1), (2) and (3) are used for the calculations for nucleate boiling.
C. Condensing
If the cooler is put into operation at a heating capacity of 107W and if it is flowed through
with a constant volumetric flow of 41l/h (set with the regulating valve), the following
operating values can be read off:
Absolute pressure: p = 0.61bar abs.
Surface temperature: tw = 34.6°C
Liquid temperature: tf = 24.2°C
Vapour temperature: tD= 22.4°C
Water intake temperature: t1 = 20.2°C
Water outlet temperature: t2 = 21.9°C

Equations (4), (5), (6) and (7) are used for the calculations for condensing process.

D. Film boiling
i. To illustrate film boiling, set the heating power to maximum of approx. 200 Watt.
Initially, no change is apparent on the heater. However, after a few seconds small
clusters of bubbles appear. Shortly afterwards, the entire heater is covered with small
and large bubbles. The surface temperature only rises slowly.
 ii. At a value of around 50°C, film boiling begins around the heating element. The
bubbles disappear and a gas covering is formed around the outside of the heater,
preventing it from giving off its heat to the surrounding liquid. The gas covering
extends to the tip of the heater, where the thermocouple that measures the surface
temperature is located.
iii. When the entire heater is surrounded by the gas (or
vapour) film, the surface temperature rises very
rapidly.
iv. At a value of 80°C, the heater is automatically shut
down. This is done to prevent it being destroyed by a
lack of cooling.

Tw-Tf = 200...>1000 K
q = 200...>1000 kW/m2

Figure 5: Film boiling

Note: To speed up cooling, water can be fed through the condenser. After the heater has been
automatically shut down, the ON/OFF switch for the heater should be set to the OFF position
so that the heater will not be switched back on, allowing the cooling process to be observed in
detail.
4. Calculations & Results:

Worksheet 1: Measured values

Experiment no.: Date: Name:

Objective of the experiment:

Measured Values Units

Heater Heating power Pel W

Surface temperature °C

Fluid SAS36 Fluid temperature T4 °C

Vapour Vapour temperature T3 °C

Vapour pressure p1 bar

Cooler Inlet temperature T1 °C

Outlet temperature T2 °C

Flow F1 l/h

Note:
Worksheet 2: Analysis
Evaporating
Heat surface load (𝒒)̇
Formula: Formula with values: Result:

Heat transfer coefficient α

Formula: Formula with values: Result:

Heat resistance 𝑹𝒖̈

Formula: Formula with values: Result:

Condense
Cooling power 𝑸̇𝒌
Formula: Formula with values: Result:

Mean water temperature 𝒕̅𝒘

Formula: Formula with values: Result:

Overall heat transfer coefficient 𝒌

Formula: Formula with values: Result:

Mean logarithmic temperature difference 𝜟𝑻𝒎

Formula: Formula with values: Result:
5. Precautions:
i. The signal words DANGER, WARNING or CAUTION indicate the probability and
potential severity of injury.
ii. Reaching into the open control cabinet can result in electric shocks. It should be
disconnected from the mains supply before opening. Protect the control cabinet against
moisture.
iii. Modification or adjustment of the safety features can make the experimentation stand
unsafe. Do not make any modifications or adjustments to: Overheating protection (80
°C), adjustable on the large digital display, Fuses (4A), Protective covers, Threaded
fittings, Pressure switch (1.8 bar), Safety valve (2 bar).
iv. Do not operate this system if there are obvious defects such as: Defective mains cable,
Leaks; Consult a specialist to repair the defect.
v. Risk of injury from bursting parts:
Do not exceed the following limit values:
• Max. pressure in the glass cylinder: 3.2bar abs.
• Max. surface temperature of the heater: 120°C
vi. Operate the unit only in dry closed rooms which contain no flammable or corrosive
gases, vapours or dust. Drain the cooling water circuit if there is a risk of frost. During
storage, keep the ventilation valve of the glass cylinder closed, otherwise liquid will be
lost.
vii. Never switch on the heater if it is not surrounded by evaporation liquid. Otherwise, the
surface load will be too great and the heater will be destroyed.
viii. When the connecting the cooling water, ensure that the intake and outlet are not mixed
up. If the flow rate sensor is flowed through in the wrong direction, incorrect
measurement results are obtained. The indicators have been designed for operation up
to 120 lt/h.
❖ Nomenclature:

Symbols Units

α Coefficient of heat transfer W/m2K

A Surface area m2

cp Specific heating power kJ/kg K

h Specific enthalpy kJ/kg

𝑚̇𝑤 Water mass flow rate kg/s

p Pressure bar

𝑄̇ Heating capacity W

𝑄̇𝑘 Cooling capacity W

𝑞̇ Heating surface load W/m2

R Gas constant kJ/kg K

𝑅𝑢̈ Heat transfer resistance K/W

r Evaporation heat kJ/kg K

s Entropy kJ/kg K

T Absolute temperature K

t Temperature °C

̅
𝑡𝑤 Average water temperature °C

𝛥𝑇𝑚 Average logarithmic temperature K

difference

v Specific volume m3/kg

VW Water volumetric flow rate lt/hr

❖ APPENDIX:

Technical Data
Main dimensions:
Width: 900 mm
Depth: 450 mm
Height: 820 mm
Weight: 65 kg
Supply
Operational alternatives, see rating plate 230 V / 50 Hz, 4 A
Sound level: 25 dB (A)
Heater
Rating: continuously adjustable Max. approx. 200 W
Surface area: 0.001875 m2
Water cooler
Number of coils: 9
Coil diameter: 80 mm
Surface area: Approx. 0.0578 m2
Pressure transmitter
Measuring range: 0-4 bar abs.
Output signal: 0-10 V DC
Supply: 24 V DC
Power transmitter
Measuring range: 0-300 W
Output signal: 0-10 V DC
Supply: +/- 15 V DC
Flow sensor with transmitter (Water)
Measuring range: 3-108 lt/hr
Output signal: 0-5 V DC
Supply: 24V DC
Thermocouple with display and transmitter
Measuring range: 0-200 °C
Output signal: 0-10 V DC
Supply: 230 V AC
Temperature sensors with transmitter
Measuring range: 0-100 °C
Output signal: 0-10 V DC
Supply: 24 V DC
Digital displays
Measuring range: 0-20 mV DC
Supply: 5 V DC
Refrigerant R1233zd
GWP 1
Filling volume 1.2 kg
CO2 - equivalent 0t
Evaporating liquid
Trade name R1233zd
Molecular weight 130.5 g/mol
Boiling point 18.3 °C (at po=1013 mbar)
Critical temperature 165.6 °C
Critical pressure 35.73 bar
Density liquid 1263 kg/m3 (at 25°C)
Density vapour (saturated) 5.8 kg/m3
Heat of vaporisation 195.35 kJ/kg
Specific heat capacity (liquid) 1.243 kJ/kg K (at 25°C)